JPTS INSTITUTE

OF
SCIENCE,
MANAGMENT AND TECHNOLOGY

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

LECTURE NOTE

Prepared by

DR OYEWOLE RASAQ
(MBBS, MSC)

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 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
What is the respiratory system?

The respiratory system is the network of organs and tissues that help you breathe. It
includes your airways, lungs and blood vessels. The muscles that power your lungs are also
part of the respiratory system. These parts work together to move oxygen throughout the
body and clean out waste gases like carbon dioxide.

FUNCTION

What does the respiratory system do?

The respiratory system has many functions. Besides helping you inhale (breathe in) and
exhale (breathe out), it:

 Allows you to talk and to smell.

 Warms air to match your body temperature and moisturizes it to the humidity level
your body needs.
 Delivers oxygen to the cells in your body.
 Removes waste gases, including carbon dioxide, from the body when you exhale.
 Protects your airways from harmful substances and irritants.

ANATOMY

What are the parts of the respiratory system?

The respiratory system has many different parts that work together to help you breathe.
Each group of parts has many separate components.

Your airways deliver air to your lungs. Your airways are a complicated system that
includes your:

 Mouth and nose: Openings that pull air from outside your body into your
respiratory system.

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 Sinuses: Hollow areas between the bones in your head that help regulate the
temperature and humidity of the air you inhale.
 Pharynx (throat): Tube that delivers air from your mouth and nose to the trachea
(windpipe).
 Trachea: Passage connecting your throat and lungs.
 Bronchial tubes: Tubes at the bottom of your windpipe that connect into each
lung.
 Lungs: Two organs that remove oxygen from the air and pass it into your blood.
 From your lungs, your bloodstream delivers oxygen to all your organs and other
tissues.
 Muscles and bones help move the air you inhale into and out of your lungs. Some of
the bones and muscles in the respiratory system include your:
 Diaphragm: Muscle that helps your lungs pull in air and push it out.
 Ribs: Bones that surround and protect your lungs and heart.
 When you breathe out, your blood carries carbon dioxide and other waste out of
the body. Other components that work with the lungs and blood vessels include:
 Alveoli: Tiny air sacs in the lungs where the exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide takes place.
 Bronchioles: Small branches of the bronchial tubes that lead to the alveoli.
 Capillaries: Blood vessels in the alveoli walls that move oxygen and carbon dioxide.
 Lung lobes: Sections of the lungs — three lobes in the right lung and two in the left
lung.
 Pleura: Thin sacs that surround each lung lobe and separate your lungs from the
chest wall.
 Some of the other components of your respiratory system include:
 Cilia: Tiny hairs that move in a wave-like motion to filter dust and other irritants
out of your airways.
 Epiglottis: Tissue flap at the entrance to the trachea that closes when you swallow
to keep food and liquids out of your airway.
 Larynx (voice box): Hollow organ that allows you to talk and make sounds when
air moves in and out.

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Lung Volumes and Lung Capacities

A human lung can hold a maximum of six litres of air. The volume of air involved in the
breathing process can be evaluated with the help of a spirometer. It is an equipment which
is used to examine the total volume of air inhaled and exhaled by the lungs. It is also used
in testing the pulmonary function.

The air in the lungs is measured in terms of lung volume and lung capacity. Lung volume
measures the amount of air for inhalation or exhalation. Whereas, lung capacity measures
how much air can be inhaled from the end of a maximal exhalation.

Lung Volumes

The lung volume can be described by the following terms:

Tidal Volume

The tidal volume is the total amount of air inhaled or exhaled during regular respiration or
relaxed breathing. Approximately 500 ml of air is utilized during normal respiration in a
healthy man.

Inspiratory Reserve Volume

An inspiratory reserve volume is a supplementary volume, approximately ranging between

2500 to 3100 ml of air which could be effectively inhaled after the inspiration of a standard
tidal volume.

Expiratory Reserve Volume

An expiratory reserve volume refers to the additional capacity of air which is about 1200
ml are that could be forcibly exhaled out after the expiration of a standard tidal volume.

Residual Volume/Reserve Volume

The residual volume is about the total volume of air around 1100 ml to 1200 ml residing in
the lungs after the reserve volume is emitted or breathed out.

Lung Capacities

The lung capacities can be explained by the following terms:

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Total Lung Capacity

The total lung capacity applies to the total volume of air-filled in the lungs after a forced
inspiration. The lung capacity of a healthy man is estimated to be 6000 ml.

