6

COMBUSTION IN CI ENGINES
6.1 INTRODUCTION

The development of the compression-ignition (CI) engine, also known as Diesel engine,
was mainly due to the work of Dr. Rudol Diesel, who got a patent of his engine in 1892 (see

Historical survey, Chapter 1). Today the CI engine is a very important prime mover,
being used in buses, trucks, locomotives, tractors, pumping sets and other stationary

industrial applications, small and medium electric power generation and marine
propulsion. The importance of CI engines is due to

(i) its higher thermal efficiency than SI engines,

(ii) CI engine fuels (diesel oils) being less expensive than SI engine fuels (petrol or
gasoline).

1
 (iii) furthermore, since CI engine fuels have a higher specific gravity than petrol,
and since fuel is sold on the volume basis (litres) and not on mass basis (kg),
more kg of fuel per litre are obtained in purchasing CI engine fuel.

These factors make the running cost of CI engines much less than SI engines and hence make them

attractive for all industrial, transport and other applications. However, the passenger cars it
has not found much favour because of the four main drawbacks of a CI engine
in relation to SI engine—heavier weight, noise and vibration, smoke and
odour. Because of the utilization of higher compression ratios (12: 1 to 22: 1 compared to 6: 1 to 11: 1
of SI engines) the forces coming on the various parts of the engine are greater and therefore heavier
parts are necessary. Also because of heterogeneous mixture, lean mixture (large air-fuel ratio) is used.
Both the factors result in a heavier engine. The smoke and odour are the result of the nature of

diesel combustion phenomenon, i.e., incomplete combustion of a heterogeneous mixture,

and droplet combustion.

Compression-ignition engines, because of their varied applications, are manufactured in a large

range of sizes, speeds, and power outputs. The piston diameters vary from about 50
mm to 900 mm, speeds range from 100 to 4400 rpm and power output range from 2 to
40000 bhp.

2
6.2 COMBUSTION IN THE CI ENGINE

The process of combustion in the compression-ignition engine is fundamentally different

from that in a spark-ignition engine. In the SI engine a homogeneous carburetted mixture of petrol
vapour and air, in nearly stoichiometric or chemically correct ratio, is compressed in the compression
stroke through a small compression ratio (6: 1 to 11: 1) and the mixture is ignited at one place before the
end of the compression stroke (say 30 deg before tdc) by means of an electric spark. After ignition a
single definite flame front progresses through the air-fuel mixture, and entire mixture being in the
combustible range. For a given speed the quantity of charge (both air and-fuel) depend on load.

In the CI engine, air alone is compressed through a large compression ratio (12:1 to 22:1) during the
compression stroke raising highly its temperature and pressure. In this highly compressed and highly
heated air in the combustion chamber (well above ignition point of fuel) one or more jets of fuel are
injected in the liquid state, compressed to a high pressure of 110 to 200 bar by means of a fuel pump.
Each minute droplet as it enters the hot air (temperature 450-550°C and pressure 30-40 bar) is quickly
surrounded by an envelope of its own vapour (Fig. 6.1) and this, in turn, and after an appreciable
interval, is inflamed at the surface of the envelope.1

1
The disintegration of jet and the effect of air swirl on it is discussed later.

3
To evaporate the liquid, latent heat is abstracted from the surrounding air which reduces the temperature
of a thin layer of air surrounding the droplet and some time must elapse before this temperature can be
raised again by abstracting heat from the main bulk of air in its vicinity. As soon as this vapour and the
air in contact with it reach a certain temperature and the local air-fuel ratio is within combustible range,
ignition takes place (through the core is still liquid and relatively cold). Once ignition has taken place
and a flame established, the heat required for further evaporation will be supplied from that released by
combustion. The vapour would be burning as fast as it can find fresh oxygen.

Thus we see that at first there is a delay period before ignition takes place. (The study of delay period
phenomenon is very important in the CI engine combustion and is discussed in detail later). The
duration of delay period depends, among other factors, on temperature and pressure of the air and the
self-ignition temperature of the fuel. The higher the air temperature or the lower self-ignition
temperature, the shorter the delay. Higher pressure also results in shorter ignition delay because of
increase in the rate of heat transfer and more intimate contact between the hot air and the cold fuel. Once
the delay period is over and the ignition is established, the rate of burning depends on the ability of the
droplet to find fresh oxygen, i.e. on the rate of which it is moving through the air or the air is moving
past it.

