MATERIAL TESTING

Module code: MAMMT701

RTQF Level: 7

Credits: 10

Sector: Manufacturing and Mining Technology

Sub-sector: Manufacturing Technology

Academic year: 2023-2024

1
 LEARNING UNIT 1: PREPARE MATERIAL, TOOLS, AND EQUIPMENT

Learning Outcome 1.1: Describe Material Standards

1. Introduction to material standards

1.1.Definition of the standard:

A standard is a document that provides requirements, specifications, guidelines or characteristics

that can be used consistently to ensure that materials, products, processes, and services are fit for
their purpose.

Standards establish a minimum level of performance and quality control to ensure that optimal
conditions and procedures for the purpose of creating compatibility with products and services
from different periods and a range of sources.

Engineering standards provide rules and recommendations for quality, safety, performance and
construction, structure, equipment, durability, codes of practice, methods of testing, analyzing,
appraising, verifying, or measuring, manufacturing, designing, drawing, using, operation of safety
condition of production, symbols and terminology, abbreviations, marks, preferred numbers, or
units.

1.2.Types of Standards

✓ ASME: American Society of Mechanical Engineers

The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) develops standards for compressors,
cranes and hoists, drawings and terminology, elevators and escalators, fasteners, flow
measurement, industrial trucks, man lifts, nuclear, environmental control, piping, pressure vessels,
pumps, storage tanks, turbines and much more. The most referenced code is the ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code which is widely used worldwide by manufacturers, technicians and
inspectors. Using ASME standards helps you:

o Enable collaboration and knowledge across all engineering disciplines.

o Assure interoperability of mechanical products and systems.
o Certify product performance.

2
 ✓ ASTM: American Society for Testing and Materials
ASTM is a developer of international voluntary consensus standards. ASTM standards are
developed by committees of relevant industry professionals who meet regularly in an open and
transparent process to deliver standards, test methods, specifications, guides, and practices.

✓ AWS: American Welding Society

AWS has authored more than 350 standards for welding practices and procedures, including the
D1.1 Structural Welding Code – Steel, one of the most-referenced codes in the world.

Developed by committees of experts and approved by the American National Standards Institute
(ANSI), the regulations established by AWS provide engineers with the guidance they need to
develop designs and fabrications, keeping safety and quality in mind.

1.3.ASTM International standards

✓ Steel Standards
ASTM's steel standards are instrumental in classifying, evaluating, and specifying the material,
chemical, mechanical, and metallurgical properties of the different types of steels, which are
primarily used in the production of mechanical components, industrial parts, and construction
elements, as well as other accessories related to them. The steels can be of carbon, structural,
stainless, ferritic, austenitic, and alloy types. These steel standards are helpful in guiding
metallurgical laboratories and refineries, product manufacturers, and other end-users of steel and
its variants in their proper processing and application procedures to ensure quality towards safe
use.

✓ Plastic standard
ASTM's plastics standards are instrumental in specifying, testing, and assessing the physical,
mechanical, and chemical properties of a wide variety of materials and products that are made of
plastic and its polymeric derivatives. During processing, these synthetic or semisynthetic organic
solids have a very malleable characteristic that allows them to be molded into an assortment of
shapes, making them very suitable for the manufacture of various industrial products. These plastic
standards allow plastic manufacturers and end-users to examine and evaluate their material or
product of concern to ensure quality and acceptability towards safe utilization.

3
 ✓ Glass Standards and Ceramic Standards
ASTM's glass and ceramic standards are instrumental in specifying, testing, and evaluating the
chemical, physical, and mechanical properties of various materials and products made of glass,
ceramic, or clay. These materials are fabricated for a variety of purposes including arts and
aesthetics, foodware, whiteware, flooring and tiles, and other industrial applications. These glass
and ceramic standards help materials science laboratories, material processing companies, product
manufacturers, and other users of such materials and products in their proper fabrication and
treatment procedures to ensure good quality and workmanship towards safe utilization.

✓ Composite standards
ASTM's composite standards are instrumental in the evaluation and determination of the physical,
shear, tensile, flexural, and compressive properties of various forms of composite materials used
in structural applications. These composites can be in the form of sandwich core materials,
honeycomb core materials, polymer matrix composite materials and their laminates, fiber-
reinforced polymer-matrix composite plates and bars, fiber reinforced metal matrix composites,
carbon fiber-epoxy prepregs, continuous filament carbon and graphite fiber tows, hoop wound
polymer matrix composite cylinders, sandwich beams, flat composite panels, simply supported
sandwich composite plates, and fabric-reinforced textile composite materials. These composite
standards are also helpful in guiding manufacturers and users of such materials in their proper
fabrication and testing for the assurance of their quality.

4
 Learning Outcome 1.2: Sample material

2.1.Introduction to material testing

Materials testing is a well-established technique used to determine the physical and mechanical
properties of raw materials and components from a human hair to steel, composite materials and
ceramics.

✓ Material properties:

Elasticity: Elasticity is defined as a physical property of materials which return to their

original shape after the stress that had caused the deformation is no longer applied.

Plasticity: Plasticity is a mechanical property of materials that shows the ability to deform
under stress without breaking while retaining the deformed shape after the load is lifted.
Metals with higher plasticity are better for forming. This is evident in metal bending.

Stiffness, material behaviour under static load: Stiffness is defined as the resistance to
a force causing a member to bend.

Creep behaviour: In materials science, creep (sometimes called cold flow) is the tendency
of a solid material to undergo slow deformation while subject to persistent mechanical
stresses. It can occur as a result of long-term exposure to high levels of stress that are still
below the yield strength of the material.

Hardness: Hardness is the measure of a material’s resistance to localized permanent

deformation. Permanent deformation is also called plastic deformation. While elastic
deformation means that a material changes its shape only during the application of force, a
resulting plastic deformation means that the material will not return to its original shape.

Some materials are naturally hard. For example, tungsten is an incredibly hard metal that
finds use as an alloying element in tool steels. This makes sure that this group of steels can
resist wear even at high temperatures during cutting operations.

Toughness: is a combination of strength and plasticity. A tough material can take hard
blows without rupturing. Toughness is often defined as a material’s ability to absorb energy
without cracking.

5
2.2.Material testing methods

The Testing of materials is commonly of two methods: Destructive and Non-Destructive Methods:

• Destructive tests are the tests where the utility of the specimen is exhausted after
performing the test e.g. tensile test, impact test, etc.…
• Non-destructive tests are the tests where the samples can be used even after performing the
test e.g., Dye penetrant test, eddy current test, etc.…
2.3.Introduction to material sampling

Sampling is the removal from a given lot of material a portion that is representative of the whole
yet of convenient size for analysis. It is done either by hand or by machine.

2.3.1. Sampling objectives

Two basic purposes of sampling are:

o To obtain the maximum information about the population without examining each and
every unit of the population.
o To find the reliability of the estimates derived from the sample, which can be done by
computing the standard error of the statistic.
2.3.2. Sampling methods:

Since there are many variables to take into account when performing sampling techniques, and it
all depends on the type of study or research you are trying to perform, there are a wide variety of
statistical sampling methods that can be used while performing statistical research, see below
figure:

6
 Figure 1: Classification of Sampling Methods

Notice that there are probability and non-probability sampling methods.

Probability sampling is based on the principle that all of the subjects in a population have the
same chance of being part of the selected sample to study and analyze; meanwhile, in non-
probability sampling, subjects in a population do not have the same probability to be part of the
study, therefore, the samples obtained cannot be defined as representative of the whole population.

Thus, with probability sampling, the following are the types:

Simple random:

A simple random sample is gathered by choosing each subject by chance; therefore, all subjects in
a population have the same likelihood of being selected into the sample. This type of sample is the
easiest to gather and is usually the first concept that comes to mind when talking about statistic
studies; given that statistical analyses may be after findings on multiple variables (and types of) in
a study, simple random sampling may not be enough to provide the information wanted.

Systematic sampling

During systematic sampling the population is first expressed into an exhaustive list, and then every
kth member is chosen to be part of the sample.

In other words, in the systematic sampling method, a random periodic interval is chosen to start
selecting subjects of the population from a starting point onwards; hence, this method can be
thought as assigning a particular number to each subject in the population and order them based

7
on this number, then, the starting point is randomly selected and sample members are picked at a
regular interval after that starting point, making the whole affair very systemic-like (thus the name).

Stratified sampling

Stratified sampling builds up from the simple random sampling definition since this sampling
technique divides the population being studied into groups, and then, it usually performs simple
random sampling for each group.

During stratified random sampling the population is divided due to a particular characteristic of
interest separating the population into groups called strata (giving the name to the technique);
however, it is important to note that the population is not necessarily divided into groups with the
same amount of subjects, and each subject is present in only one strata. After the division of the
population into homogeneous groups, random sampling is done on each strata, and the size of the
sample for each group must reflect the proportion of each particular strata in the population.

For example, let us say we want to find out how much of the adult population in your city drinks
coffee right after they woke up each morning. In order to obtain a higher degree of information
than just getting a random selection of 1000 adult people from the city, you could divide the adult
population in the next three groups: recent graduates entering the workforce, people with 5 or more
years on their profession, and retirees.

After separating the three strata mentioned above you find out that from 5 million people in your
city, 2 million are recent graduates, 1.5 million have been in the workforce more than 5 years and
1.5 million have retired; therefore, now you can take a random sample from each of the stratas in
proportion to their size: if your total sample size is 1000 people, you will obtain a sample of 400
random recent graduates, 300 random workers with more than 5 years on the job, and 300 random
retirees. Such sampling method allows us to not only obtain more specific information for each
group in the population, but a lower degree of error in estimates for further studies.

Clustered sampling

A cluster random sample is obtained by first dividing the population into randomly chosen sub-
groups (called clusters), and then, a random assorted of these clusters is chosen to be the sample
for the statistical study.

8
Cluster sampling is usually useful when studying large populations spread around through a
specific geographic area, thus producing geographic groupings (the clusters) that contain members
with all the characteristics taken into consideration on the study; then, one or more of the clusters
(not all) are selected to be used for the total sample in the statistical study.

Do not confuse cluster sampling with stratified sampling. In stratified sampling you divide the
population into groups where each member shares a particular characteristic with the others in the
group; meanwhile, in cluster sampling the groups have subjects with mixed characteristics and
they have been separated mostly because of their location. Furthermore, the final sample for the
statistical study obtained from stratified sampling comes from taking a sample of each of the strata,
while the final sampling for a study using cluster sampling is at least one complete cluster from
the bunch. Due to these characteristics, one must be very careful when using cluster sampling to
always check that the clusters have similar characteristics; otherwise, the final sample for the study
could not be representative of the population if it contains a cluster with a highly predominant
characteristic in comparison with the others.

Whereas, with non-probability sampling, the following are the types:

Convenience sampling

Just as the name mentions it, this sampling method is based on convenience and produces a sample
formed by subjects who are easy to reach by the person doing the statistical study; therefore,
convenience sampling is not a random sampling procedure.

The only thing required for a subject to participate in a study performing convenience sampling is
to be available at the time of the study and to be willing to participate in it; hence, this sample
selection process can be called availability sampling.

Whenever a survey is sent to you after you have purchased or received a service from a company,
if you respond to it and send back your feedback, you are becoming a part of the convenience
sample for the company’s commercial statistical analysis.

Quota sampling

To understand quota sampling, let us look at this example. A researcher wants to study the career
growth of the employees in an organization with 400 employees. To better understand the

9
population, the researcher will select a sample from the population to represent the total employees
or population.

If the researcher is interested in a particular department within the population the researcher will
use quota sampling to divide the population into strata or groups. So quota sampling is the division
of the larger population into strata according to the need of the research.

For example, if there are 400 women and 100 men, so you will have to select 40 women and 10
men to represent the strata.

Judgement (or Purposive)

In a judgmental sampling technique, the samples are selected based on the credibility and
knowledge of the researcher. This means that only those deemed fit by the researcher are selected
to participate in the research.

It is worthy of note that purposive or judgmental sampling is not scientific and it can easily
accommodate influence or bias from the researcher. For example, if you want to conduct research
about the experience of disabled employees in your large organization, you can select people with
special needs in a few departments. Although they serve the purpose, they do not represent your
entire employees.

Snowball sampling

Snowball sampling is useful for finding samples that are difficult for the researcher to locate.
Researchers make use of snowball sampling techniques when their sample size is not readily
available and also small.

So this is carried out like a referral program where the researcher finds suitable members and
solicits help in finding similar members so as to form a considerably good sample size.

For example, if you want to research the experience of homeless people, considering there is no
data to determine their numbers, you can meet one and ask for an audience. If one person agrees,
you can ask to be introduced to other homeless people.

10
 2.3.3. Metallography / materialography: six steps for an informative sample

The task of metallography i.e. materialography is to ascertain the structure of the material by
means of macro & microscopic procedures. Even metals display a crystalline structure- in the
same manner as non-metallic crystals such as the quartz rock crystal among others –whose
features can be ascertained qualitatively and quantitatively.

In order to be able to examine a material and come to a satisfactory conclusion about its quality,
grinding & polishing of a sample is an important initial step in metallography i.e.
materialography. This scratch-free step suitable for macro and/or microscopic observation must
have a representative, sharp-edged and level surface of the material to be examined, which
allows clear recognition of its structure. Therefore, it is essential that no scratches, unwanted
fractures, foreign bodies or deformations appear in the preparation of the material. Preparation
normally takes place in 6 steps: cut-off, mounting, grinding, polishing, etching and microscopic
examination. Finally, evaluation of the sample by means of macro or microscopy as well as
hardness testing; that is if so required.

Cut-off:
Step number one involves cutting off a section to be tested/examined as a sample of the material
by means of a cut-off machine (e.g. a wet abrasive cut-off machine of the series known as
“Brillant“) and the corresponding clamping tools which have been designed to clamp at strategic
positions. If the specimen is large enough, it can be mounted and then ground and/or polished
with a holder without further preparation.