TLC = TV + ERV + IRV + RV

Vital Capacity

The vital capacity is the total volume of air that can be expired after a maximum inhalation
or maximum air that a person can breathe in after forced expiration. It is an important
measure of a person’s respiratory health. A decreased vital capacity is an indication of
restrictive lung disease where the lungs cannot expand completely. In the case of normal
vital capacity, the improper functioning of lungs indicates obstructive lung disease where
the lungs are blocked in the airways.

VC = TV + ERV + IRV

Inspiratory Capacity

The inspiratory capacity is the total volume of air that can be inspired which is about 3600
ml.

IC = TV + IRV

Functional Residual Capacity

The functional residual capacity is the total volume of air residing within the lungs after an
exhalation process and it is about 2400 ml.
FRC = ERV + RV

The residing air present within the lungs which does not participate in gas exchange is located in the
portion of the airways inside the bronchi and bronchioles and outside the alveoli.

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 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The organs that take in food and liquids and break them down into substances that the
body can use for energy, growth, and tissue repair. Waste products the body cannot use
leave the body through bowel movements. The digestive system includes the mouth,
pharynx (throat), esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus. It
also includes the salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas, which make digestive
juices and enzymes that help the body digest food and liquids. Also called gastrointestinal
system.

ANATOMY

What organs make up the digestive system?

The main organs that make up the digestive system (in order of their function) are the
mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus. Helping them
along the way are the pancreas, gall bladder and liver.

Your digestive system is uniquely constructed to do its job of turning your food into the
nutrients and energy you need to survive. And when it’s done with that, it handily packages
your solid waste, or stool, for disposal when you have a bowel movement.

Why is digestion important?

Digestion is important because your body needs nutrients from the food you eat and the
liquids you drink in order to stay healthy and function properly. Nutrients include
carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals and water. Your digestive system breaks
down and absorbs nutrients from the food and liquids you consume to use for important
things like energy, growth and repairing cells

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Mouth

The mouth is the beginning of the digestive tract. In fact, digestion starts before you even
take a bite. Your salivary glands get active as you see and smell that pasta dish or warm
bread. After you start eating, you chew your food into pieces that are more easily digested.
Your saliva mixes with the food to begin to break it down into a form your body can absorb
and use. When you swallow, your tongue passes the food into your throat and into your
esophagus.

Esophagus

Located in your throat near your trachea (windpipe), the esophagus receives food from
your mouth when you swallow. The epiglottis is a small flap that folds over your windpipe
as you swallow to prevent you from choking (when food goes into your windpipe). A series
of muscular contractions within the esophagus called peristalsis delivers food to your
stomach.

But first a ring-like muscle at the bottom of your esophagus called the lower esophageal
sphincter has to relax to let the food in. The sphincter then contracts and prevents the
contents of the stomach from flowing back into the esophagus. (When it doesn’t and these
contents flow back into the esophagus, you may experience acid reflux or heartburn.)

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Stomach

The stomach is a hollow organ, or "container," that holds food while it is being mixed with
stomach enzymes. These enzymes continue the process of breaking down food into a
usable form. Cells in the lining of your stomach secrete a strong acid and powerful enzymes
that are responsible for the breakdown process. When the contents of the stomach are
processed enough, they’re released into the small intestine.

Small intestine

Made up of three segments — the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum — the small intestine is a
22-foot long muscular tube that breaks down food using enzymes released by the pancreas
and bile from the liver. Peristalsis also works in this organ, moving food through and
mixing it with digestive juices from the pancreas and liver.

The duodenum is the first segment of the small intestine. It’s largely responsible for the
continuous breaking-down process. The jejunum and ileum lower in the intestine are
mainly responsible for the absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream.

Contents of the small intestine start out semi-solid and end in a liquid form after passing
through the organ. Water, bile, enzymes and mucus contribute to the change in consistency.
Once the nutrients have been absorbed and the leftover-food residue liquid has passed
through the small intestine, it then moves on to the large intestine (colon).

Pancreas

The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the duodenum that break down protein, fats
and carbohydrates. The pancreas also makes insulin, passing it directly into the
bloodstream. Insulin is the chief hormone in your body for metabolizing sugar.

Liver

The liver has many functions, but its main job within the digestive system is to process the
nutrients absorbed from the small intestine. Bile from the liver secreted into the small
intestine also plays an important role in digesting fat and some vitamins.

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The liver is your body's chemical "factory." It takes the raw materials absorbed by the
intestine and makes all the various chemicals your body needs to function.