In the CI engine the fuel is not injected at once, but is spread over a definite period of time
corresponding to 20-40 degrees of crank travel. (This period is, in most cases, greater than the ignition
delay period). The initial fuel droplets meet air whose temperature is only little above their self-ignition
temperature and they ignite after the ignition delay. The subsequent fuel droplets find air already heated

4
to a much higher temperature by the burning of initial droplets and, therefore, light up much more
quickly, almost as they issue from the injector nozzle, but their subsequent progress is handicapped
because of less quantity of oxygen available.

As it is impossible to inject the fuel droplets so that they distribute uniformly

throughout the combustion space, the fuel-air mixture formed in the
combustion chamber is essentially heterogeneous. Under these
conditions if the air within the cylinder were motionless, only a small
proportion of the fuel would find sufficient oxygen and even burning of this
fuel would be slow or even chocked as it would be surrounded by its own
products of combustion. It is, therefore, essential to impart an orderly and
controlled movement to air and fuel so that a continuous supply of fresh air is
brought to each burning droplet and the products of combustion are swept
away. The effect of this air motion, called air swirl, on the fuel jet is shown in
Fig. 6.1.

It may be recalled here that in the SI engine combustion also motion of the air is essential to speed up

the combustion. However, there is a basic difference in the air motions required in SI and CI engines. In

SI engines we call it turbulence and in CI engines we call it swirl.

Turbulence which is required in SI engines implies disordered air motion with no gener
al direction of flow, to break up the surface of the flame front and to distribute the shreds of flame
throughout an externally prepared homogeneous combustible mixture. Swirl which is required in CI

5
engines implies an orderly movement of the whole body of air with a particular direction of flow, to
bring a continuous supply of fresh air to each burning droplet and sweep away the products of
combustion which otherwise would suffocate it.

Stages of Combustion

Ricardo considered CI engine combustion as taking place in three distinct stages (See Fig. 6.2):

Fig. 6.1. Schematic representation of disintegration of fuel jet in CI engine.

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 Fig. 6.2. Stages of combustion in the CI engine.

1. First Stage. Ignition delay period during which some fuel has been admitted but has not yet been
ignited. The ignition delay is counted from the start of injection to the point where the p-θ curve
separates from the pure air compression curve. The delay period is a sort of preparatory phase. The
ignition delay is discussed in detail later.

7
2. Second Stage. Rapid or uncontrolled combustion (probable premixed flame) following ignition. In

this second stage the pressure rise is rapid because during the delay period the fuel droplet have
had time to spread themselves over a wide area and they have fresh air all around them. The period of
rapid or uncontrolled combustion is counted from the end of delay period to the point of maximum

pressure on the indicator diagram. About one-third of the heat is evolved during this
period.

3. Third Stage. Controlled Combustion (Probable Diffusion Flame). The second stage of rapid or
uncontrolled combustion is followed by the third stage — the controlled combustion. At the end

of second stage the temperature and pressure are so high that the fuel droplets injected
during the last stage burn almost as they enter and any further pressure rise can be
controlled by purely mechanical means, i.e. by the injection rate. The period of controlled
combustion is assumed to end at maximum cycle temperature. The heat evolved by the end of
controlled combustion is about 70 to 80 percent of the total heat of the fuel supplied during the cycle.

To these three stages of combustion, first proposed by Ricardo, a fourth stage can be added — late
burning or after-burning. This stage may not be present in all cases.

8
4. Fourth Stage: After burning. Theoretically it is expected that combustion process shall end after the

third stage. However, because of poor distribution of the fuel particles, combustion
continues during part of the remainder of the expansion stroke. This after-burning
can be called the fourth stage of combustion. The duration of the after-burning phase may correspond to
70-80 degrees of crank travel from tdc and the total heat evolved by the end of entire combustion
process is 95 to 97% and 3 to 5% of heat goes as unburnt fuel in exhaust.

6.3 AIR-FUEL RATIO IN CI ENGINES

In the CI engine, for a given speed, and irrespective of load, an approximately constant supply of air

enters the cylinder. The CI engine, therefore, can be termed constant air supply engine. With
change in load the quantity of fuel is changed, which changes the air-fuel ratio. The overall
air-fuel ratio may thus vary from about 100:1 at no load to 20:1 at full load. In the SI engine, the air-fuel
ratio remains nearly stoichiometric from no load to full load. It has already been stated that the

inflammability limit of hydrocarbon fuels is from about 8:1 to 30:1. Then how does the
combustion occur in CI engine when the mixture is much leaner than 30:1? This question
sometimes baffles Everyone. The explanation is as follows.