Special clamping tools:

An almost endless list of materials and geometries have to be securely positioned inside the
machine cutting chamber. In addition to the standard assortment, there are special clamping
devices for extraordinary problem samples, one example being the pulsed clamping system for
CFK, GFK or Titanium cut-offs.

11
Mounting:
Small-sized samples on the other hand, have to be mounted initially to improve handling and/or
protection for the edges, which takes place using either cold or hot mounting procedures. In the
case of the latter, the samples are mounted in a so-called mounting press- here referred to as the
hot mounting press, one of the series known as ”Opal“. In the course of this process, the sample
is surrounded by special plastic granulate (diverse Duro or thermoplastics), which is then pressed
together using heat and hydraulic pressure. Using this method means that the material is fully
enclosed in plastic and is therefore optimally ready for the next metallographic preparation step.

Grinding and Polishing:

In order to make the crystal structure visible, the sample surface must be initially ground even,
and then polished.
The grinding & polishing process takes place using a unit with the same name; either per hand,
as for example with pre-grinding on the pre-grinding unit (”Jade“), or conversely automatically –
which is more normal for today's metallography laboratories. In contrast to manual grinding &
polishing, in the case of automatic grinding, the sample is fixed in a sample holder and pressed
onto the grinding medium (grinding paper, grinding wheel etc.) with a grinding & polishing head
(“Rubin“). The grinding/polishing medium actually sits on top of a working wheel. A series of
grinding steps follows whereby each new step makes use of even finer grinding medium, to
proceed step-by-step towards the grade of polished surface desired. The sample has to be rotated
through 90° after each grinding step, in order to cancel out the grooves left over from contact
with the previous grinding medium. During the whole process, a lubricating & cooling fluid
ensures that the sample is cooled and waste material washed away. The sample should be
cleaned regularly with water and alcohol between the single steps, to ensure that waste material
(sludge) and coarse grinding particles from the previous step are not carried over to the following
step.
The following polishing phase uses various polishing cloths. The last scratches left over from the
previous grinding are polished away by removing a last final layer. This step in metallography is
best served with a diamond suspension in poly or mono-crystalline form as final polishing
medium.

12
In particular, where many samples are polished one after one another, the use of an automatic
grinder & polisher (such as in the case of Systemlabor or even the Systemautomat) is of
advantage.

Etching:
After completion of the last polishing step, first predictions about the purity of the material can
be ascertained through the different reflexions. In order to make the crystal structure visible for
being contrasted, the sample has to undergo a further preparation step either manually per
immersion into an etching liquid or through deployment of an electrolytic etching unit such as
the model “Kristall“. The particular etching fluid for the particular sample has the effect of
changing the reflexion behaviour of the integral crystalline component so that an optical
difference is possible. Following etching, the sample is washed in alcohol and then rapidly &
thoroughly dried under a flow of warm air.

Using the Microscope and evaluation:

If the crystalline structure contrasts correctly in this manner, then the sample can be evaluated.
Through making use of observation under the macro or microscope as well as evaluation per
modern picture analysis & image archiving programs, a string of statements about such as state
of heat treatment, welded seams, crystalline structure and the quality of materials can be made.
Furthermore, quite often metallography allows conclusions to be drawn from the manufacturing
process and/or causes of failure in cases of damage.
If and when a hardness test is to be performed (micro & universal hardness tester) then all
common-place test procedures such as according to Vickers, Brinell, Rockwell or Knoop are
brought into use.

13
 Learning Outcome 1.3: Identify material

3.1. The requirement for identification of materials

3.1.1. Introduction

Material identification, also called positive material identification (PMI), is used to analyze and
identify materials for quality assurance and quality control to verify proper alloy or material is
being used. Material identification can also be used to quickly sort unknown alloys and other
materials, including powders and liquids. It is also used in industrial forensics and failure material
analysis identification. By looking at the structure of the elemental constituents in a sample,
material identification verifies material type by comparing differences in composition that define
the specific types of materials being analyzed. X-ray fluorescence (XRF) offers a non-destructive
means for material identification.

3.1.2. The need for Testing

Materials testing helps us to understand and quantify whether a specific material or treatment is
suitable for a particular application. With the wide variety of materials and treatments available in
the marketplace, testing can help narrow down the choices to the most appropriate selection for
the intended use.

3.1.3. Material needed for testing

a. Characteristics

The choice of material plays a vital role across many industries, as manufacturers seek to reduce
weight and cost of vehicles, machines, constructions and devices or consumer good in general.

As part of the structural integrity domain, the mechanical characteristics of new material
components, such as metal, alloy, concrete, polymers, ceramic, moulded structural plastics or
advanced composites, are essential to achieving optimal safety, durability, flexibility, strength-to-
weight ratio, performance, reliability and cost-effectiveness.

Scientists and engineers in product design, simulation and testing rely on material properties such
as stress, strain, tensile modulus, and Poisson’s ratio. Accurate material property data prevents
failures in the field and anticipates issues before they arise.

Thus, material properties testing is a critical step in understanding how your material will perform
under a wide variety of stresses.

14
It is commonly performed by testing machines that meet many ISO and ASTM standards.
However, adding additional sensors is highly recommended as it helps to get an even better and
more precise understanding of structural characteristics.

b. Methods

Below are the methods with their respective testing machines:

i. Destructive Testing methods:

- UTM (Universal Testing Machine)

- Impact testing Machine
- Torsion Testing Machine
- Compression testing Machine
- Fatigue Testing Machine (digital)
- Tensile Testing Machine
- Brinell Hardness,
- The Vickers Diamond Hardness and
- Rockwell Hardness Test machines

ii. And their accessories for holding testing specimens.

iii. Non-destructive methods:

- Magnetic Methods
- Laser Methods Ultrasonic Methods

iv. And their accessories for holding testing specimens.

15
 Learning Outcome 1.4: Describe equipment

4.1. Description of material testing equipment:

Equipment most commonly refers to a set of tools or other objects commonly used to achieve a
particular objective. Here, the description of material testing equipment focuses on:

a. Working principles of testing equipment.

b. Characteristics and main specifications of testing equipment.
c. Safety precautions of testing equipment and their calibration.
Those material testing equipment are as follows:

1. UTM (Universal Testing Machine)

❖ Basic Introduction of UTM Machine:

A Universal Testing Machine (UTM) is a type of mechanical testing equipment that is utilized for
determining the mechanical properties of various materials, such as tensile strength, compressive
strength, bending strength, and shear strength. The UTM works by applying a controlled tensile or
compressive load to the specimen being tested and measuring its response.

The UTM machine comprises two primary components: the loading frame and the control panel.
The loading frame is responsible for applying a load to the specimen, and the control panel is
utilized to set the test parameters and record the test results.

To begin the testing procedure, the specimen is first prepared according to specific standards for
the material being tested. Next, the specimen is placed into the grips of the loading frame, which
can be adjusted to securely hold the specimen.

The test parameters are then established utilizing the control panel, including the type of test, load
rate, and test duration. The machine is then started, and the load is gradually applied to the
specimen at the specified rate. As the specimen is subjected to the load, the machine records the
load and the corresponding deformation of the specimen.

Once the testing process is completed, the machine automatically stops, and the test results are
displayed on the control panel.

16
The results usually include the maximum load the specimen can withstand before failure, the
deformation or strain at the point of failure, and the modulus of elasticity of the material.

Figure 2.UTM

❖ Working Principle:

Operation of the machine is by hydraulic transmission of load from the test specimen to a
separately housed load indicator. The system is ideal since it replaces transmission of load through
levers and knife edges, which are prone to wear and damage due to shock on rupture of test pieces.
Load is applied by a hydrostatically lubricated ram. Main cylinder pressure is transmitted to the
cylinder of the pendulum dynamometer system housed in the control panel. The cylinder of the
dynamometer is also of self - lubricating design. The deflection of the pendulum represents the
absolute load applied on the test specimen. Return movement of the pendulum is effectively
damped to absorb energy in the event of sudden breakage of the specimen.

17
 Figure 2. Parts of UTM

Figure 3. Components of UTM

❖ Applications:

• Tensile Test

• Compression Test

• Bending Test

• Transverse Test

18
 ❖ Characteristics and main specifications of testing equipment:

Make: Hydraulic & Engineering Instruments, New Delhi, India (HEICO)

Model: HL 590.25

Specification: A universal testing machine is used to test the tensile stress and compressive
strength of materials.

Universal testing machines (UTMs) test mechanical properties such as tensile, flexural,
compressive, and shear. The UTM is a great multi-purpose instrument for an R&D lab. Or quality
control department.

❖ Safety precautions of testing equipment and their calibration: User Instructions

i. Testing should be carried out in accordance with the relevant standard or guidelines.
ii. Fix upper and lower pressure plates to the upper stationary head &lower table respectively.
Place the specimen on the lower plate in order to grip, then adjust zero.
iii. Do not switch on the machine without connecting the point to the earth cable of the machine.
iv. Care should be taken not to switch on main supply before plugging in cable connector.

2. Impact testing Machine

❖ Charpy vs. Izod Impact Testing: Selecting an Impact Tester Provider

Figure 4. Impact Tester

19
The Charpy and Izod tests are two well-known methods for studying the toughness of materials.
Many industries use either of the two for testing material strength. The tests measure the amount
of energy absorbed by a notched sample when it gets hit by a weighted pendulum. The computed
energy serves as a measure of the specimen’s toughness.

Testers use a pendulum impact testing machine to perform the Charpy or the Izod impact test.

A pendulum impact testing machine or a pendulum impact tester is an apparatus with a swinging
pendulum that gets released to impact a secured specimen. The pendulum has a weighted hammer
at its end, which hits the sample material.

Specimens for impact testing can be metals, metallic alloys, or plastic materials.

The specimen will either have a V or a U shaped notch in it. Specimens may get deformed if there
are no notches in them. There may also be inconsistencies in the test results when there are no
notches in the material.

Testers use a broaching machine or a notch cutter to make the notches on the sample material. The
depth for a V shaped notch is 2mm deep and 5mm deep for a U shaped notched specimen.

Materials are often heated up or cooled down before testing. This is for testing specimens exposed
at different temperatures. The specimens may undergo a series of tests at specific temperatures.
Sometimes, test results are the average of five specimens.

To perform the impact test, the operator first raises and locks the pendulum at a fixed height. The
tester then places the specimen on a support in the striking anvil. Tester makes sure that the
specimen is well secured.

An indicator or dial is then reset. After some safety checks, the tester releases the pendulum to
impact the specimen. The tester can use a heavier hammer if there is no breakage.

After impact, the tester computes the energy absorbed by the material. This is the difference
between the height of the pendulum at the start and its height after the impact blow.

The Charpy impact test is still one of the most popular impact test methods. The main reason for
this is because samples for the test are easy to prepare. Results are also very easy to compute.

20
The equipment for the Izod impact and Charpy tester are almost identical. But, there are differences
such as the orientation of the material in the impact tester. Following are the primary differences
between the two tests:

❖ Position of the Sample Material

In the Charpy impact test, the sample lies flat on the test bed as a simple beam. Both ends of the
specimen get secured before the moment of impact.
In the Izod impact test, the sample is in a vertical cantilevered position. Only the bottom end of
the specimen gets locked in place. The pendulum hammer strikes the unlocked end of the
specimen at a specific point.

❖ Notch Facing

For the Charpy tester, the notch is facing away from the pendulum arm. In the Izod impact test,
the notch is facing the pendulum.

❖ Type of Notches

All the stress from the impact gets concentrated on the notched section. Specimens break at the
notched portions.

Specimens for the Pendulum Charpy impact tester can have a V or a U shaped notch.

Specimens for the Pendulum Izod impact tester only have V notches in them.

For Izod impact tests, specimens can have up to three V notches. This configuration is best for
doing tests that involve some averaging. The material gets broken one at a time for this type of
test. Charpy test specimens only have one notch in the middle.

❖ Point of Impact

For the Charpy impact test, the hammer strikes the middle part of the specimen.

For the Izod impact test, the hammer strikes the specimen at a certain point above the notch.

21
 ❖ Striking Hammer Type

Older Charpy machines have a rounded hammer pin. The Izod impact testing machine uses a
farming hammer styled striker.

❖ Type of Specimens

Charpy impact tests are for steel products. Izod impact tests are for metallic and plastic specimens.

❖ Specimen Dimensions

The basic specimen size for Izod tests is 63.5 x 12.7 x 3.2 mm bar (for plastics) and 127 x 11.43
mm (round metal bar).

The standard specimen size for Charpy tests is 10 mm x 10 mm x 55 mm (metal bar)

Modern Charpy machines can test for multiple specimens. A tower magazine holds the specimens
while moving along a motor conveyor belt.

A Charpy impact test must conform to ASTM A370 standards. ASTM A370 covers a set of
procedures for testing steel products. Besides impact test specifications, the standard also includes
testing definitions for tension, bend and hardness.

An ASTM A370 Charpy Impact test involves instructions for testing steel. Stainless steel and other
alloy products are also covered by the ASM A370. There are other standards besides ASTM A370
that testing procedures should adhere to.

ASTM E23 describes test methods for both Charpy and Izod testing of notched bar samples. Izod
impact tests should conform to ASTM D256 specifications. ASTM D256 covers test methods that
determine impact resistance for plastics.

3. Torsion Testing Machine

❖ Working principles of testing equipment

What is Torsion Testing?

Torsion testing is a type of mechanical testing that evaluates the properties of materials or devices
while under stress from angular displacement. Torsion testing can be split into two distinct
categories: testing raw materials like metal wires or plastic tubing to determine properties such as

22
shear strength and modulus, or functional testing of finished products subjected to torsion, such as
screws, pharmaceutical bottles, and sheathed cables. The most common mechanical properties
measured by torsion testing are modulus of elasticity in shear, yield shear strength, ultimate shear
strength, modulus of rupture in shear, and ductility.

Figure 5. Torsion testing machine (30Nm) -Product number: HSM31

A sturdy bench top mounted unit for applying torque to failure on metal specimens. 30Nm torque
is applied via the moment head to differing material test specimens using hand operated worm and
wheel gearbox (60:1 ratio).