The liver also detoxifies potentially harmful chemicals. It breaks down and secretes many
drugs that can be toxic to your body.

Gallbladder

The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile from the liver, and then releases it into the
duodenum in the small intestine to help absorb and digest fats.

Colon

The colon is responsible for processing waste so that emptying your bowels is easy and
convenient. It’s a 6-foot long muscular tube that connects the small intestine to the rectum.

The colon is made up of the cecum, the ascending (right) colon, the transverse (across)
colon, the descending (left) colon, and the sigmoid colon, which connects to the rectum.

Stool, or waste left over from the digestive process, is passed through the colon by means
of peristalsis, first in a liquid state and ultimately in a solid form. As stool passes through
the colon, water is removed. Stool is stored in the sigmoid (S-shaped) colon until a "mass
movement" empties it into the rectum once or twice a day.

It normally takes about 36 hours for stool to get through the colon. The stool itself is
mostly food debris and bacteria. These “good” bacteria perform several useful functions,
such as synthesizing various vitamins, processing waste products and food particles and
protecting against harmful bacteria. When the descending colon becomes full of stool, or
feces, it empties its contents into the rectum to begin the process of elimination (a bowel
movement).

Rectum

The rectum is a straight, 8-inch chamber that connects the colon to the anus. The rectum's
job is to receive stool from the colon, let you know that there is stool to be evacuated
(pooped out) and to hold the stool until evacuation happens. When anything (gas or stool)

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comes into the rectum, sensors send a message to the brain. The brain then decides if the
rectal contents can be released or not.

If they can, the sphincters relax and the rectum contracts, disposing its contents. If the
contents cannot be disposed, the sphincter contracts and the rectum accommodates so that
the sensation temporarily goes away.

Anus

The anus is the last part of the digestive tract. It is a 2-inch long canal consisting of the
pelvic floor muscles and the two anal sphincters (internal and external). The lining of the
upper anus is able to detect rectal contents. It lets you know whether the contents are
liquid, gas or solid.

The anus is surrounded by sphincter muscles that are important in allowing control of
stool. The pelvic floor muscle creates an angle between the rectum and the anus that stops
stool from coming out when it’s not supposed to. The internal sphincter is always tight,
except when stool enters the rectum. This keeps us continent (prevents us from pooping
involuntarily) when we are asleep or otherwise unaware of the presence of stool.

When we get an urge to go to the bathroom, we rely on our external sphincter to hold the
stool until reaching a toilet, where it then relaxes to release the contents

Body Mass Index

Your BMI is an indirect measure of your body composition — or how much body fat you
have. Although BMI doesn't measure body fat directly, it uses a ratio of your weight and
height and results in one of the following classifications: underweight, normal weight,
overweight or obesity.
This measurement correlates moderately well with other measurements of body fat such
as skinfold measurements and underwater weighing, according to the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention.

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BMI is measured by dividing your weight in pounds by the square of your height in inches,
then multiplying by 703. The equation looks like this: BMI = (weight / height x height) x
703.
If you're a woman who is 125 pounds and 5 feet 4 inches, your BMI = (125 / 64 x 64) x 703
= 21.4. This BMI puts you in the normal weight range.
A BMI below 18.5 is classified as underweight; a BMI between 18.5 and 24.9 suggests
normal weight; a BMI between 25 and 29.9 denotes overweight; and a BMI of 30 or above
classifies as obesity.

Basal Metabolic Rate

Your BMR is the number of calories your body burns at rest to do basic functions like
breathing, digesting, keeping your heart beating and all the other physiological tasks that
keep you alive. Your BMR is partly determined by genetics, but other factors, like your
body composition and activity level, may also have an effect on your BMR.
There are equations used to determine your BMR, and they differ based on whether you're
a man or a woman. A woman can determine her BMR by plugging her stats into the Harris-
Benedict equation: 655 + (4.35 x weight in pounds) + (4.7 x height in inches) – (4.7 x age in
years). The equation for a man to calculate his BMR is as follows: 66 + (6.23 x weight in
pounds) + (12.7 x height in inches) – (6.8 x age in years).

Anatomy of the Urinary System

How does the urinary system work?

The urinary system's function is to filter blood and create urine as a waste by-product. The organs
of the urinary system include the kidneys, renal pelvis, ureters, bladder and urethra.

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The body takes nutrients from food and converts them to energy. After the body has taken
the food components that it needs, waste products are left behind in the bowel and in the
blood.