Whatever may be the overall air-fuel ratio in a CI engine due to injection of fuel, there is a
heterogeneous mixture with air-fuel ratios varying widely in different areas within the chamber. There
maybe some areas where there is only air (local air-fuel ratio infinity) while there may be other areas
where there is only fuel (local air-fuel ratio zero). There would be other areas where the mixture is very

9
lean or very rich. In the areas mentioned above no definite flame front can be sustained. However there
would be certain areas where the local air-fuel ratio is within combustible limits and there under
favourable conditions of temperature, ignition occurs. The ignition may occur at many places, which are

like a multitude of ‘spark plug’ operating throughout the chamber. In contrast to SI engines

there is no definite flame front in CI engines.

Another point of difference between the SI engine and CI engine combustion is in the air-fuel ratio used
at full-load.

1. Whereas in SI engines it is slightly richer than stoichiometric (say 13.5

or 14: 1) in CI engine it is leaner than stoichiometric (say 20:1).
2. Though the indicated thermal efficiency increases with leaner mixtures,
the mep and power output reduces, which results in larger size engine
for a given power output. The mep and power output is maximum in the
vicinity of the chemically correct ratio and it is the aim of the CI engine
designer that the air-fuel ratio should be as near the chemically correct
ratio as possible, when operating at full load.
3. However, the poor distribution of fuel and its limited intermixing with
air results in objectionable smoke if operated near chemically correct

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 ratio, and hence the CI engine must always operate with excess air (air-
fuel ratio 20 to 23, i.e., excess air 35 to 50%).
4. The effect of air-fuel ratio on power output of a CI engine is shown in Fig. 6.3.
The figure shows that though the power continuously increases as the air-fuel ratio is reduced
towards stoichiometric A/F ratio is absolute minimum because of production of undesirable
quantity of smoke.

Fig. 6.3. Effect of air-fuel ratio on power output of a CI engine.

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 5. Thus power of the diesel engine is limited by smoke. Because of incomplete utilization of air the

power of diesel engine per litre of swept volume is less than that of petrol engines (See Table 7.1). It
means that for the same power diesel engine is bigger in size.

1000 CC diesel Vs 1000 cc Gasoline ??

6.4 DELAY PERIOD OR IGNITION LAG

The first stage of combustion in the CI engine, i.e. the delay period, exerts a very great influence on both
engine design and performance and, therefore, needs a detailed study. In Fig. 6.4 the delay period is
shown on

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 Fig. 6.4. Pressure-time diagram illustrating delay period.

pressure crank angle (or time) diagram between points ‘a’ and ‘b’. Point ‘a’ represents the time of
injection and point ‘b’ represents the time at which the pressure curve (caused by combustion) first
separates from the compression curve (non-firing or motoring) curve. This ignition delay period can be
roughly divided into two parts (see Figs. 6.4 and 6.5).

(i) Physical delay. The period of physical delay is the time between the beginning of injection

and the attainment of chemical reaction conditions. In the physical delay period the fuel is
atomized, vaporized, mixed with air, and raised in temperature.

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(ii) Chemical delay. The second part of the delay is called chemical delay, in which preflame
reactions start slowly and then accelerate until local inflammation or ignition takes place.
Generally chemical delay is longer than the physical delay. However, it depends on

temperature. At high temperatures chemical reaction is quicker and physical delay is

longer than chemical delay.

The delay period refers to the sum of physical and chemical delay. In most
CI engines the ignition delay is shorter than the duration of injection.

The entire process of combustio

n in CI engine, including delay period, is shown in Fig. 6.5.

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 Fig. 6.5. Combustion in the CI engine.

In the previous chapter we have discussed the ignition lag in SI engines and many students confuse the
ignition lag in SI engines with delay period in CI engines. In fact the ignition lag in the SI engine is
basically equivalent to the chemical delay in the CI engine. There is no component like physical delay in
the SI engine as the charge consists of homogeneous mixture of vaporised fuel and air.

15
The delay period in CI combustion affects rate of pressure rise and, hence, knocking. It also affects
engines startability.

It is clear that the pressure reached during the second stage will depend on the duration of the delay
period (the longer the delay period the more rapid and higher is the pressure rise, since more fuel will be
present in the cylinder before the rate of burning comes under control. This causes rough running and
may cause diesel knock. (The diesel knock is discussed in detail later). Therefore the diesel engine
designer aims to keep the delay period as short as possible, both for smooth running and to maintain
control over the pressure changes. But some delay period is necessary otherwise the droplets would not
be dispersed in the air for complete combustion.2 This will result, in high smoke and high fuel
consumption. In practice, however, the delay period is more than required and the designer’s efforts are
always devoted towards shortening it as much as possible.