The unit can cater for test specimens of up to 750mm between the moment head and torsion head.
The moment head is fixed but the torsion head can be moved along the base to allow for the
different lengths of specimen. The change in length of the specimen is not restricted during the
experiment. Standard hexagon drives are used for transmitting the torque into the specimens.

The angular position of one end of the test specimen can be adjusted before and during the
experiment to either compensate for twist or to set known twist. This is done using the adjustment
mechanism on the torsion head and the reference dial gauge mounted on the torsion head also.

Strain gauge technology is used within the torsion head and the output from these strain gauges is
fed directly into the digital display (supplied). The software supplied captures and stores the data
so that further data manipulation and processing can be made and printouts of the results can be
created.

❖ Specifications and resources:

• 30Nm torsion ability
• Bench top unit, with sturdy extruded base frame
• 18 test specimens supplied in steel (x6), aluminium (x6) and brass (x6)

23
 • 17mm A/F hexagon ends on specimens
• Test diameter on specimens: Ø6mm nominal
• Can cater for specimen lengths up to 750mm
• Specimen loading through 60:1 worm/wheel gearbox operated by hand
• Digital display of torque (resolution of 0.1Nm) and angle (resolution of 0.1°)
• Analogue dial gauge: 10 or 25mm range, 0.01mm resolution

Sample of torsion testing apparatus:

Testing procedures:

The testing unit consists of the following components: base plate (1), drive unit (2) with geared
motor to generate the testing moment. The moment is transferred to the testing rod (4) via a square
drive (3/4") and standard socket spanners (3). The rotational angle sensor, the electronic system
for the recording and display of the measured values, and the drive motor control are located in
the drive unit housing. A frequency converter is used to adjust the speed of the drive motor. The
other end of the testing rod (4) is fixed to the support (5) with torque measurement device. The
support (5) can be shifted on guide rails (6) and can be braced with two clamp levers (7), to allow
for the testing of samples of different lengths.

24
The torque is measured using a metering shaft equipped with a strain gauge. The shaft has ball
bearings on the sample side to avoid measuring errors resulting from friction. The electrical power
is connected to the basic unit via a cable with a 5-pin plug (8). The base plate (1) is reinforced with
box sections in order to ensure a high degree of torsion rigidity and low inherent distortion. This
ensures that a high degree of precision during torsion measurement has been reached in
conjunction with the high-resolution optoelectronic torsion sensor. A transparent protective hood
(9) protects against flying fragments. This can occur when especially hard and brittle materials
fracture.

All display and operating elements required for conducting the test are arranged on the front plate
of the drive unit. The unit is turned on with the main switch (1). The unit can be stopped and de-
energized with the emergency stop switch (2) at any time. The motor control switch (3) switches
the drive motor in both rotational directions. The motor stops in the middle position, and rotates
to the left in the left position and to the right in the right position. The switch has two positions.
The first, non-locking position permits jogging operation; the motor stops when the switch is
released. The motor runs continuously in the second, locking position. The speed selection switch
(4) has 4 different deformation speeds: 50°/min, 100°/min, 200°/min and 500 °/min.

25
The LCD display (5) shows the current testing moment (torque) in Nm and the angle of rotation
in degrees. Before the test run the displayed values can be set to zero with the tare key (6). The
operating switch (7) is used to select between manual operation at the unit or remote control via
a PC. Special control software is required for remote control with the PC.
The power supply connection (230 V / 50 Hz) and an interface socket are located on the back of
the drive unit to link the PC. A button on the back panel is used to reset the overheating protection
of the drive. The following block diagram provides an overview of the measuring and control
technology of the test unit.

Figure 6. Block diagram-Torsion testing unit

❖ Procedure:

• Installing the sample

a. Release the clamping lever (1) on the torque measuring device (2) and push back.
b. Place sample (3) into the socket spanner (4) on the drive side.
c. Turn sample with the motor until it fits into the socket spanner (5) on the torque measuring
device.
d. Push torque measuring device (2) forwards again. Ensure that the samples have an axial
play of around 2-3 mm.
e. Brace the torque measuring device with clamping levers (1).
f. Shut the protective hood (6).

26
 g. Carefully pre-stress the sample in jogging operation until there is no more play and the
torque display moves.
h. Set display for torsional moment and angle to zero with the tare function.
• Stressing the sample:
a. Twisting the sample using the motor control switch at steps of 2-5.ْ
b. Read the torsion moment from the display after every angular step. Record together with
the displayed torsion.

4. Compression testing Machine

❖ An Overview:

A compression Testing Machine (CTM) is used to measure the compressive strength of a material.
The CTM is designed to apply a compressive load to the sample until it fails. The machine consists
of a piston that moves up and down inside a cylinder, applying the load to the sample.

The CTM machine is used in construction industries to test the quality of concrete. The
compressive strength of concrete is determined by testing concrete cubes or cylinders using the
CTM machine. The CTM machine can also be used to test the compressive strength of other
materials such as bricks, rocks, and metals.

The CTM machine is available in different sizes, capacities, and types. The most common types
of CTM machines are manually operated and digital machines.

27
The manually operated CTM machine requires a skilled operator to control the load application,
while the digital CTM machine is fully automatic and can be operated by anyone with minimal
training.

The CTM machine consists of a load frame, a hydraulic system, and a data acquisition system. The
load frame is the main body of the machine, and it supports the hydraulic system and the data
acquisition system. The hydraulic system is used to apply the load to the sample, and the data
acquisition system is used to measure and record the load and deformation data.

To perform a compression test using the CTM machine, the sample is prepared by casting it into
a cube or cylinder mold. The sample is then cured for a specific period of time and tested by placing
it in the CTM machine. The load is applied to the sample at a specific rate until it fails. The load
and deformation data are recorded during the test, and the compressive strength of the sample is
calculated using the recorded data.

In conclusion, the CTM machine is an essential tool in the construction industry to test the quality
of concrete and other materials. The CTM machine can be operated manually or digitally and is
available in different sizes and capacities. Proper usage of the CTM machine ensures accurate and
reliable test results.

5. Fatigue Testing Machine (digital)

❖ Working Principle:

Figure 7. Digital fatigue testing machine

28
Fatigue Testing is a non-destructive test, performed to check the strength of a material under
different load conditions and find out the maximum number of cycles it can withstand before
failure. The device tests the Sample material by applying tension and measuring the resulting
elongation. The test specimen is supported at one end and attached to a tensile testing machine
which uses the force necessary to produce the desired extension.

To perform a fatigue test, we need to use a device created to generate and sustain extremely high
levels of stress on different materials. This machine can take many shapes and sizes depending on
its use.

However, one of its most crucial components remains that it has to withstand high-stress levels
without breaking or falling repeatedly. When testing for fatigue, for example, the machine needs
to predict whether a material (such as metal) will be able to withstand prolonged exposure to
extremely high levels of stress.

It’s essential that they’re able to sustain these levels and that they’re still functioning correctly at
the end of each cycle to give us an accurate visual analysis regarding how much time before their
functionality expires.

These experiments help us determine the peak load the material may experience in everyday life
or during use in the manufacturing environment – which is crucial for determining if the product
will make it through its lifetime.

❖ Specimen testing procedures:

A rotating-beam fatigue machine as shown in figure 8, fitted with a fatigue specimen hung by a
weight in the middle. Specimen rotating action is driven by a motor on the right results in tensile
stress in the lower fibrous and compressive stress in the upper fibrous of the specimen gauge length.
Therefore, along the gauge length, specimen will be subjected to alternating tensile and
compressive stresses similar to the reversed cyclic loading. The specimen will be fatigue loaded
until failure. The number of cycles to failure according to the cyclic stress applied will then be
recorded.

29
 Figure 8. Rotating-beam fatigue testing machine

The fatigue testing can also be conducted using an instrument as shown in Figure 9. The fatigue
specimen is gripped onto a motor at one end to provide the rotational motion whereas the other
end is attached to a bearing and also subjected to a load or stress. When the specimen is rotated
about the longitudinal axis, the upper and lower parts of the specimen gauge length are subjected
to tensile and compressive stresses respectively. Therefore, stress varies sinusoially at any point
on the specimen surface. The test proceeds until specimen failure takes place. The revolution
counter is used to obtain the number of cycles to failures corresponding to the stress applied.

Figure 9. Fatigue testing machine part

Increasing of the weight applied to the fatigue specimen results in a reduction in number of cycles
to failure.

30
 6. Tensile Testing Machine

❖ Working principle of a Tensile Tester:

The universal tensile machine fully exploits the characteristics of the combination of electronic
and mechanical technology, accurate measurement, high efficiency, and the configuration of the
computer can be synchronized with the output measurement results. The tensile tester equipment
is composed of the measuring system, driving system, control system, and computer parts.

1. Measurement of tensile force value

Tensile testing machine force measurement is done by force sensors, a data measurement
system.

2. Measurement of deformation

Mainly by deformation value to measure the deformation caused to the material in the test.

3. Measurement of measured displacement

The displacement data of the beam is mainly obtained by measuring the number of output
pulses of the photoelectric encoder.

4. Drive system of tensile strength tester

The main role in the displacement of the beam, and servo system principle is the same,
through the computer control to change the speed of the motor, so as to change the
displacement speed of the beam machine.

5. Tensile testing machine control system

The operator can control the control tester through the computer to obtain the test
parameters of the tester.

6. Computer

For the operation of the machine, data collection, analysis, and summary.

31
❖ How to test tensile strength-Testing process:

1. Make specimens: make specimens according to the requirements of the test standard, and
measure their dimensions and other data.

2. Turn on the machine: first, open the software measurement and control system on the
computer (the manufacturer provides the installation package), and then turn on the power
of the universal tensile machine. According to the test to be carried out select the
appropriate type of test.

3. Trial run: Select the appropriate speed to make the tester lift and run a little to determine
the normal operation of the tensile strength tester.

4. Tensile testing machine new records: according to the number of tests to be conducted, the
number of new test records; and fill in the corresponding batch number, number, test
environment, specimen size, and other relevant data.

5. Load the specimen: adjust the position of the specimen on the tester and load the specimen.

6. Select the range: According to the range of test force and deformation required for the test,
the pull tester machine will be adjusted to the appropriate test force and deformation of the
gear (range).

7. Clear zero: the test force, deformation, displacement zero.

8. The tensile strength test speed: according to the standard test process requirements, set the
appropriate test speed; standard speed requirements, set a more appropriate speed, speed is
not too large, so as not to affect the test results.

9. Test starting: point “test start” button to start the test.

10. The tensile strength test end: the test is completed after the “test end” button is
automatically pressed. If you need to end the test in the middle, you can also press the “test
end” button to end the test manually.

11. Test results: Tap the “Analysis” button to view the corresponding test results. Continue the
test: Tap the “Test” button to return to the test operation interface, and tap the “Next” button
to switch the test record to the next one.

32
12. Save data: If the test data needs to be saved, press the “Save” button to save the test data
to the database for reference. Print report: If the test results need to be printed, press the
“Output Report” button to output the test results to a Word document and print.

13. After the test, clean up the sample, remove the fixture, and do the daily maintenance.

14. Test shutdown: first turn off the test machine power, and then turn off the software
measurement and control system and computer.

Figure 10. Tensile testing machine

33
 7. Brinell Hardness Testing Machine

❖ Introduction

Scope:

The Brinell hardness test is an empirical indentation hardness test that can provide useful
information about metallic materials. This information may correlate to tensile strength, wear
resistance, ductility, and other physical characteristics of metallic materials, and may be useful in
quality control and selection of materials.

❖ Principle of the brinell hardness test

An indentation hardness test using a verified machine to force an indenter (tungsten carbide ball
with diameter), under specified conditions, into the surface of the material under test. The
diameter of the resulting indentation is measured after the removal of the force. The general
principle of the Brinell indentation hardness test consists of two steps:

1. The indenter is brought into contact with the test specimen in a direction perpendicular to
the surface, and the test force is applied (Apply the test force within 1 to 8 s). The test
force is held for a specified dwell time and then removed (Maintain the fully applied test
force for 10 s to 15 s).

2. The diameter of the indentation is measured in at least two directions perpendicular to

each other. The Brinell hardness value is derived from the mean of the diameter
measurements.

❖ Representation of the Brinell Hardness value

Brinell hardness values shall not be designated by a number alone because it is necessary to
indicate which indenter and forces have been employed in making the test. Brinell hardness
numbers shall be followed by the symbol HBW, and be supplemented by an index indicating the
test conditions in the following order: Diameter of the ball (mm) and a value representing the test
force (kgf). Examples: 450 HB10/3000 = Brinell hardness number of 450 obtained with a ball
diameter of 10mm and a test force of 3000 kgf, 150 HB2.5/62.5 = Brinell hardness number of
150 obtained with a ball diameter of 2.5mm and a test force of 62.5 kgf.

34
 ❖ Sample surface preparation

When necessary, the surface on which the indentation is to be made should be filed, ground,
machined or polished flat with abrasive material so that the edge of the indentation can be clearly
defined to permit the measurement of the diameter to the specified accuracy. Preparation shall be
carried out in such a way that any alteration of the surface hardness of the test surface (for
example, due to overheating or cold-working) is minimized.

❖ Measurement of the brinell indentation

Measure the diameter of each indentation in two directions, perpendicular (90°) to each other.
Additional measurements of the indentation diameter may also be made. The arithmetic mean of
the measurements shall be used for the calculation of the Brinell hardness number.
For tests on flat surfaces, the difference between the largest and smallest measured diameters for
the same indentation shall not exceed 1% of the indenter ball diameter unless it is specified in the
product specification, such as for an anisotropic grain structure.
When indentations are made on a curved surface, the minimum radius of curvature of the surface
shall be two and a half times the diameter of the ball. Indentations made on curved surfaces may
be slightly elliptical rather than circular in shape. The measurements of the indentation shall be
taken as the mean of the major and minor axes.

❖ Indentation spacing

The distance between the centers of two adjacent indentations shall be at least three times the
diameter of the mean indentation. The distance from the center of any indentation to an edge of
the test piece shall be at least two and a half times the diameter of the mean indentation.