The kidney and urinary systems help the body to eliminate liquid waste called urea, and
to keep chemicals, such as potassium and sodium, and water in balance. Urea is produced
when foods containing protein, such as meat, poultry, and certain vegetables, are broken
down in the body. Urea is carried in the bloodstream to the kidneys, where it is removed
along with water and other wastes in the form of urine.

Other important functions of the kidneys include blood pressure regulation and the
production of erythropoietin, which controls red blood cell production in the bone marrow.
Kidneys also regulate the acid-base balance and conserve fluids.

Kidney and urinary system parts and their functions

Two kidneys. This pair of purplish-brown organs is located below the ribs toward the
middle of the back. Their function is to:

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  Remove waste products and drugs from the body
 Balance the body's fluids
 Release hormones to regulate blood pressure
 Control production of red blood cells

The kidneys remove urea from the blood through tiny filtering units called nephrons. Each
nephron consists of a ball formed of small blood capillaries, called a glomerulus, and a
small tube called a renal tubule. Urea, together with water and other waste substances,
forms the urine as it passes through the nephrons and down the renal tubules of the kidney.

 Two ureters. These narrow tubes carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder.
Muscles in the ureter walls continually tighten and relax forcing urine downward,
away from the kidneys. If urine backs up, or is allowed to stand still, a kidney
infection can develop. About every 10 to 15 seconds, small amounts of urine are
emptied into the bladder from the ureters.
 Bladder. This triangle-shaped, hollow organ is located in the lower abdomen. It is
held in place by ligaments that are attached to other organs and the pelvic bones.
The bladder's walls relax and expand to store urine, and contract and flatten to
empty urine through the urethra. The typical healthy adult bladder can store up to
two cups of urine for two to five hours.

Upon examination, specific "landmarks" are used to describe the location of any
irregularities in the bladder. These are:

 Trigone: a triangle-shaped region near the junction of the urethra and the bladder
 Right and left lateral walls: walls on either side of the trigone
 Posterior wall: back wall
 Dome: roof of the bladder

 Two sphincter muscles. These circular muscles help keep urine from leaking by
closing tightly like a rubber band around the opening of the bladder.

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 Nerves in the bladder. The nerves alert a person when it is time to urinate, or
empty the bladder.
 Urethra. This tube allows urine to pass outside the body. The brain signals the
bladder muscles to tighten, which squeezes urine out of the bladder. At the same
time, the brain signals the sphincter muscles to relax to let urine exit the bladder
through the urethra. When all the signals occur in the correct order, normal
urination occurs.

What is acid-base balance?

 Your blood needs the right balance of acidic and basic (alkaline) compounds to
function properly. This is called the acid-base balance. Your kidneys and lungs
work to maintain the acid-base balance. Even slight variations from the normal
range can have significant effects on your vital organs.

 Acid and alkaline levels are measured on a pH scale. An increase in acidity causes
pH levels to fall. An increase in alkaline causes pH levels to rise.

 When the levels of acid in your blood are too high, it’s called acidosis. When your
blood is too alkaline, it is called alkalosis.

 Respiratory acidosis and alkalosis are due to a problem with the lungs. Metabolic
acidosis and alkalosis are due to a problem with the kidneys.

 Each of these conditions is caused by an underlying disease or disorder. Treatment

depends on the cause.

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 INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Your integumentary system is your body’s outer layer. It consists of your skin, hair, nails
and glands. These organs and structures are your first line of defense against bacteria and
help protect you from injury and sunlight. Your integumentary system works with other
systems in your body to keep it in balance.

Your integumentary system consists of your hair, skin and nails. It’s your body’s outer layer
and first line of defense against bacteria and injury.

What is the integumentary system?

Your integumentary system is your body’s outer layer. It’s made up of your skin, nails, hair
and the glands and nerves on your skin. Your integumentary system acts as a physical
barrier protecting your body from bacteria, infection, injury and sunlight. It also helps
regulate your body temperature and allows you to feel skin sensations like hot and cold.

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What makes up the integumentary system?

Your integumentary system is an organ that consists of a few main structures: skin, nails,
hair and glands, along with the nerves and blood vessels that support them.

Skin

Your skin is the largest and heaviest organ in your body. It weighs about six pounds (or
more) and is approximately 2 millimeters thick — thinner on sensitive areas like eyelids,
and thicker on surfaces that take more stress, like the soles of your feet. One inch of your
skin contains nearly 19 million cells.