6.5 VARIABLES AFFECTING DELAY PERIOD

Delay period is affected by the following factors:

2
In the older design when air blast instead of pump was used for injection, no delay period was necessary as the air blast
itself distributed the droplets throughout the combustion chamber.

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1. Fuel: The most important property of fuel as far as delay period is concerned is the self-ignition
temperature. A lower self-ignition temperature means a wider margin between it and the temperature
of the compressed air and hence lower delay period. Cetane number (CN) is a scale for

comparing the ignition delay angle of various diesel fuels. A higher cetane number
means a shorter delay period, and smoother engine operation. The cetane number
depends on the chemical composition of fuel. The more paraffmic hydrocarbons are contained in the fuel,
the higher will be its cetane number (see Chapter 8 for more details).

Fig. 6.6 shows three indicator diagrams for a diesel engine using fuels of 52, 42 and 29 CN respectively
with injection beginning at the same moment in each case. For fuels with CN 52 the delay period is
shortest, the pressure rise is smoothest and the maximum value of pressure is least since most of the fuel
burns in the third phase (controlled combustion). The fuel with CN 29 has maximum pressure rise and
maximum rate of pressure rise.

17
 Fig. 6.6. Effect of cetane number of fuel on the indicator diagram.

Other properties of fuel which affect delay period are volatility, latent heat, viscosity, and surface
tension. The volatility and latent heat affect the time taken to form an envelope of vapour. The viscosity
and surface tension influence the fineness of atomization.

2. Injection pressure or size of droplet. It seems that in the CI engine in order to achieve complete
combustion in the very short time available, the liquid fuel should be injected in droplets of

smallest size to obtain largest surface-volume ratio. But it should be borne in mind that
the rate of burning depends primarily upon the rate at which the products of combustion
can be removed from the surface and replaced by fresh oxygen, i.e. it depends upon the
rate at which the burning droplet can move relative to the surrounding air. A smaller droplet

18
will have lesser momentum and hence lesser relative velocity, and once its initial velocity is lost it will
travel in air with little relative velocity resulting in its partial suffocation by its won products of
combustion.
Secondly, as the pressure rise after ignition depends on the area of inflammation, the smaller the
size and greater the number of droplets the larger will be the aggregate area of inflammation and
therefore the greater the uncontrolled pressure rise. The disadvantage of larger droplet is of course that
subsequent rate of burning is too slow and hence a compromise is to be struck. As the size of the droplet
depends on the injection pressure, it can be said that lower the injection pressure the lower the rate of
pressure rise during the uncontrolled phase and smoother the running.

3. Injection advance angle. The delay period increases with increase in injection advance angle as
shown in Fig. 6.7 for a high speed diesel engine. The ignition advance angle as shown are 31°, 18.5°,
and 9°, the delivery of fuel per cycle being constant.

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Fig. 6.7. Effect of ignition advance angle on indicator diagram.

20
The reason for increase in delay period with increase in injection advance angle is that the pressures and
temperatures are lower when the injection begins. When the injection advance angles are small, the
delay period reduces and operation of the engine is smoother but the power is reduced because larger
amount of fuel burns during expansion (after-burning). The optimum angle of injection advance depends
on many factors, but generally it varies between 12° to 20° btdc. This would cause peak pressure to ocur
10° to 15° after top dead centre.

The duration of injection and the delivery law (change in the quantity of fuel supplied with the angle of
crank travel) also affects the combustion process. When duration of injection is decreased with the same
fuel delivery per cycle, the delay period remains the same, but the rate of pressure rise increases, since
more fuel is supplied into the cylinder by the moment of ignition.

4. Compression Ratio. Increase in compression ratio reduces the delay period as it raises both
temperature and density. Fig. 6.8 shows that with increase in compression ratio the temperature of the
air increases (curve a). At the same time the minimum auto-ignition temperature decreases due to
increased density of the compressed air, resulting in closer contact of the molecules which, thereby, reduces
the time of reaction when fuel is injected. As the difference between compressed temperature and the
minimum auto-ignition temperature increases, the delay period decreases.