❖ Testing of the ambient temperature

Brinell hardness tests should be carried out at an ambient temperature within the limits of 10 to
35°C (50 to 95°F). Users of the Brinell test are cautioned that the temperature of the test material
and the temperature of the hardness tester may affect the test results. Consequently, users should
ensure that the test temperature does not adversely affect the hardness measurement.

35
 ❖ Characteristics and main specifications of testing equipment.

Digital Brinell Hardness Tester/Brinell Hardness Testing: Model No. 900-355

Figure 11. Brinell Hardness Testing: Model No. 900-355

❖ Features:

• Will convert to Rockwell scales, Brinell and Vickers hardness scales

• Load Cell driven system provides precise control of test force application
• Direct digital reading
• Engineered to obtain highly sensitive and accurate readings
• Perfect for laboratories, workshops, tool rooms, inspection labs, etc.
• Measuring Range: 8-650HBW

❖ Brinell Hardness Tester Features:

• Load Cell driven system provides precise control of test force application

• Direct digital reading

• Engineered to obtain highly sensitive and accurate readings

• Perfect for laboratories, workshops, tool rooms, inspection labs, etc.

• Measuring Range: 8-650HBW

36
❖ Brinell Hardness Tester Specifications:

• Innovative closed-loop technology. The Brinell hardness tester incorporates the latest load
cell technology. The test load is applied via a closed-loop control unit with a load cell, a
DC motor and an electronic measurement and control unit. The result is highly accurate
Brinell hardness measurements at all test loads up to 0.5%. The common load overshoot
or undershoot as known from traditional dead weight, or open-loop, systems is eliminated.
The absence of mechanical weights not only eliminates friction problems but also makes
the equipment less sensitive to misalignments caused by vibrations.

• The whole weight of the Brinell Hardness tester is 50% less than the traditional dead
weights type tester.

• Test load selection by keyboard and LCD screen.

• Fully automatic test cycles. The Brinell hardness Tester features a fully automatic test
cycle, load application, holding, unloading, is performed fully automatically. This greatly
improves reproducibility of test results since operator influence is eliminated.

• Selectable dwell times by screen. The indenter, load, and other test information are shown
clearly on the large LCD screen.

• The directions for 0.102F/D2 ratios selecting according to the materials and hardness range
can be showing on the screen.

• Equipped with a 20X optical microscope to measure the diameter of Brinell indention.

• Brinell Hardness Calculator (BHC) make the Brinell hardness value calculation easier and
convenient.

37
 Figure 12. Brinell Hardness Tester screen samples

❖ Brinell Hardness Tester Technical data:

• Brinell Loads：3000kgf (29400N), 1500Kgf (14700N), 1000Kgf

• (9800N), 750Kgf(7355N),500Kgf (4900N),

• 250Kgf (2452N), 187.5Kgf (1839N), 125Kgf (1226N),100Kgf (980N), 62.5Kgf(612.9N)

• Load dwell duration: 2s～99s, can be set and stored

• Tungsten Carbide Ball indenter: 10mm, 5mm, 2.5mm

• Measuring range: 8-650HBW
• Magnification of the Brinell microscope: 20X
• Resolution capability of the Brinell microscope: 0.005mm
• Max measurable height: 230 mm
• Max measurable depth: 140 mm
• Dimensions: 530mm×260mm×750mm
• Power supply: 220/110 V, 50/60 Hz, 4A Prior to ship, please advise power setting needed.
• Weight: 110kg
• Standard blocks: 125-350HBW10/3000, 125-350HBW10/1000

38
 ❖ Common Brinell Hardness Tester Applications:
• Castings
• Very Soft Metals (Copper, Zinc, Brass, Aluminum, etc.)
• Steel

8. The Vickers Diamond Hardness Testing machine

❖ Introduction

Scope:

Vickers and Knoop hardness tests have been found to be very useful for materials evaluation,
quality control of manufacturing processes and research and development efforts. Hardness,
although empirical in nature, can be correlated to tensile strength for many metals, and is an
indicator of wear resistance and ductility.

❖ Principle Of Vickers And Knoop Hardness Tests

An indentation hardness test using a verified machine to force an indenter, under specified
conditions, into the surface of the material under test. The shape of the resulting indentation is
measured after removal of the force. The general principle of the Vickers and Knoop indentation
hardness test consists of two steps:

1. The applicable specified indenter is brought into contact with the test specimen in a
direction normal to the surface, and the test force F is applied. The test force is held for a
specified dwell time and then removed.

2. For the Vickers hardness test, the lengths of the two diagonals are measured and the mean
diagonal length is calculated, which is used to derive the Vickers hardness value. For the
Knoop hardness test, the length of the long diagonal is measured, which is used to derive
the Knoop hardness value.

For micro indentation testing, the indenter shall contact the specimen at a velocity between 15
and 70 μm/s and should not exceed 0.2 mm/s. The time from the initial application of the force
until the full test force is reached shall not be more than 10 s. The full test force shall be applied
for 10 to 15 s unless otherwise specified.

39
 ❖ Representation Of Vickers And Knoop Hardness Values

Vickers and Knoop hardness values are not designated by a number alone because it is necessary
to indicate which force has been employed in making the test. The hardness numbers shall be
followed by the symbol HV for Vickers hardness, or HK for Knoop hardness, and be
supplemented by a value representing the test force in kgf. Examples: 450 HV 10 = Vickers
hardness number of 450 obtained with a test force of 10 kgf, 700 HV 0.1 = Vickers hardness
number of 700 obtained with a test force of 100 gf (0.1 kgf), 500 HK 0.5 = Knoop hardness
number of 500 obtained with a test force of 500 gf (0.5 kgf).

MICROINDENTATION HARDNESS TEST

Micro indentation hardness tests extend testing to materials that are too thin or too small for
macro indentation hardness tests. Micro indentation hardness tests also allow specific phases or
constituents and regions or gradients too small for macro indentation hardness testing to be
evaluated. Recommendations for micro indentation testing can be found in Test Method ASTM
E384.

Figure 13. Vickers hardness testing machine

40
 ❖ Sample Surface Preparation For Vickers And Knoop Tests

For optimum accuracy of measurement, the test should be performed on a flat specimen with a
polished or otherwise suitably prepared surface. The quality of the required surface finish can
vary with the forces and magnifications used. The lower the test force and the smaller the
indentation size, the more critical is the surface preparation. In all tests, the preparation should be
such that the indentation perimeter and the indentation tips in particular, can be clearly defined
when observed by the measuring system. The test surface shall be free of any defects that could
affect the indentation or the subsequent measurement of the diagonals. The specimen surface
should not be etched before making an indentation. Etched surfaces can obscure the edge of the
indentation, making an accurate measurement of the size of the indentation difficult.

❖ Specimen Preparation for Vickers and Knoop Tests

To obtain usable information from the test, the specimen should be prepared or mounted so that
the test surface is perpendicular to the axis of the indenter. Non-parallel test specimens can be
tested using clamping and leveling fixtures designed to align the test surface properly to the
indenter. In many instances, especially in micro indentation testing, it is necessary to mount the
specimen for convenience in preparation and to maintain a sharp edge when surface gradient
tests are to be performed on the test specimen. When mounting is required, the specimen shall be
adequately supported by the mounting medium so that the specimen does not move during force
application, that is, avoid the use of polymeric mounting compounds that creep under the
indenter force.

❖ Measurement Reading for Vickers and Knoop Indentations

Measure both diagonals of a Vickers indentation or the long diagonal of a Knoop indentation. To
stay within the flat field of the objective, the indentation length should not exceed 75% of the
field width. The objective selected to measure the indentation should have an objective
resolution (robj) that is ≤ 2% of the diagonal length to be measured.
Determine the length of the diagonals to within 0.5 μm or less. For indentations less than 40 μm,
determine the length of the diagonals to within 0.25 μm or less. For indentations less than 20 μm,
the length of the diagonals should be determined to within 0.1 μm or less.

41
 • A Vickers indentation, if one half of either diagonal is more than 5 % longer than the
other half of that diagonal, or if the four corners of the indentation are not in sharp focus,
the test surface may not be perpendicular to the indenter axis.

• For a Knoop indentation, if one half of the long diagonal is greater than 10 % longer than
the other, or if both ends of the indentation are not in sharp focus, the test specimen
surface may not be perpendicular to the indenter axis.

❖ Testing Ambient Temperature

Vickers and Knoop hardness tests should be carried out at a temperature within the limits of 10
to 35°C (50 to 95°F). Because variations within this temperature range may affect results, users
may choose to control tempera- true within a tighter range.

9. Rockwell Hardness Test machine

❖ Introduction

The Rockwell hardness test is an empirical indentation hardness test that can provide useful
information about metallic materials. This information may correlate to tensile strength, wear
resistance, ductility, and other physical characteristics of metallic materials, and may be useful in
quality control and selection of materials.

Figure 14. HRS-150 Digital Rockwell Hardness Tester

42
 ❖ Principle Of the Rockwell Hardness Test

An indentation hardness test using a verified machine to force a diamond spheroconical indenter
or tungsten carbide (or steel) ball indenter, under specified conditions, into the surface of the
material under test, and to measure the difference in depth of the indentation as the force on the
indenter is increased from a specified preliminary test force to a specified total test force and then
returned to the preliminary test force. The test is divided into three steps of force application and
removal:

1. The indenter is brought into contact with the test specimen, and the preliminary test force
is applied. After holding the preliminary test force for a specified dwell time, the baseline
depth of indentation is measured.

2. The force on the indenter is increased at a controlled rate by the additional test force to
achieve the total test force. The total test force is held for a specified dwell time.

3. The additional test force is removed, returning to the preliminary test force. After holding
the preliminary test force for a specified dwell time, the final depth of indentation is
measured. The Rockwell hardness value is derived from the difference in the final and
baseline indentation depths while under the preliminary test force. The preliminary test
force is removed and the indenter is removed from the test specimen.

❖ Calculation Of the Rockwell Hardness Number

During a Rockwell test, the force on the indenter is increased from a preliminary test force to a
total test force, and then returned to the preliminary test force.

The difference in the two indentation depth measurements, while under the preliminary test force,
is measured in mm. From the value in mm, the Rockwell hardness number is derived. The
Rockwell hardness number is an arbitrary number, which, by method of calculation, results in a
higher number for harder material.

❖ Classifications Of the Rockwell Test

The Rockwell hardness test and the Rockwell superficial hardness test. The significant difference
between the two test classifications is in the test forces that are used.

43
For the Rockwell hardness test, the preliminary test force is 10 kgf (98 N) and the total test forces
are 60 kgf (589 N), 100 kgf (981 N), and 150 kgf (1471 N). For the Rockwell superficial hardness
test, the preliminary test force is 3 kgf (29 N) and the total test forces are 15 kgf (147 N), 30 kgf
(294 N), and 45 kgf (441 N).

❖ Representation Of Rockwell Hardness Value

Rockwell hardness values shall not be designated by a number alone because it is necessary to
indicate which indenter and forces have been employed in making the test. The hardness number
is followed by the symbol HR and the scale designation. Examples: 64 HRC = Rockwell hardness
number of 64 on Rockwell C scale, 81 HR30N = Rockwell superficial hardness number of 81 on
the Rockwell 30N.

44
 10. Ultrasonic testing

❖ Ultrasonic Testing (UT): Principle, Advantages, Disadvantages

Ultrasonic testing (UT) is a non-destructive testing technique based on the propagation of

ultrasonic waves in the object or material tested.

In most common UT applications, very short ultrasonic pulse-waves with center frequencies
ranging from 0.1-15 MHz, and occasionally up to 50 MHz, are transmitted into materials to detect
internal flaws or to characterize materials.

A common example is ultrasonic thickness measurement, which tests the thickness of the test
object, for example, to monitor pipework corrosion.

Ultrasonic testing is often performed on steel and other metals and alloys, though it can also be
used on concrete, wood and composites, albeit with less resolution. It is used in many industries
including steel and aluminium construction, metallurgy, manufacturing, aerospace, automotive
and other transportation sectors.

Figure 15. Ultrasonic flaw detector

45
 ❖ How Ultrasonic Testing Works

In ultrasonic testing, an ultrasound transducer connected to a diagnostic machine is passed over

the object being inspected. The transducer is typically separated from the test object by a couplant
(such as oil) or by water, as in immersion testing.

However, when ultrasonic testing is conducted with an Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer

(EMAT) the use of couplant is not required.

❖ Principle of Ultrasonic Testing

As shown in below figure (left) : A probe sends a sound wave into a test material. There are two
indications, one from the initial pulse of the probe, and the second due to the back wall echo.

As shown in below figure (right) : A defect creates a third indication and simultaneously reduces
the amplitude of the back wall indication. The depth of the defect is determined by the ratio D/Ep

Figure 16. Sound wave into a test material

There are two methods of receiving the ultrasound waveform:

1. Reflection and

2. Attenuation.

46
 ❖ Reflection method

In reflection (or pulse-echo) mode, the transducer performs both the sending and the receiving of
the pulsed waves as the “sound” is reflected back to the device. Reflected ultrasound comes from
an interface, such as the back wall of the object or from an imperfection within the object.

The diagnostic machine displays these results in the form of a signal with an amplitude
representing the intensity of the reflection and the distance, representing the arrival time of the
reflection.

❖ Attenuation method

In attenuation (or through-transmission) mode, a transmitter sends ultrasound through one surface,
and a separate receiver detects the amount that has reached it on another surface after traveling
through the medium.

Imperfections or other conditions in the space between the transmitter and receiver reduce the
amount of sound transmitted, thus revealing their presence. Using the couplant increases the
efficiency of the process by reducing the losses in the ultrasonic wave energy due to separation
between the surfaces.

11. Liquid Penetrant Inspection

❖ What is Liquid Penetrant Testing?