Your skin is composed of three layers, with nerves that recognize different sensations in
each layer:

 Epidermis: The top layer of your skin. This is the part of your skin that you can see
and touch. It’s made up of three types of cells: melanocytes, keratinocytes and
Langerhans. It gives your skin its color and provides a waterproof barrier.
 Dermis: The middle layer of your skin. This layer is the thickest. It contains sweat
and oil glands and hair follicles.
 Hypodermis: The bottom layer of your skin. It’s the fatty layer of your skin that
helps insulate your body.

Nails

Your nails protect the ends of your fingers and toes. The anatomy of your nail consists of:

 Nail plate: The hard part of your nail you can see.
 Nail bed: The skin under your nail plate.
 Cuticle: The thin skin at the base of your nail plate.
 Matrix: The “root” of your nail responsible for making it grow.
 Lunula: The white, moon-shaped part of your nail plate.

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Hair

Our hair does more than help us look nice. The hair on your head helps keep heat in your
body. Your eyelashes and eyebrows help protect your eyes from dirt and water.

Your hair is made of a protein called keratin. Your hair consists of three parts: the shaft,
follicle and bulb.

 Hair shaft: The part of your hair you can see, touch and style.
 Hair follicle: The tube-like structure that keeps your hair in your skin.
 Hair bulb: Located under your skin and responsible for hair growth.

Goosebumps are caused by your integumentary system. We all have hair erector muscles
connected to our hair follicles and skin. When it contracts, it makes your hair stand up. The
“goosebumps” are what we see when these tiny muscles contract.

Glands

Glands are found throughout your skin. They release materials like water, salt or oil from
under your skin to the surface of your skin. Your integumentary system consists of the
following glands:

 Sudoriferous glands: These are the glands that secrete sweat through your skin.
There are two types of sweat glands: eccrine glands and apocrine glands. Eccrine
glands are all over your body and open to your pores, while apocrine glands open
into your hair follicles.
 Sebaceous glands: These glands produce sebum (oil) and give your face its oil.
 Ceruminous glands: These are the glands in your ear that secrete ear wax.
 Mammary glands: These are the glands on a person’s chest. In people assigned
female at birth (AFAB), mammary glands produce milk after giving birth.

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FUNCTION

What is the purpose of the integumentary system?

Your integumentary system protects your body from infection and injuries you could get
from your external environment. It’s your body’s coat of armor and the first line of defense
against viruses, bacteria and other microbes. It shields your body from harmful light and
helps regulate your body temperature. Your integumentary system stores fat, water,
glucose and vitamin D, and helps support your immune system to protect you from
diseases.

Your integumentary system has many important functions. It:

 Provides physical protection against bacteria and germs.

 Absorbs and helps heal abrasions, cuts and other injuries.
 Cushions and protects your body from infection.
 Protects you from the sun’s ultraviolet (UV) rays and sunburn.
 Excretes sebum, sweat and other waste from your body.
 Regulates your body temperature and allows you to stay cool.
 Helps you feel heat, cold and detect other sensations.
 Synthesizes vitamin D.

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 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The hormones created and released by the glands in your body’s endocrine system control
nearly all the processes in your body. These chemicals help coordinate your body’s
functions, from metabolism to growth and development, emotions, mood, sexual function
and even sleep.

WHAT IS THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM?

Your endocrine system is made up of several organs called glands. These glands, located all
over your body, create and secrete (release) hormones.

Hormones are chemicals that coordinate different functions in your body by carrying
messages through your blood to your organs, skin, muscles and other tissues. These signals
tell your body what to do and when to do it.

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FUNCTION

What does the endocrine system do and how does it work?

Your endocrine system continuously monitors the amount of hormones in your blood.
Hormones deliver their messages by locking into the cells they target so they can relay the
message.

The pituitary gland senses when your hormone levels rise, and tells other glands to stop
producing and releasing hormones. When hormone levels dip below a certain point, the
pituitary gland can instruct other glands to produce and release more. This process, called
homeostasis, works similarly to the thermostat in your house. Hormones affect nearly
every process in your body, including:

 Metabolism (the way you break down food and get energy from nutrients).
 Growth and development.
 Emotions and mood.
 Fertility and sexual function.
 Sleep.
 Blood pressure.

Sometimes glands produce too much or not enough of a hormone. This imbalance can
cause health problems, such as weight gain, high blood pressure and changes in sleep,
mood and behavior. Many things can affect how your body creates and releases hormones.
Illness, stress and certain medications can cause a hormone imbalance.

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