21
The above theoretical analysis may suggest that in diesel engines the highest possible
compression ratio should be used to achieve the lowest delay period.
However, there are practical disadvantages of using very high compression ratios. In CI engines the
compression space is already very small and the necessity of providing working clearance

between the piston and the cylinder head and around the valves compels us to leave thin
layers or pockets of air to which the fuel cannot reach. With a compression ratio of 16 the
unused air is already about 20 per cent. With increase of compression ratio the unused air would

22
be much more decreasing the volumetric efficiency and power. Another disadvantage of high

compression ratio is lower mechanical efficiency due to increases in weight of

reciprocating parts. Therefore, in practice the engine designer use the lowest compression
ratio which would satisfy the needs of easy cold starting and light load running at high
speeds. Note that this practice is opposite of the SI engine design practice where the
endeavor is to use highest possible compression ratio, only limited by detonation.

The maximum peak pressure is only marginally affected by the compression ratio, because with higher
compression ratio delay period is shorter and therefore the rise of pressure on ignition is lower.

5. Intake temperature. Increasing the intake temperature would result in increase in the compressed air
temperature, which would reduce the delay period. However, increasing the intake temperature, say by
preheating, would be most undesirable because it would reduce the density of air and hence

volumetric efficiency and power output. This loss would be much greater than the small gain in
reduction of delay period. Preheating the air by 100° C reduces the delay angle by barely 2°.

6. Jacket water temperature. Increase in jacket water temperature also increases compressed air
temperature and hence delay period is reduced.

7. Fuel temperature. Increase in fuel temperature would reduce both physical and chemical delay
period.

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8. Intake pressure or supercharging: Increase in intake pressure or supercharging reduces the auto-
ignition temperature and hence reduces delay period. Since the compression pressure will increase with
intake pressure, the peak pressure will be higher. Also the power output will be more as cylinder will
contain more air and hence more fuel can be injected per stroke.

9. Speed. The delay period can be given either in terms of absolute time (in milliseconds) or in terms of
crank angle rotation. At constant speed, delay time is proportional to delay angle. Hence with reference
to constant speed operation it is not necessary to mention whether we mean delay period in terms of
milliseconds or crank angle. But in variable speed operation delay period may decrease in terms of
milliseconds (see Fig. 6.9) but increase in terms of crank angles.

Fig. 6.9. Effect of speed on ignition delay in a GM diesel engine.

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As the engine speed increases, the loss of heat during compression decreases with the
result that both the temperature and pressure of the compressed air tend to rise, thus
reducing the delay period in milliseconds, (The increase in turbulence, however, may
tend to increase the heat loss in some cases). However, if degrees of crank travel the
delay period increases. Since the amount of fuel injected during delay period depends on
crank degrees and not on absolute time because the fuel pump is geared to the engine at
high speeds there will be more fuel present in the cylinder to take part in the second stage
of uncontrolled combustion resulting in high rates of pressure rise and high maximum
pressures. This factor has caused difficulties in the development of very high speed CI
engines. Very high speed CI engines, therefore, required greater angle of injection advance, high ignition quality fuel (high cetane

number which gives reduced ignition delay) and a special design for combustion chamber.

It should be mentioned here that the effect of speed on different designs of diesel engine may be
different, because many factors other than delay period change with speed. Among these are spray
characteristics, turbulence, chamber wall temperatures and volumetric efficiency.

10. Air-fuel ratio (load). With increase in air-fuel ratio (leaner mixture) the
combustion temperatures are lowered and cylinder wall temperatures are
reduced and hence the delay period increases. The rate of pressure rise is
unaffected but the maximum pressures may be lowered.

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With increase in load, air-fuel ratio decreases, operating temperature increase and hence, delay period
decreases.

11. Engine size. The engine size has little effect on the delay period in
milliseconds. As large engines operate at low rpm because of inertia stress
limitations, the delay period in terms of crank angle is smaller and hence less
fuel enters the cylinder during delay period. Thus combustion in large slow
speed CI engines is smooth.

12. Type of combustion chamber. Types of combustion chambers are discussed later. In general, a pre-
combustion chamber gives shorter delay compared to an open type of combustion chamber.

Table 6.1 gives the summary of the effect of variables on delay period.

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 Table 6.1. Effect of variables on delay period

Sr. Increases in Variable Effect on delay period Reason

No.
1. Cetane number of fuel Reduces Reduces self-ignition temperature.