Liquid Penetrant Testing, also known as Dye Penetrant Testing is a non-destructive testing
technique that makes use of capillary forces to uncover the cracks or pores present on the surface
of the material. It can inspect surface-breaking drawbacks like cracks, laps, porosity cracks, quench
cracks, fatigue cracks, grinding cracks, overload cracks, and impact fractures.

❖ Penetrant testing procedures:

The Steps of Penetrant Testing are as below

• Pre-cleaning of the Test Surfaces, using any suitable means

• Penetrant Application (by spraying, flowing, dipping, brushing or any suitable means)

47
 • Dwell Time (wait for 5-10 minutes, or as told in the procedure you follow)

• Excess Penetrant Removal (after dwell period remove of the penetrant over the surface
as per the suitable method for the penetrant – Solvent removable / Water Wash/ Emulsify
and wash)

• Apply Developer (Apply developer over the surface by spraying/flowing/dipping or any

other means)

• Developing Time (wait for sufficient time for the developer to dry, normally 10
minutes for Solvent based developer). Generally indications starts appear by blotting
action of the developer

• Interpretation: Find out the bleed out indications and decide the acceptability of the
indication. Interpretation should be completed between 10 to 60 minutes after development.
Deeper the defect, wider the bleed out indication.

• Post Cleaning – clean the surface using cloth or any suitable means, to let the components
for next process.

Figure 17. Application of liquid penetrant

❖ Dye penetrant inspection:

The two types of inspections are 1) Visible Inspection and 2) Fluorescent Inspection

• Visible inspection uses color contrast die and inspection carried out under white light,
visible Light should have a light intensity of 1000 Lux.

48
 • Fluorescent inspection uses Glowing fluorescent dies and done under Ultraviolet Lamps,
UV Lamp should have light intensity of 1000 µW/cm² at the surface inspection.

• A dark room setup is required for Fluorescent inspection with a maximum white light
intensity of 20 Lux.

12. Magnetic Particle Testing

❖ Basic Principles of Magnetic Particle Testing

Figure 18. Magnetic Particle Testing

Magnetic Particle Testing is a widely used non-destructive testing method as it is extremely simple
and faster to apply than other methods. Part surface preparation is also not that critical when it is
compared to other methods. Magnetic Particle Testing uses small magnetic particles, i.e. iron
filings and magnetic fields, to discover defects on the components. The one criteria that need to be
fulfilled is that the component which is being inspected should be made of material that can be
magnetized, i.e. ferromagnetic material, for example - cobalt, iron, nickel, etc.

Now, let's move on to the part that describes the principle of magnetic particle testing in detail.

49
❖ Principles of Magnetic Particle Testing

Figure 19. Magnetic Flux leakage

o If the center of a bar magnet is broken, it will result in two different bar magnets having
their own magnetic poles at both ends. But if there's only a crack in between, then at each
edge of the crack, the north and south pole will be shaped.
o When the magnetic fields get introduced with the small air gap, which has been developed
due to the crack, the magnetic field spreads out because the air is not able to support the
magnetic field per unit volume when compared to the magnet. So, when the magnetic field
spreads out, it seems to leak out of the material, and hence, this is known as a flux leakage
field.
o Moreover, if the iron particles are drizzled over the bar magnet where it has been cracked,
the iron particles will be clustered and attracted to the poles located at the end of the magnet
as well as to the poles at the edges of the cracked point. The cluster of magnetic particles
is understandable and easier to watch than the existing crack, and therefore, this becomes
the ground for magnetic particle inspection.
o Now, the next step that needs to be performed is to magnetize the component while doing
magnetic particle inspection. If any flaws are detected on the surface, a leakage field will
be created by the flaws.
o Therein the components are magnetized, and the iron particles, no matter which forms they
are in, i.e. wet or dry suspended form, are applied to the surface of the magnetized portion.
o Thus, the iron particles will be clustered and get attracted to the flux leakage fields, which
leads to forming a noticeable indication that can be detected by the inspector.

50
This particular method detects various elements that include weldments, forging & casting. There
are so many industries that opt for magnetic particle testing, like petrochemical, power generation,
automotive, aerospace, and steel industries. Magnetic particle testing can also be utilized for
underwater inspection, where it can be used for testing underwater pipelines and offshore
structures.

Figure 20. Material tested through Magnetic particle testing process

51
 13. Radiographic Testing
❖ Radiography Testing Procedures

Figure 21. Radiographic Testing

Amongst the Non-destructive testing methods, Radiographic testing procedures are used to detect
any flaws or defects in the core structure of any machine or its components. The radiography test
procedure makes use of either of the two rays that are x-rays or the gamma rays to create a
radiograph of the test sample that indicates if there are any deviations in thickness, faults, or
defects and assembly specifics to make certain optimal conditions.
In the Radiography test procedure, the component to be tested is put between the source of
radiation and a detector that is a film. The variation in the density of the material and its thickness
will reduce the piercing radiation with the help of interaction processes involving dispersion
and/or absorption.

This variation in absorption is then documented on the film or with the aid of an electric device.
There are various imaging techniques available specifically for use in industrial radiography that
includes Computed Tomography (CT), Film Radiography, Computed Radiography (CR), Real-
Time Radiography (RTR), and Digital Radiography (DR).
As discussed above, two distinct sources of radiation exist for industrial purposes are Gamma-
rays and X-rays. These sources of radiation utilize a high level of energy that is a shorter
wavelength, types of electromagnetic waves.

52
Computed Tomography (CT) is an advanced technique used in Non-destructive testing that is lab-
based. It utilizes Radiographic Testing Principles that give both three-dimensional volume images
and cross-sectional images of the test component that requires to be assessed exclusively of
intrinsic overlay associated with two-dimensional radiography. This specific attribute permits a
thorough examination of the core structure of an extensive range of components.
Radiographic testing procedures are widely used in testing the quality of welds in the industry.
Radiography test procedure in welding is a majorly reliable testing method to identify flaws or
defects in the weld such as voids, porosity, cracks, inclusions, and so on inside the weld.
Due to the high reliability and trustworthiness of the Radiographic testing procedures, they are
used across various industries that comprise automotive, offshore, power generation, aerospace,
manufacturing, transport, oil and gas, petrochemical, marine, and military.
❖ Radiographic Testing Principle:
The process of Radiographic Testing was uncovered by William Roentgen in 1895. It was soon
applicable in the area of medicine and consequently used for industrial components. to It is based
on Radiographic Testing Principle that radiation is dispersed and absorbed by an object as it goes
across it. Depending on the differences in density or thickness because of the flaw in the
component, less or more radiation moves across and has an effect on the film exposure. These
flaws can be observed in the film, generally in the form of dark spots.
In Radiographic testing procedures, the portion of the machine or the components is placed
between the radiation source and a part of the sensitive detector or film. As soon as the radiation
is initiated in the form of an x-ray or gamma-ray, the part that is being tested will obstruct some
of the radiation by its material thickness and density. Denser and thicker material will reduce the
amount of radiation that will pass through the sample.
An electronic device or a film will note the amount of radiation which is known as a radiograph.
The radiograph contacts the film with the help of the test sample. The data obtained from the
radiograph will enable the technician to identify the defects easily. In case the component is in a
good shape, without any flaws, the radiation will uniformly pass across the material. The flawed
material will absorb some amount of the radiation that goes through it due to a change in density.
Any kind of defect in the source metal will lessen its density. Therefore, it transfers radiation in
a better manner than a sound metal. Consequently, the radiograph film seems to be darker at the
part subjected to any defects.

53
The power of penetration of the rays is reliant on the energy of the radiation. The high-energy
radiation will be more likely to able to penetrate denser and thicker material. To ensure safety,
local rules must be firmly obeyed as the high-energy gamma-ray and x-ray are extremely
radioactive.
According to Radiographic Testing Principles, in radiographic testing, flaws are identified by
utilizing the disparity in the thickness of the material. Accordingly, the greater the disparity, the
easier it is to identify the flaws in the material being examined. Although, if the pathway if the
rays are not in line with the crack, the disparity in the thickness is less and as a result, any cracks
might go unidentified. Due to this reason, it is always recommended to carry out a Radiography
test procedure by distributing rays at different angles.
The major drawback of the short wavelength radiation is ionizing that is they can bring about
chemical shifts in the human body. All the ionizing radiation is unsafe as even a minimal amount
can lead to genetic damage and strengthen the likelihood of cancer. Rigorous safety provisions
are required while using the Radiography test procedure. This turns out to be rather disruptive,
costly, and time-consuming.
❖ Radiography test procedures:
The radiography test procedure might differ a bit as per the requirement of the project. Following
are the steps that are taken to successfully achieve the Radiography test procedure:
Step 1: The first step focuses on the surface preparation that is any surface variabilities are to be
removed so they do not hinder or mask the image as a flaw. The refined surface of all butt-welded
joints should be cleansed with the base material.
Step 2: The second step is about choosing the correct radiation source and radiographic film.
Based on the radiographic sensitivity and thickness of the material, a radiation source that is either
x-ray or gamma-ray should be determined. A fine-textured high-definition radiographic film can
be used.
Step 3: The third step involves choosing Penetrameter. As per the codes and regulations, either a
whole type or a wire type penetrameter is required to be chosen.
Step 4: Once the penetrameter is selected. The technique used for the Radiography test procedure
is determined. Generally, the single wall or double wall exposure technique is used. Additionally,
the distance from the source to the object and the object to the source is required to be ascertained
in advance.

54
Step 5: The defect is identified and removed. The radiograph should be examined for possible
flaws or defects and fixed if a fault is detected.
Step 6: Lastly, the entire data obtained from the radiograph is recorded properly.

Figure 22. Different parts of radiographic testing system

55
LEARNING UNIT 2: APPLY THE DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHOD

Learning Outcome 2.1: Set equipment

Destructive testing ensure machine reliability.

The reliability of equipment or machines is dependent on the quality of the parts used. Destructive
testing is an effective way to ensure that suitable materials are used for the right devices in the
right environment.
Suitable material and sound design are two characteristics that ensure products are high quality.
This is why destructive testing is so valuable – it tests both material and design. Besides that, it
ensures the safety of both manufacturers and maintenance technicians.
If constant monitoring of assets is desired, NDT is the way to go, but remember that both DT and
NDT are necessary for optimizing asset performance.
Learning Outcome 2.2: Apply tensile and compressive testing
1.Tensile-Test
A tensile test, also known as tension test, is probably the most fundamental type of mechanical
test is performed on a material. Tensile tests are simple, relatively inexpensive, and fully
standardized. By pulling on something, you will very quickly determine how the material will
react to forces being applied in tension. As the material is being pulled, you will find its strength
along with how much it will elongate.

Figure 1. Tensile testing process.

56
2.Compression-Test
Method for determining behavior of materials under crushing loads. Specimen is compressed, and
deformation at various loads is recorded. Compressive stress and strain are calculated and plotted
as a stress strain diagram which is used to determine elastic limit, proportional limit, yield point,
yield strength and (for some materials) compressive strength.
"Axial compression testing is a useful procedure for measuring the plastic flow behavior and
ductile fracture limits of a material. Measuring the plastic flow behavior requires frictionless
(homogenous compression) test conditions, while measuring ductile fracture limits takes
advantage of the barrel formation and controlled stress and strain conditions at the equator of the
barreled surface when compression is carried out with friction. Axial compression testing is also
useful for measurement of elastic and compressive fracture properties of brittle materials or low-
ductility materials. In any case, the use of specimens having large L/D ratios should be avoided
to prevent buckling and shearing modes of deformation l." The image at right shows variation of
the strains during a compression test without friction (homogenous compression) and with
progressively higher levels of friction and decreasing aspect ratio L/D (shown as H/D)1.

Figure 2. Compression testing process

57
Learning Outcome 2.3: Apply hardness test (Brinell, Rockwel and Vickel) of material

Hardness is the resistance of a material to permanent indentation. It is important to recognize that

hardness test is an empirical test and therefore hardness is not a material property. This is because
there are several different hardness tests that will each determine a different hardness value for
the same piece of material. Therefore, hardness depends on the test method and
every test result has a label identifying the test method used.
Hardness is, however, used extensively to characterize materials and to determine if they are
suitable for their intended use or not. All the hardness tests described below involves the use of a
specifically shaped indenter, significantly harder than the test sample that is pressed into the
surface of the sample using a specific force. Either the depth or size of the indent is measured to
determine a hardness value.
Advantages of Hardness Test:
o Easy to perform.
o Quick - 1 to 30 seconds.
o Relatively inexpensive.
o Finished parts can be tested - but not ruined.
o Virtually any size and shape can be tested.

The most common uses for hardness tests is to verify the heat treatment of a part and to determine
if a material has the properties necessary for its intended use. Establishing a correlation between
the hardness result and the desired material property allows this, making hardness tests very useful
in industrial and R&D applications. Hardness Scales:
There are five major hardness scales:
• Brinell - HB
• Knoop - HK
• Rockwell - HR
• Shore - HS
• Vickers – HV

58
Figure 3. Hardness testing-3 processes

59
Learning Outcome 2.4: Apply ductility test of material
1.Bending-Test
The flexure test method measures behavior of materials subjected to simple beam loading. It is
also called a transverse beam test with some materials. Maximum fiber stress and maximum strain
are calculated for increments of load. Results are plotted in a stress-strain diagram. Flexural
strength is defined as the maximum stress in the outermost fiber. This is calculated at the surface
of the specimen on the convex or tension side. Flexural modulus is calculated from the slope of
the stress vs. deflection curve. If the curve has no linear region, a secant line is fitted to the curve
to determine slope.

A flexure test produces tensile stress in the convex side of the specimen and compression stress
in the concave side. This creates an area of shear stress along the midline. To ensure the primary
failure comes from tensile or compression stress the shear stress must be minimized.
This is done by controlling the span to depth ratio; the length of the outer span divided by the
height (depth) of the specimen. For most materials S/d=16 is acceptable. Some materials require
S/d=32 to 64 to keep the shear stress low enough.

