EXPERIMENT – B1

AIM: To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting of graph between u and v.
APPARATUS: A convex lens of short focal length, 2 needles, three uprights, an optical bench, spirit level.
THEORY: Position of the image formed by a convex lens depends upon the position of the object w.r.t. the
lens. The relation between object distance (u), image distance (v) and focal length (f) for a convex lens is:
1/v -1/u =1/f
DIAGRAM:

OBSERVATIONS:
(i) Approximate focal length of the lens, f = .......................cm
(ii) Least count of optical bench = ………………. cm
(iii) Variation of v with u
No. of Positions of Object Image
Obs. distance u distance v
The lens Object Image
(cm) (cm)
(O) needle needle
(A) (C) u = O- A v = C- O
(cm)
(cm) (cm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

GRAPHS AND CALCULATIONS OF F:

u-v graph. Choose suitable but the same scale to represent u along x-axis and v along y-axis. In this case,
according to Coordinate Sign Convention, u will be negative while v will be positive (Graph will be in the
second quadrant). Plot the points for various sets of values of u and v from the observation table. The
graph will be a rectangular hyperbola.
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 Finding f from this graph: Draw a line making an angle 45° with the x-axis and cutting the graph at point Q.
The coordinates of this point are (-2f,-2f). Note the distances of the foot of the perpendicular QP and QR
respectively on x and y-axes. The distance QP=OR=-2f. Half of these distances give the focal length of the
convex lens. Thus,
𝑄𝑃
f = 2 = ………….cm
𝑄𝑅
Also f = - 2 = …………cm
Take the mean of these two values of f.
RESULT:
The focal length of the given convex lens as determined from u vs v graph is .................. cm.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The tips of the needles should be as high as the optical centre of the lens.
2. The uprights supporting the needles and the mirror should be rigid.
3. The tips of the pole of the mirror should be at the same horizontal level.
4. Parallax of the image and object needles should be removed from tip to tip.
5. The object and the image needles should be clearly distinguished from each other by putting a paper
flag on one of them and they should be interchanged for different sets of observations.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The optical bench may not be perfectly horizontal.
2. Marking of the optical bench may not be uniform.
3. The tips of the needles and the optical centre of the lens may not be horizontal.
4. Parallax between the object and image needles may not be removed tip to tip.
5. Proper values may not have been noted from the optical bench.

EXPERIMENT B2
AIM: To find the value of v for different values of u in case of concave mirror and to find the focal length.

APPARATUS: An optical bench along with three uprights, one mirror holder, two needles, concave mirror,
spirit level.
THEORY:
The relation between the object distance u, the image distance v and the focal length f of a concave mirror is
given as
1 1 1
= +
f u v
1 uv
Or =
f u+v

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In the case of concave mirror, for real image both u and v are negative as per new Cartesian sign convention.
The focal length f is also negative.
RAY DIAGRAM:

OBSERVATIONS:
1. Rough focal length of the concave mirror =…………. cm
2. Least count of optical bench = …………….. cm
3. Variation of v with u
No. of Positions of Object Image distance uv
f =
Obs.
The mirror Object needle Image needle
distance u v (cm) u+v
(cm)
(P) (O) (I) v=P-I (cm)
(cm) (cm) (cm) u = P-O
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Mean focal length of the concave mirror, f = (f1 + f2 + …………………)/6 = …………………… cm.
RESULT:
Mean value of focal length by computation =……………..cm
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The principal axis of the mirror should be horizontal and parallel to the length of the scale.
2. The uprights supporting the needles and the mirror should be rigid.
3. The tips of the pole of the mirror should be at the same horizontal level.
4. Parallax of the image and object needles should be removed from tip to tip.
5. The object and the image needles should be clearly distinguished from each other by putting a paper
flag on one of them and they should be interchanged for different sets of observations.
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SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The optical bench may not be perfectly horizontal.
2. Marking of the optical bench may not be uniform.
3. The tips of the needles and the pole of the mirror may not be horizontal.
4. Parallax between the object and image needles may not be removed tip to tip.
5. Proper values may not have been noted from the optical bench.