Figure 4. Bending process

60
 Learning Outcome 2.5: Test break strength of material

Tensile Strength is the measure of the force or stress required to pull something (resistance to
lengthwise stress) to the point where it breaks or before permanent deformation results. Usually it
is the maximum amount of tensile stress that it can be subjected to before failure, although the
definition of failure can vary according to material type and design methodology. Tensile testing
is an important materials test to select a specific material for an application, for quality control,
and to predict how a material will react to varying forces.
In the fields of material science, mechanical engineering and structural engineering there are three
typical definitions of tensile strength:

• Yield strength: the stress at which material strain changes from elastic deformation to plastic
deformation, causing it to deform permanently.
• Ultimate strength: the maximum stress a material can withstand.
• Breaking strength: the stress coordinate on the stress-strain curve at the point of rupture.
Tensile Strength can relate to the Toughness of products. The higher the tensile strength a product
possesses, the more difficult or tougher it is to stretch.

Tensile testing involves a sample held in two grips a set distance apart. The loading arm (attached
to the top grip) moves up at a constant speed to deform the sample, first deforming it elastically
then plastically. If the force required to break the sample is within the limit of the load cell, fracture
will occur. This test setup can also provide useful stress-strain data if the sample has a uniform
cross-section, providing accurate measurements are made of the sample’s dimensions.

61
 Learning Outcome 2.6: Test bond strength of material

Figure 5. Bond strength testing of material

A bond test is used to determine the ability of an adhesive to remain in contact with a surface or
material while under stress or the adhesive’s ability to hold together two materials as they are
stressed. The bond itself is tested after it has been applied and allowed to cure by either applying
a force directly to the adhesive to remove it from the material or by attempting to separate to
materials to have been connected to each other by the adhesive. The force is then either steadily
increased or remains constant and is applied to the bond until it fails.

Purpose of Bond Testing:

Bond tests determine an adhesives’ bond strength. The bond strength of a material may be
considered to be its overall “stickiness” and will depend on the type of stress the bond experiences
and the temperature at which the test is run. This strength will also depend upon the direction of
the force applied to the bond. For example a bond may require more force to be broken in shear
than in direct tension.

62
Types of Bond Tests:

There are many different types of bond testing, but the most commonly performed are tensile,
shear and peel testing with torsional, impact, and pull-off tests performed less often. Each bond
test is used to determine the adhesives bond strength in a given direction or under a given type of
stress. Nearly all bond testing will take one of two forms. Either the adhesive will be applied to
the surface of a material as a type of coating and the adhesives’ bond strength is determined to be
its ability to remain in contact with the material while under stress or the adhesive is applied
between two rigid substrates and its bond strength is determined as its ability to hold the two
substrates together while under stress.

Types of materials:

Generally a bond test is performed on an adhesive; however this adhesive can consist of a wide
range of materials or come in several forms. The more popular types of adhesives that undergo
bond testing are composed of polymers, composites, grouts, mortars, and glues. These adhesives
may be applied to all types of materials but are often tested when adhered to metals, plastics,
ceramics, woods and dental materials (e.g. dentine and enamel). The adhesive is generally tested
when bonded between two rigid substrates, but may also be tested when applied as a coating or as
the bonding material between a flexible coating and a rigid substrate.

63
LEARNING UNIT 3– APPLY NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHOD
Learning Outcome 3.1: Set equipment
• Why Use Non-Destructive Testing:

Non-destructive testing provides many benefits. This form of testing ensures that equipment and
assets function correctly without damaging them in the assessment process.

The experts often recommend NDT methods because they:

o Increase Your Savings

Businesses save resources and money by carrying out NDT tests instead of destructive testing.
Your equipment comes out of the other side of the testing process intact if you use non-destructive
testing, meaning you do not have to replace it after the test.

o Represent Safe Testing Options

Most NDT tests have no potential to harm people, allowing you to feel confident about this testing
method. However, remember that radiographic testing may be dangerous to people if performed
incorrectly.

o Work Efficiently

Efficiency matters for businesses around the country. Generally, NDT methods allow for quick
and thorough assessments, meaning you can quickly get back to total production. Destructive
methods often take longer to complete.

o Provide Accurate Results

Equipment assessments should provide you with accurate results. NDT methods give you
predictable results with a high degree of accuracy, allowing you to feel confident about the
condition of your equipment and worker safety.

64
Learning Outcome 3.2: Apply ultrasonic testing method

Ultrasonic inspection is a non-destructive method by which high frequency sound waves are
introduced into the object being inspected. Most ultrasonic inspection is done at frequencies
between 0.5 and 20 MHz. The sound waves travel through the material with some loss of energy
(attenuation) due to material characteristics. The intensity of sound waves is either measured,
after reflection (pulse echo) at interfaces (or flaw) or is measured at the opposite surface of the
specimen (pulse transmission). The reflected beam is detected and analyzed to define the
presence and location of flaws. The degree of reflection depends largely on the physical state
of matter on the opposite side of the interface. Partial reflection occurs at metal-liquid or metal
solid interfaces. Ultrasonic testing has a higher penetrating power than radiography and can
detect flaws deep in the test object (up to about 7 meters of steel). It is quite sensitive to small
flaws and allows the precise determination of the location and size of the flaws. The basic
principle of ultrasonic testing is illustrated in Figure below.

The ultrasonic testing methods are:

(a) Used for detection of flaws in materials and for thickness measurement;
(b) Used for the determination of mechanical properties and grain structure of materials.

Learning Outcome 3.3: Apply laser testing method

Laser testing falls into three categories including holographic testing, laser profilometry and laser
shearography:

Holographic testing uses a laser to detect changes in the surface of the material which has been
subjected to stress such as heat, pressure or vibration. The results are then compared to an
undamaged reference sample to show defects.

Laser profilometry uses a high speed rotating laser light source and miniature optics to detect
corrosion, pitting, erosion and cracks by detecting changes in the surface via a 3D image generated
from the surface topography.

Laser shearography uses laser light to create an image before the surface is stressed and a new
image is created. These images are compared to one another to determine if any defects are present.

65
Learning Outcome 3.4: Apply radiographic, Liquid penetrant and Magnetic particle
testing method
1. Radiographic testing method (RT)
The RT method is used for the detection of internal flaws in many different materials and
configurations. An appropriate radiographic film is placed behind the test specimen (Figure below)
and is exposed by passing either X rays or gamma rays (Co-60 and Ir-192 radioisotopes)
through it. The intensity of the X rays or gamma rays while passing through the product is
modified according to the internal structure of the specimen and thus the exposed film, after
processing, reveals the shadow picture, known as a radiograph, of the product. It is then
interpreted to obtain data about the flaws present in the specimen. This method is used on wide
variety of products such as forgings, castings, and weldments. The advantages of radiographic
testing include:

(a) It is useful on wide variety of materials;

(b) It can be used for checking internal mal-structure, mis-assembly or misalignment;
(c) It provides permanent record;
(d) Devices for checking the quality of radiograph are available.

66
 Figure 1. Arrangement for radiographic testing.

2.Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT)

This is a method that can be employed for the detection of surface-breaking defects in any
industrial product made from a non-porous material. The PT method is widely used for testing
of non-magnetic materials. In this method, a liquid penetrant is applied to the surface of the
product for a certain predetermined time, after which the excess penetrant is removed from the
surface. The surface is then dried and a developer is applied to it. The penetrant which remains
in the defect is absorbed by the developer to indicate the presence as well as the location, size
and nature of the defect.

67
3. Magnetic particle testing (MT)

Magnetic particle testing is used for the testing of materials which can be easily magnetized.
This method is capable of detecting open to surface and just below the surface flaws. In this
method the test specimen is first magnetized either by using a permanent or an electromagnet
or by passing electric current through or around the specimen. The magnetic field thus
introduced into the specimen is composed of magnetic lines of force. Whenever there is a flaw
which interrupts the flow of magnetic lines of force, some of these lines must exit and re-enter
the specimen. These points of exit and re-entry form opposite magnetic poles. Each time minute
magnetic particles are sprinkled onto the surface of such a specimen, these particles are attracted
by these magnetic poles to create a visual indication approximating the size and shape of the
flaw. Figure below illustrates the basic principles of this method.

Figure 2. Basic principle of magnetic particle

68
Learning Outcome 3.5: Test crack, leakage, structure and welded joints

1. Test cracks in welding:

This testing method consists of establishing a magnetic field in the part to be tested, applying
magnetic particles to the surface of the part, and examining the surface for accumulations of
particles that indicate discontinuities. A magnet will attract magnetic particles to its ends or poles,
as they are called.

2. What detection method is used to see if welded joints have internal cracks in
applications that have high risk?

Radiographic Testing (RT) – This method of weld testing makes use of X-rays, produced by an
X-ray tube, or gamma rays, produced by a radioactive isotope.

3. Leak test in welding

A leak testing in welding is done to makes sure that no gas leaks out from small holes and defects
in the pipe. The test is done by first passing air or high-pressure gas through the pipes.

The pipes are them submerged under water. If there are leaks present in the pipe, there would be
bubbles on the water. The position of the leaks can also be determined by the position of the
bubbles of water. There are times when a liquid penetrate is also used to determine leaks.

The liquid penetrate works as a marker for the leaks in the pipe. If the welding pipe is handling
sensitive gas then the specific gas detectors can be used to detect leakage of those gasses in the air.

Non-destructive inspection and quality control can be used to check for leak in welding pipes. This
way the safety of the welding system is maintained.

69
LEARNING UNIT 4– ANALYSE RESULTS
Learning Outcome 4.1: Compare indentation measurements
I. Indentation measurements

Definition
Measuring Indentation Hardness

Anyone can notice that a rock is harder than a plastic toy. But when you work in engineering or
metallurgy, measuring hardness becomes much more complex. There are several ways to measure
the hardness of a material. In the engineering and metallurgy fields, workers most often measure
the indentation hardness.

Indentation hardness measures how resistant a material is to change when it is compressed. To

measure indentation hardness, workers use equipment to compress the material. They then
measure the level of indentation left behind on the material. Generally speaking, a smaller
indentation indicates a harder material.

Types of indents
Hardness measurements quantify the resistance of a material to plastic deformation. Indentation
hardness tests compose the majority of processes used to determine material hardness, and can be
divided into three classes: macro, micro and nanoindentation tests.

70
 ❖ Macroindentation Tests:

Macroindentation tests are characterized by indentations loads L in the range of 2 N < L < 30 kN.
The main macroscale tests used by the industry and research communities are: Brinell, Meyer,
Vickers, Rockwell, Shore Durometer, and the International Rubber Hardness Degree. These
hardness tests determine the materials resistance to the penetration of a non-deformable indenter
with a shape of a ball, pyramid, or cone. The hardness is correlated with the plastic deformation of
the surface or the penetration depth of the indenter, under a given load, and within a specific period
of time.

Brinell Test

Proposed by Johan A. Brinell in 1900, this is from the historic point of view the first standardized
indentation hardness test devised for engineering and metallurgy applications. In this test, a ball of
diameter D (mm) is used to indent the material through the application of a load L, as shown in
Fig. 1. The diameter d (mm) of the indentation deformation on the surface is measured with an
optical microscope, and the Brinell hardness number (BHN) is then calculated as the load divided
by the actual area Ac of the curved surface of the impression:

Figure 1. Brinell macro-indentation test

71
In the original test proposed by Brinell, the load L is expressed in kilogram force. If L is measured
in N (SI system), Equation above should be divided by 9.8065. The full test load is applied for a
period of 10–15 s. Two diameters of impression at right angles are measured (usually in the range
2–6 mm), and the mean diameter value is used for calculating the Brinell hardness number.

Vickers Test

The Vickers hardness test is calculated from the size of an impression produced under load by a
pyramid-shaped diamond indenter. Devised in the 1920s by engineers at Vickers, Ltd., the indenter
is a square-based pyramid whose opposite sides meet at the apex with an angle of 136°, the edges
at 148°, and faces at 68°. In designing the new indenter, they chose a geometry that would produce
hardness numbers nearly identical to Brinell numbers within the range of both tests. The Vickers
diamond hardness number, HV, is calculated using the indenter load L and the actual surface area
of the impression Ac:

where L is measured in kgf and d (mm) is equal to the length of the diagonal measured from corner
to corner on the residual impression in the specimen surface (Fig. 2). If the load is measured in N,
Equation above should be divided by 9.8065.

Figure 2. Vickers micro-indentation test

72
The time for the initial application of the force is 2–8 s, and the test force is maintained during 10–
15 s. The applied loads vary from 1 to 120 kgf (~9.8 N–1.2 kN), with standard values of 5, 10, 20,
30, 50, 100, and 120 kgf (1 kgf–9.8 N) [17, 18]. The size of the impression (usually no more than
0.5 mm) is measured with the aid of a calibrated microscope with a tolerance of ±1/1000 mm. The
Vickers hardness can be related to the diagonal d or the penetration depth t which are related as

d = 7t. The Vickers contact area and the penetration depth are related as A c = 24.5t2 if the elastic
recovery of the material is not important.

The Vickers hardness is denoted as HV, and frequently, the units are also reported as kgf/mm2, or
in MPa (the value in kgf/mm2 multiplied by 9.8065).

Rockwell Test

The Rockwell test determines the hardness by measuring the depth of penetration of an indenter
under a large load compared to the penetration made by a smaller preload. The differential-depth
hardness measurement used in the method was conceived in 1908 by the Austrian professor Paul
Ludwik in his book Die Kegelprobe (“the cone test”). The use of an initial low load in this method
has the advantage to eliminate errors in measuring the penetration depth, like backlash and surface
imperfections. Based on this method, the brothers Hugh M. Rockwell and Stanley P. Rockwell
from USA patented a “Rockwell hardness tester,” which was a differential-depth machine.

The determination of the Rockwell hardness of a material involves the application of a minor load
L0 of 10 kgf (~98.1 N) followed by a major load L1 (Fig 3.). The minor load establishes the zero
position. The major load is applied and then removed while still maintaining the minor load. The
Rockwell hardness HR is calculated from the equation:

HR=N−500h

where h (in mm) is the difference of the two penetration depth measurements. The value of N
depends on the used indenter: 100 for spheroconical indenters and 130 for a ball. Equation (above)
establishes that the penetration depth and hardness are inversely proportional. In this test, no
calculations are necessary, as the HR value is read directly from a dial in the machine.

73
Figure 3. Principle of the macro-indentation Rockwell test. The indenter can be a sphere or a cone.

The main advantage of Rockwell hardness is its ability to display hardness values directly, thus
obviating tedious calculations involved in other hardness measurement techniques.

There are several L1 loads: 60, 100, and 150 kgf (1 kgf–9.8 N), and several ball diameters: 1/2,
1/4, 1/8, and 1/16 inch (1 inch–2.52 cm) that can be used, as established in the standards ISO 6508-
1and ASTM E18 for metallic materials, and ISO 2039-2 for plastics. These methods are named
with letters: (scales A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, K, L, M, P, R, S, and V), and the most used ones are
explained in Table 1. The correct notation for a Rockwell hardness value is HR followed by the
scale (e.g., 62 HRC) where C is the letter for the scale used.

Table 1: Main Rockwell scales

74
 ❖ Micro-indentation Tests

Micro-indentation tests are characterized by indentations loads L in the range of L < 2 N and
penetrations h > 0.2 µm. There are two main tests used at this scale: Vickers and Knoop. These
indentation hardness tests determine the material resistance to the penetration of a diamond
indenter with a shape of a pyramid. Like in the case of macro-indentation tests, the hardness is
correlated with the depth which such indenter will sink into the material, under a given load, within
a specific period of time.

❖ Micro-Vickers Test

The micro-indentation Vickers test is similar to the macro-indentation test explained in Section
above. The difference is the use of a lower applied load range. The use of forces below 1 kgf (~9.8
N) with the Vickers test was first evaluated in 1932 at the National Physical Laboratory in the UK.
Four years later, Lips and Sack constructed the first micro-hardness Vickers tester designed for
applied forces ≤1 kgf (~9.8 N). The test is normalized by ASTM E384 and ISO 6507.

❖ Nanoindentation Tests

In the nanoindentation test, the indenter is pushed into the surface of the sample producing both
elastic and plastic deformation of the material (Fig. 4). The first difference with macro- or micro-
indentation tests is that, in the nanoindentation machines, the displacement h and the load L are
continuously monitored with high precision, as schematically shown in Fig.5. During the
nanoindentation process, the indenter will penetrate the sample until a predetermined maximum
load Lmax is reached, where the corresponding penetration depth is h max. When the indenter is
withdrawn from the sample, the unloading displacement is also continuously monitored until the
zero load is reached and a final or residual penetration depth hf is measured. The slope of the upper
portion of the unloading curve, denoted as S = dL/dh, is called the elastic contact stiffness.

75
Figure 4.a. Elasto-plastic deformation at the maximum applied load Lmax ;b. plastic deformation
after releasing the load.

Figure 5. Load-unload during nano-indentation

There are mainly two indenter shapes of choice in nanoindentation: Berkovich and cube corner.
The Berkovich indenter is a three-sided pyramid with a face angle of 65.3° with respect to the
indentation vertical axis, and its area-to-depth function is the same as that of a Vickers indenter.
The cube corner is also a three-sided pyramid which is precisely the corner of a cube.

In nanoindentation, the hardness of the material is defined as H = L/Apml, where Apml is the
projected area of contact at the maximum load. In this method, the maximum load ranges between
few µN and about 200 mN, while penetrations will vary from few nm to about few µm. The
indented area results to be very small (nanometer or few micrometers size), and as a consequence,

76
the use of optical microscopy is not possible like in macro- and micro-indentation tests. The only
way for observing so small areas is by using a scanning electron microscopy (SEM), which is not
very practical. However, methods have been developed to calculate the area directly from the load–
unload curve.

77
 Learning outcome 4.2: Measure dimension deviations

I. Methods of measurements

The way to measure indentation hardness differs depending on the scale (Brinell – HB, Rockwell
– HR, Vickers - HV.) you use:

A. Comparing Hardness Scales

When measuring indentation hardness, there are four possible scales to choose from. The type of
scale you use affects which type of equipment you use:

1. Brinell Scale

Invented in 1900 by Johan August Brinell, the Brinell scale was the first hardness scale used by
engineers and metal workers. To perform a Brinell test, an indenter penetrates the desired material.

People prefer the Brinell scale if they also need to determine the ultimate tensile strength (UTS)
of steel. That's because when you divide the Brinell scale hardness value in half, you get the UTS
in pounds per square inch.

2. Rockwell Scale

The Rockwell scale was invented in the early 1900s by Hugh and Stanley Rockwell. This scale
compares the indentation caused by a large load with the indentation caused by a smaller load.

The Rockwell test preserves a material's integrity better than the Brinell test does. The Brinell test
leaves a large impression that can actually damage the material being tested.

3. Vickers Scale

The Vickers scale was invented in 1921 by Robert L. Smith and George E. Sandland at Vickers
Ltd.

The hardness measurements on the Vickers test are often easier to determine than measurements
with other scales. Unlike with other tests, the size of the Vickers indenter doesn't affect the
hardness calculations.

78
 4. Shore Scale

Invented by Albert Ferdinand Shore in the 1920s, the shore hardness scale uses a device called a
durometer. Like other hardness equipment, the durometer applies force to the material and
measures the depth of the indentation.

Unlike the other hardness scales, which focus on metals, the shore scale measures the hardness of
elastomers, rubbers, and polymers.

B. Comparing Tester Equipment

Each type of hardness scale requires different types of equipment.

• Rockwell and Brinell testing rely on two main kinds of equipment: bench and portable.

Bench equipment sits on top of a work bench. It displays the test results either on a dial (analog
models) or on a digital screen (digital models). Portable equipment differs because, along with
being portable, it can test larger metal than bench equipment can.

• A Vickers hardness tester is unique because it uses a diamond as the indenter. Diamonds create
the same shaped impressions, regardless of the material they are measuring. Plus, since
diamonds create relatively small indentations, Vickers equipment is ideal for testing thin
materials like foil.

As mentioned, a durometer is the instrument used for shore scale testing. A durometer is a test
stand that resembles a kitchen scale.

There are several different durometer styles, including classic style, pencil style, and ergo style.
Each is built to meet certain specifications. For example, pencil-style durometers have a tiny base,
which enables them to measure areas that are difficult to reach.

79
 II. Profilometer measuring method – Reference system:

a. What is a Profilometer & Why is it Used?

A profilometer is an instrument used to measure the profile and surface finish of a surface. On a
small scale, surfaces can be composed of a series of peaks and valleys with varying height, depth,
and spacing. Subtle differences in these features determine if the surface feels smooth or rough,
looks matte or glossy, can form a seal, or is suitable for a wear surface. In industries where
mechanical parts are produced, surface roughness or surface finish requirements are commonly
specified on technical drawings, and profilometers are used to verify that the requirements have
been met.

b. Types of Profilometers

Profilometers come in many shapes and sizes, but they can be divided into two basic types –
contact and optical. Contact profilometers measure surface profile by physically tracing the
surface with a stylus. In contrast, optical profilometers use reflections of various types of light to
measure surface features in a line or area. Operating methods, capabilities, limitations, and typical
applications for contact and optical profilometers are discussed in detail below.

i. Contact Profilometers

Figure 6. Contact profilometer

Contact profilometers measure surface profile by lightly dragging a stylus across the surface. The
tip of the stylus rides in a line across the surface, moving vertically over the peaks and
valleys. Changes in the stylus’ height are registered electrically and tracked against position as
the stylus moves, creating a measured profile.

80
Stylus tips are conical, with a spherical radius on the bottom. The cone angle and tip radius
determine the smallest features that a stylus can trace. Stylus tips are typically made of hard, wear-
resistant materials such as diamond or sapphire.

Figure 7. Diagram Showing a Contact Profilometer

Figure 8. Contact Profilometer Tip Shape

Handheld contact profilometers are commonly used in machine shops for measuring surface finish
on machined parts. These instruments are placed on the workpiece to be measured, and the stylus
is traversed automatically at rates somewhere around 1 millimeter per second. Tip radius for
handheld profilometers can be as small as a few microns, and they can accurately
measure Ra down to 0.005 µm and Rz down to 0.02 µm.

81
This type of instrument is frequently available with several measurement ranges, depending on the
smoothness of the surface to be measured.

Contact profilometers have many advantages. For example, they are not as sensitive to dirt and
oil as their optical counterparts, and their accuracy is not dependent on surface optical
characteristics. They are also less costly than optical profilometers, but they do have a few
limitations. Stylus tips can create scratches in soft material, especially when measurements are
repeated. Over time, stylus tips wear and need to be replaced. A worn stylus tip or scratched
material can result in inaccurate profile data.

ii. Optical Profilometers

Figure 9. Optimal profilometer

Optical profilometers include 1-D, 2-D, and 3-D profiling devices. These devices use light to
measure features on a surface, and their operation can be based on a number of different principles,
including optical interference, use of confocal apertures, focus detection, and pattern
projection. Despite the breadth of this group of instruments, they share points of
commonality. Optical profilometers are relatively large instruments that consist of a light source,
optical lenses, and image sensors. They require the surface to reflect the light being used, so many
of these instruments will have trouble measuring translucent or highly reflective surfaces. Also,
for the reflection to accurately characterize the surface, it must be free of debris and contaminants
such as dirt, water, and oil.

82
Since light travels very quickly, measurements can be taken faster than with contact
profilometers. With some instruments, millions of readings can be collected in seconds, making
it practical to model a relatively large area’s surface topography.

❖ Selecting a Profilometer

Selecting the correct profilometer for your application can seem like a daunting task. The first
step is to determine which parameters you are interested in measuring, the approximate range of
those parameters, and the required measurement accuracy. Next, the size and shape of the surface
to be measured must be considered. Finally, the number of measurements and cycle time for each
measurement must be taken into account.

There is no “one size fits all” solution. For example, a machine shop that occasionally
manufactures large parts with varying Ra or Rz requirements may be best served by a handheld
contact profilometer with a large measuring range. In contrast, a semiconductor manufacturing
plant may prefer to integrate an optical profilometer into their processing line or inspection cell.

Key Take-Aways

1. Profilometers are used to measure surface roughness or surface finish.

2. Contact Profilometers use a stylus to measure one point at a time.

3. Optical Profilometers use reflected light for measurement, and some can measure multiple
points simultaneously.

4. All profilometers are not the same, be sure to select one with the measuring range and
features best suited to your application.

83
 III. Techniques of comparing measurements

1. Tests Comparison

The Scales of Hardness Indentation Tests:

While in the field of tribology the limits of macro-, micro-, and nanoscale experiments are still
blurry, there is some consensus in the indentation mechanics area about which tests can be
considered to belong to each scale. Brinell and Rockwell tests are considered to be in the
macroscale, due to the high loads (5 N–30 kN), high deformation areas, and high penetrations
(more than 1 mm). Vickers and IHRD are considered to be a macro- or microscale, according to
the applied load. Knoop test is considered to be a microscale test, with low loads and low
penetration depths (up to 0.1 mm). Buchholz is also a microscale test because of the low
penetration depth into the coatings (15–35 µm). Finally, indentations made with nanoindenters or
atomic force microscopes are considered as nanoscale tests, with loads L < 30 mN and penetrations
<5 µm. The limits in the scales are not very clear for all methods. The “baby” Brinell cannot be
considered a microscale test because the penetration is usually high, and the Rockwell test T, done
for thin materials, lies in the limit between macro- and microscale.

There is also some disagreement in the standards regarding the load range applicable to microscale
testing. ASTM Specification E384, for example, states that the load range for microscale testing
is 1–1000 gf (~9.8 mN to ~9.8 N). On the other hand, the ISO 14577-1 norm specifies that the
microscale indentation is for loads lower than 200 gf (~1.96 N). In fact, this ISO norm gives the
ranges of loads and penetrations for determining the indentation hardness at the three scale
definitions, as shown in Table 2.

Figure 10 shows an estimation of the number of scientific publications dealing with indentation
hardness of materials in the period of years going from 1910 to 2015.

84
Each indicated year data in the figure include all publications in the precedent period of 15 years.
The survey separates the publications according to the macro-, micro-, or nanoscale where the
indentation hardness has been measured. The estimation was done with the database from Google
Scholar, using as keywords: “indentation hardness,” “micro-indentation,” and “nanoindentation,”
through a Boolean logic search to exclude publications dealing simultaneously with two or three
scale measurements in the same publication. It is observed a huge increase trend of publications
in the nanoscale area during the last 15 years, surpassing the number of publications at microscale.

Figure 10. Number of publications reporting results of indentation hardness at macro-(filled

triangle), micro-(filled circle), and nanoscale (filled square). The estimation was done using the
database Google Scholar. Each data point reports number of publications in the previous 5-year
period.

Indentation Hardness Definitions

The indentation hardness in the aforementioned methods is defined in three different ways. Brinell
and Vickers define hardness as the applied load L divided by the actual area Ac of the impressed
curved surface. Meyer, Knoop, and the nanoindentation hardness are defined as the ratio of the
applied load L to the projected areas (Ap or Apml) of the indent. Finally, the Rockwell, Shore, IHRD,
and Buchholz tests determine the hardness by measuring the depth of penetration of an indenter
under a large load.

85
It is well known that solids have three responses to an applied force, which depends on the force,
strength and material. Figure 11 shows the scheme of a typical stress–strain curve, where three
regions can be observed:

Figure 12. Scheme of a typical stress-strain curve

o Elastic the material changes temporarily its shape, but returns to the original shape when
the stress is removed. Deformation in the elastic region is linear, as described by the
stress–strain curve. In this region, the definition of indentation hardness as the ratio of
applied load divided by the permanent deformed area is not applicable. Penetration
methods to measure hardness, like the Shore durometer, IHRD, or Buchholz tests, must be
used to measure meaningful hardness values.

o Plastic the material has a permanent change shape in response to the stress, but remains
in one piece. The yield strength is the point at which elastic deformation gives way to
plastic deformation. Deformation in the plastic region is nonlinear, as described by the
stress–strain curve. Indentation hardness measurements in this region can be done using
permanent deformation areas or indenter penetration, as described above.

o Fracture the material cracks and separates into two or more pieces. The fracture property
in indentation methods can be used to calculate other mechanical properties like
indentation toughness.