EXPERIMENT NO. B3
AIM:
To find the focal length of a convex mirror, using a convex lens.
APPARATUS:
An optical bench with four uprights, a convex mirror, a convex lens, a knitting needle and a half-metre scale.
DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
Suppose a convex lens L is interposed between a convex mirror M and an object needle O as shown in fig.
When the relative positions of M, L and O are adjusted in such a way that there is no parallax between the
object needle O and its image I, then in that position, the rays will fall normally on the convex mirror M. The
rays which fall on the mirror normally should meet at the centre of curvature C of the mirror when extended
(Fig. 9.12). The distance MC gives the radius of curvature r of the mirror. Half of the radius of curvature gives
its focal length f.
Now without disturbing the positions of the object O and the lens L the convex mirror is removed, and another
needle is placed in the position of the image I’ of the object O, formed by the lens L by using parallax method
as shown in Fig.
Measure MI’. Now, f= r/2 = MI’/2

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Determination of focal length

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 No. of Position of the Position of the Position of the Position of the Observed
observations object needle lens L mirror M image needle I’ distance, M-I’
O (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Mean, MI’ = …… cm
Corrected distance, MI’ = …… cm
𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
f= = ............. cm
2

RESULT:
Focal length of the given convex mirror = ……………...cm
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The line joining the pole of the mirror, the centre of the lens L, and the tip of the needle, should be
parallel to the length of the optical bench.
2. The auxiliary lens L must have sufficiently large focal length.
3. The parallax should be removed tip to tip while removing the parallax; the eye should be kept at the
least distance of distinct vision i.e., 25 cm away from the needle.
4. In the second part of the experiment, i.e., after removing the mirror M, the positions of L and O should
not be disturbed at all.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The optical bench may not be perfectly horizontal.
2. Marking of the optical bench may not be uniform.
3. The tips of the needles, optical centre of the lens and the pole of the mirror may not be horizontal.
4. Parallax between the object and image needles may not be removed tip to tip.
5. There may be multiple reflections in the mirror if it is not front coated.

EXPERIMENT B4
AIM: To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a glass prism by plotting a graph between the angle of
incidence and angle of deviation.
APPARATUS: A drawing board, a sheet of paper, glass triangular prism, scale, protractor, pins.
RAY DIAGRAM:

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Attach the sheets containing the traces of the path of light for different angles of incidence
THEORY:
Prism is generally made of glass which is a transparent medium. So, when light passes through it, refraction of
light takes place. With reference to the given figure, it can be seen that when light is incident at an angle on
side of prism, it bends towards the normal, and when it comes out of prism, it bends away from the normal.
The angle between the incident ray (extended) and the emergent ray is called angle of deviation as shown by
angle D in the figure.
It can be shown that A + D = i + e, and A = r1 +r2, where
i = angle of incidence, e = angle of emergence, A = angle of prism, r1 = angle of refraction at first face and r2 =
angle of refraction at the second face.
The angle of deviation decreases with increase in angle of incidence until for an angle of incidence, angle of
deviation is minimum. This is called angle of minimum deviation. The angle of deviation increases after this
value. At position of minimum deviation, the relations between the angles are as follows:
i = e and r1 = r2
In this position, the incident ray and emergent ray are symmetrical with respect to the prism and the ray
passes through the prism parallel to the base.
OBSERVATIONS:
Least count of protractor = …………
No of observation Angle of incidence Angle of deviation
1 35°
2 40°
3 45°
4 50°
5 55°
6 60°

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GRAPH: Plot a graph between angle of incidence (i) on the x-axis and angle of deviation (D) on the y-axis taking
a suitable scale. The graph should be a u shaped curve. (Refer to fig. 9.17 on page 188).( if need be take more
readings in the curved portion to get a unique value of minimum deviation).
CALCULATION: Determine the angle of minimum deviation from the graph. Draw a line perpendicular to the y-
axis from the bottom of the graph. The intercept value with the y-axis is the angle of minimum deviation.
RESULT: The angle of minimum deviation D first decreases with increase in angle of incidence; attains a
minimum value and then increases with further increase in the angle of incidence.
The value of angle of minimum deviation from the graph is ………
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Pins should be fixed vertically to the plane of the paper.
2. The distance between the pins should be at least 6-8 cm to locate the incident and emergent ray more
accurately.
3. Same angle of prism should be used for all the observations.
4. Position of the prism should not be disturbed for the same set of observations.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The angle of prism may not be same for all the observations, as the prism may have been inadvertently
rotated.
2. All the pins may not be lying in the same line.
3. The angle of incidence and/or the angle of deviation may have been read wrongly.
4. The graph may not be a smooth curve passing through all the points.