86
 Learning outcome 4.3: Evaluate defects of product

1. Introduction to Failure Mode, Effects & Criticality Analysis (FMECA)

In the late 1940s, the US military was committed to change from an approach of “find failure and
fix it” to “anticipate failure and prevent it”. The methods developed focused on qualitative and
quantitative risk identification for preventing failure. Failure Mode, Effects & Criticality Analysis
(FMECA) is a method which involves quantitative failure analysis. The FMECA involves creating
a series of linkages between potential failures (Failure Modes), the impact on the mission (Effects)
and the causes of the failure (Causes and Mechanisms). The methods and techniques associated
with the FMECA were published in a series of Military Standards. MIL-STD-1629A is the most
prominent of these standards and is still in use today.

2. What is Failure Mode, Effects & Criticality Analysis (FMECA)

FMECA is a bottom-up (Hardware) or top-down (Functional) approach to risk assessment. It is

inductive, or data-driven, linking elements of a failure chain as follows: Effect of Failure, Failure
Mode and Causes/Mechanisms. These elements closely resemble the modern 5 Why technique
in Root Cause Analysis (RCA). The Effect of Failure duplicates the experience of a user/customer
and is then translated into the technical failure description or Failure Mode. The technical failure
description answers the next question “Why”, introducing causes that result in the failure mode.
Each failure mode has a probability assigned and each cause has a failure rate assigned. If data is
not available, probability of occurrence is assigned. The probability depends on the failure data
source documents utilized in the FMECA. Unlike 5 Why, the FMECA is performed prior to any
failure actually occurring. FMECA analyzes risk, which is measured by criticality (the
combination of severity and probability), to take action and thus provide an opportunity to reduce
the possibility of failure.

FMECA and Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) are closely related tools. Each tool
resolves to identify failure modes which may potentially cause product or process failure. FMEA
is qualitative, exploring “what-if scenarios”, where FMECA includes a degree of quantitative input
taken from a source of known failure rates. A source for such data is Military Handbook 217 or
equivalent.

87
There are two activities to perform FMECA:

1. Create the FMEA

2. Perform the Criticality Analysis

Measured criticality is the intersection of severity and cause probability rankings. Results are
depicted in four primary criticality zones. Criticality is used to determine product or process design
weaknesses. Two quantitative and one qualitative options exist for FMECA Criticality as identified
below:

1. Quantitative

o Mode Criticality = Item Unreliability x Mode Ratio of Unreliability x Probability

of Loss x Time (life)

o Item Criticality = Sum of Mode Criticalities

2. Qualitative

o Compare failure modes via a Criticality Matrix, which identifies severity on the
horizontal axis and qualitatively derived occurrence on the vertical axis.

o Note: Quality-One suggests a qualitative criticality matrix for the Quality-One

Three Path Model for FMEA Development. Severity is on the vertical axis and
occurrence is depicted on the horizontal axis. This is often used as an alternative
for the Risk Priority Number (RPN) in FMEA.

3. Why Perform Failure Mode, Effects & Criticality Analysis (FMECA)

The intent of the Failure Mode, Effects & Criticality Analysis methodology is to increase
knowledge of risk and prevent failure. The tangible benefits of FMECA are offered in the
following categories:

Design and Development Benefits

• Increased reliability

• Better quality

88
 • Higher safety margins

• Decreased development time and re-design

Operations Benefits

• More effective Control Plans

• Improved Verification and Validation testing requirements

• Optimized preventive and predictive maintenance

• Reliability growth analysis during product development

• Decreased waste and non-value added operations (Lean Operation and Manufacturing)

Cost Benefits

• Recognize failure modes in advance (when they are less costly to address)

• Minimized warranty costs.

• Increased sales from customer satisfaction.

4. How to Perform Failure Mode, Effects & Criticality Analysis (FMECA)

The basic assumption when performing FMECA instead of FMEA is the desire to have a more
quantitative risk determination. The FMEA utilizes a more multi-functional team using guidelines
to set Severity and Occurrence. The FMECA is performed by first completing an FMEA process
worksheet and then completing the FMECA Criticality Worksheet.

The general steps for FMECA development are as follows:

• FMEA Portion (see our FMEA page for more details)

o Define the system.

o Define ground rules and assumptions to help drive the design.

o Construct system Boundary Diagrams and Parameter Diagrams.

o Identify failure modes.

89
 o Analyze failure effects.

o Determine causes of the failure modes.

o Feed results back into design process.

• FMECA Portion

o Transfer Information from the FMEA to the FMECA

o Classify the failure effects by severity (change to FMECA severity)

o Perform criticality calculations

o Rank failure mode criticality and determine highest risk items

o Take mitigation actions and document the remaining risk with rationale

o Follow-up on corrective action implementation/effectiveness

FMECA can often become time consuming and therefore available resources and team interest can
be an issue as the process continues. Quality-One has developed the FMECA process below to
utilize engineering resources effectively and ensure the FMECA has been developed thoroughly.
The Quality-One approach is as follows:

Step 1: Perform the FMEA

The FMEA is a good starting place for the FMECA. FMEA allows for qualitative, and therefore
creative, inputs from a multi-disciplined engineering team. FMEA provides the first inputs into
design change and can jump start the risk mitigation process. The FMEA information is transferred
into the FMECA Criticality Worksheet. The transferred data from the FMEA worksheet will
include:

• Item Identification Number

• Item / Function

• Detailed Function and / or Requirements

• Failure Modes and Causes with Mechanisms of Failure

• Mission Phase or Operational Mode (DoD specific), often related to the Effects of Failure

90
Step 2: Determine Severity Level

Next, assign the Severity Level of each Effect of Failure. There are various severity tables to select
from. The following is used in medical and some aerospace activities. The actual descriptions can
be altered to fit any product or process design. There are generally four severity level
classifications as follows:

• Catastrophic: Could result in death, permanent total disability, loss exceeding $1M, or
irreversible severe environmental damage that violates law or regulation

• Major/High Impact: Permanent partial disability, injuries or occupational illness resulting

in hospitalization of 3 or more personnel, loss exceeding $200K but less than $1M, or
reversible environmental damage causing a violation of law or regulation

• Minor Impact: Could result in injury or occupational illness resulting in one or more lost
work day(s), loss exceeding $10K but less than $200K, or mitigatable environmental
damage without violation of law or regulation where restoration activities can be
accomplished

• Low Impact: Result in minor injury or illness not resulting in a lost work day, loss
exceeding $2K but less than $10K, or minimal environmental damage

Step 3: Failure Effect Probability

In some applications of FMECA, a Beta value is assigned to the Failure Effect Probability. The
FMECA analyst may also use engineering judgement to determine the Beta value. The Beta /
Effect Probability is placed in the FMECA Criticality Worksheet where:

• Actual Loss / 1.00

• Probable loss / >0.10 to <1.00

• Possible loss / >0 to =0.10

• No Effect / 0

A failure mode ratio is developed by assigning a proportion of the failure mode to each cause. The
accumulation of all cause values equals 1.00.

91
Step 4: Probability of Occurrence (Quantitative)

Assign probability values for each Failure Mode, referencing the data source selected. Failure
Probability and Failure Rate data can be found from several sources:

• Handbook 217 is referenced but any source of failure rate data can be used

• RAC databases, Concordia, etc.

If the Failure Mode probability is listed (functional approach) several columns of the FMECA
Criticality Worksheet may be skipped. Criticality (Cr) can be calculated directly. When failure
rates for failure modes and contributing components are desired, detailed failure rates for each
component are assigned.

Next, we must assign Component Failure Rate (lambda). Failure Rates for each component are
selected from the failure rate source document. Where there is no failure rate available, the
qualitative values from the FMEA are used. FMEA may also be an alternative method on new or
innovative designs.

Operating Time (t) represents the time or cycles the item or component will be expected to live.
This is related to the expected duty cycle requirements.

Step 5: Calculate and Plot Criticality

In FMECA, Criticality is calculated in two ways:

• The Modal Criticality (each failure mode all causes) = Cm

• The Criticality of the Item (all failure modes summarized) = Cr

Formulas of each are not provided in this explanation but the essence of the elements of the
calculation is as follows:

• Cm = The product of the following:

o Failure Rate of the Part (lambda)

o Failure Rate of the Effect (Beta)

o Failure Mode Ratio (alpha)

92
 o Operating Time (units of time or cycles)

• Cr = The summation of all the Cm

Step 6: Design Feedback and Risk Mitigation

Risk mitigation is a discipline required to reduce possible failure. The identified risk in the
criticality matrix is the substitute for failure and must be treated in the same context as a test failure
or customer returned component or item. FMECA requires a change in risk levels / criticality after
mitigation. A defect / defective detection strategy, commensurate to the risk level, may be required.
Acceptable risk management strategy includes the following:

• Mitigation actions directed at Highest Severity and Probability combinations

• Any risk where mitigation was unsuccessful is a candidate for Mistake Proofing or Quality
Control, protecting the customer / consumer from the potential failure

o Detection methods are chosen for failure modes first and if possible individual
causes which do not permit shipping or acceptance

• Action logs and “risk registers” with revision history are kept for follow-up and closure of
each undesirable risk

Other examples of FMECA mitigation strategies to consider:

• Design change. Take a new direction on design technology, change components and/or
review duty cycles for derating.

• Selection of a component with a lower lambda (failure rate). This can be expensive unless
identified early in Product Development.

• Physical redundancy of the component. This option places the redundant component in a
parallel configuration. Both must fail simultaneously for the failure mode to occur. If a
safety concern exists, this option may require non-identical components.

• Software redundancy. The addition of a sensing circuit which can change the state of the
product. This option often reduces the severity of the event by protecting components
through duty cycle changes and reducing input stresses.

93
 • Warning system. A placard and / or buzzer / light. This requires action by an operator or
analyst to avoid a failure or the effect of failure.

• Detection and removal of the potential failure through testing or inspection. The inspection
effectiveness must match the level of severity and criticality.

Step 7: Perform Maintainability Analysis

Maintainability Analysis looks at the highest risk items and determines which components will
fail earliest. The cost and parts availability are also considered. This analysis can affect the location
of the components or items when in the design phase. Design consideration must be given for
quick access when serviceability is required more frequently.

• Access panels, easy to remove, permit service of the identified components and items. This
can limit down time of important machinery.

• A spare parts list is typically created from the maintainability analysis.

94
 Learning Outcomes 4.4: Locate defects
The tensile-strength test is inherently destructive; in the process of gathering data, the sample is
destroyed. Though this is acceptable when a plentiful supply of the material exists, non-destructive
tests are desirable for materials that are costly or difficult to fabricate or that have been formed
into finished or semi-finished products.
1. Liquids
One common non-destructive technique, used to locate surface cracks and flaws in metals,
employs a penetrating liquid, either brightly dyed or fluorescent. After being smeared on the
surface of the material and allowed to soak into any tiny cracks, the liquid is wiped off, leaving
readily visible cracks and flaws. An analogous technique, applicable to nonmetals, employs an
electrically charged liquid smeared on the material surface. After excess liquid is removed, a dry
powder of opposite charge is sprayed on the material and attracted to the cracks. Neither of these
methods, however, can detect internal flaws.
2. Radiation
Internal as well as external flaws can be detected by X-ray or gamma-ray techniques in which the
radiation passes through the material and impinges on a suitable photographic film. Under some
circumstances, it is possible to focus the X-rays to a particular plane within the material, permitting
a three-dimensional description of the flaw geometry as well as its location.
3. Sound
Ultrasonic inspection of parts involves transmission of sound waves above human hearing range
through the material. In the reflection technique, a sound wave is transmitted from one side of the
sample, reflected off the far side, and returned to a receiver located at the starting point. Upon
impinging on a flaw or crack in the material, the signal is reflected and its traveling time altered.
The actual delay becomes a measure of the flaw’s location; a map of the material can be generated
to illustrate the location and geometry of the flaws. In the through-transmission method, the
transmitter and receiver are located on opposite sides of the material; interruptions in the passage
of sound waves are used to locate and measure flaws. Usually a water medium is employed in
which transmitter, sample, and receiver are immersed.

95
 4. Magnetism
As the magnetic characteristics of a material are strongly influenced by its overall structure,
magnetic techniques can be used to characterize the location and relative size of voids and cracks.
For magnetic testing, an apparatus is used that contains a large coil of wire through which flows a
steady alternating current (primary coil). Nested inside this primary coil is a shorter coil (the
secondary coil), to which is attached an electrical measuring device. The steady current in the
primary coil causes current to flow in the secondary coil through the process of induction. If an
iron bar is inserted into the secondary coil, sharp changes in the secondary current can indicate
defects in the bar. This method only detects differences between zones along the length of a bar
and cannot detect long or continuous defects very readily. An analogous technique,
employing eddy currents induced by a primary coil, also can be used to detect flaws and cracks. A
steady current is induced in the test material. Flaws that lie across the path of the current alter
resistance of the test material; this change may be measured by suitable equipment.
5. Infrared
Infrared techniques also have been employed to detect material continuity in complex structural
situations. In testing the quality of adhesive bonds between the sandwich core and facing sheets in
a typical sandwich construction material such as plywood, for example, heat is applied to the
surface of the sandwich skin material. Where bond lines are continuous, the core materials provide
a heat sink for the surface material, and the local temperatures of the skin will fall evenly along
these bond lines. Where the bond line is inadequate, missing, or faulty, however, temperature will
not fall. Infrared photography of the surface will then indicate the location and shape of the
defective adhesive. A variation of this method employs thermal coatings that change colour upon
reaching a specific temperature.
Finally, non-destructive test methods also are being sought to permit a total determination of the
mechanical properties of a test material. Ultrasonics and thermal methods appear most promising
in this regard.

96