EXPERIMENT NO. B5
AIM: To draw I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward bias and reverse bias.
APPARATUS:
p-n junction diode characteristics apparatus, connecting wires
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:

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Characteristics of diode:
Behavior or nature of a diode when connected in an electrical circuit as depicted by studying the variation of
current when potential across it is varied. Graph plotted with current as ordinate and potential applied across
it ends as abscissa shows the characteristics of the diode.
Forward biasing:
A p-n junction diode gets forward biased when its p side is connected to the positive terminal of the supply
voltage and n to the negative terminal. The forward characteristic of a typical silicon diode is shown as the
variation of 𝐼𝑓 𝑣𝑠 𝑉𝑓 in the figure. Initially for voltages up to 0.4 V, there is not much rise in current due to the
opposition by barrier potential. Beyond this, the current starts rising in a p-n junction.
Knee Voltage:
The forward voltage when the current starts rising, i.e., is termed as the knee voltage. It is represented as 𝑉𝑘 .
It is about 0.7 V for silicon. The resistance offered by a p-n diode in forward biasing is much less than that in
case of reverse biasing.
Reverse biasing of p-n junction:
A p-n junction is reverse biased when the p side of the junction is connected to the negative terminal of
supply voltage and n side terminal is connected to positive terminal of battery. Reverse battery adds to the
Barrier Potential and further opposes the flow of charge carriers. There is hardly any flow of current. As the
potential is further increases to high value, the kinetic energy of electrons becomes large enough to break the
covalent bonds to give more electrons. The process continues and there is an avalanche of electron and high
reverse current.
OBSERVATIONS:
1. Range of the milliammeter1= …….. mA , millimeter2 = …………………. mA
2. Least count of the milliammeter1 = …….. mA, millimeter 2 = …………………. mA
Zero error, if any, in the voltmeter and milliammeter should be adjusted to nil by using a screw driver. In case
the adjustment by screw driver is not possible, then record the zero errors also.
3. Range of the voltmeter1 = …….. V, Voltmeter 2 = …………..V
4. Least count of voltmeter1 = …….. V, Voltmeter 2 = …………..V
5. Zero error of miliammeter1= …….. mA , millimeter2 = …………………. mA
6. Zero error of the voltmeter1 = …….. V, Voltmeter 2 = …………..V

Variation of I with V
S.no. p-n forward biased p-n reverse biased
Voltmeter Reading Ammeter Reading Voltmeter Ammeter Reading
Vf(volt) If(mA) Reading If(mA)
Vf(volt)
1.
2.
3.
.

8
 . …. ….
. …. ….
. …. ….
11. …. ….
12. ….

GRAPH:
Using the above data for each set, plot the graph of the values of forward current (If) against the
corresponding values of the forward bias (Vf) and values of If vs Vf. it would be of the types shown in the
figure. The knee voltage in forward biasing and reverse breakdown voltage in reverse biasing are easily
conceivable.
RESULT:
1. The characteristic of p-n junction in forward biasing and reverse biasing are shown in the graph.
2. The knee voltage Vk of the given junction diode is……… V.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Voltmeter and milliammeter of appropriate least counts and ranges should be selected.
2. The pointer should neither be adjusted to real zero when no current is passing or zero error of the
instrument should be taken into account.
3. The battery connections of p-n junction diode should be checked and in forward biasing it should be
ensured that p is connected to positive and n to the negative of the battery.
4. Never cross the limits specified by the manufacturer or the diode will get damaged.
5. The polarities of microammeter and voltmeter should be reversed such that their positive terminals
are connected to positive terminal of battery.
6. Once the reverse breakdown shown by sudden rise of reverse current is reached, the reverse potential
should not be increased further.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The graduation in voltmeter and ammeter may not be accurate.