2. Injection pressure Reduces Greater surface volume ratio hence

less physical delay.
3. Injection advance Increases Pressures and temperatures lower
angle. when injection begins.
4. Compression Reduces Increases air temperature and
Ratio pressure and reduces auto-ignition
temperature.
5. Intake temperature Reduces Increases air temperatures.
6. Jacket water Reduces Increases wall and hence air
temperature temperature.
7. Fuel Reduces Better vaporization and increases
Temperature chemical reaction.
8. Intake pressure Reduces Increases in density reduces auto-
(Supercharging) ignition temperature.
9. Speed Reduces in milli- Less loss of heat more crank angle in
seconds, increases in a given time.
crank angle.
10. Load (fuel-air-ratio) Decreases Operating temperature increases.

11. Engine size Little effect in milli- Low rpm.

seconds but crank angle
decreases.
12. Type of combustion Lower for pre
Chamber Combustion chamber.

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6.6 DIESEL KNOCK

We have already discussed that if the delay period is long a large amount of fuel will be injected and
accumulated in the chamber. The auto-ignition of this large amount of fuel may cause high rate of
pressure rise and high maximum pressure which may cause knocking in diesel engines. A long delay
period not only increases the amount of fuel injected by the moment of ignition, but also improves the
homogeneity of the fuel-air mixture and its chemical preparedness for explosion-type self-ignition
similar to detonation in SI engines.

It is very instructive to compare the phenomenon of detonation in SI engines with that of knocking in CI
engines. There is no doubt that these two phenomena are fundamentally similar. Both are processes of
auto-ignition subject to the ignition time-lag characteristics of the fuel-air mixture. However, differences
in the knocking phenomena of the SI engine and the CI engine should also be carefully noted:

(1) In the SI engine, the detonation occurs near the end of combustion whereas in the CI
engine detonation occurs near the beginning of combustion as shown in Fig. 6.10.

(2) The detonation in the SI engine is of a homogeneous charge causing very high rate
of pressure rise and very high maximum pressure. In the CI engine the fuel and air are
imperfectly mixed and hence the rate of pressure rise is normally lower than that in the
detonating part of the charge in the SI engine.

28
 Fig. 6.10. Detonation in the SI engine compared with knocking in the CI engine.

(3) Since in the CI engine the fuel is injected into the cylinder only at the end
of the compression stroke there is no question of ‘pre-ignition’ or ‘premature
ignition’, as in the SI engine.

(4) In the SI engine it is relatively easy to distinguish between knocking and

non-knocking operation as the human ear easily finds the distinction.
However, in the case of the CI engine the normal ignition is itself by auto-

29
ignition and hence most CI engines have a sufficiently high rate of pressure
rise per degree of crank angle to cause audible noise. When such noise
becomes excessive or there is excessive vibration in engine structure, in the
opinion of the observer, the engine is said to knock. It is clear that personal
judgment is involved here. Thus in the CI engine there is no definite
distinction between normal and ‘knocking’ combustion. The maximum rate of
pressure rise in the CI engine may reach as high as 10 bars per crank degree
angle.

It is most important to note that factors that tend to reduce detonation in the SI engine increase knocking
in the CI engine and vice versa because of the following reason. The detonation or knocking in the SI
engine is due to simultaneous auto-ignition of the last part of the charge. To eliminate detonation in the
SI engine we want to prevent altogether the auto-ignition of the last part of the charge and therefore
desire a long delay period and high self-ignition temperature of the fuel. To eliminate knock in the CI
engine we want to achieve auto-ignition as early as possible and therefore desire a short delay period
and low self-ignition temperature of the fuel. Table 6.2 gives the factors which reduce knocking in the
SI and CI engines.

Table 6.2. Factors tending to reduce knocking in SI and CI engines.

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 Sr. No. Factors SI Engine CI Engine
1. Self-ignition temperature of fuel High Low
2. Time lag or delay period for fuel Long Short
3. Compression ratio Low High
4. Inlet temperature Low High
5. Inlet pressure Low High
6. Combustion chamber wall temperature Low High
7. Speed High Low
8. Cylinder size Small Large

It is also clear from the above table and discussion that a good CI engine fuel is a bad SI engine

fuel and a good SI engine fuel is bad CI engine fuel. In other words, diesel oil has low self-
ignition temperature and short time lag whereas petrol has high self-ignition temperature and long
ignition lag. In terms of fuel rating diesel oil has high cetane number (40-60) and low octane number
(about 30) and petrol has high octane number (80-90) and low cetane number (18).

Fig. 6.11 shows typical indicator diagram of a diesel engine with sharp pressure oscillating during
combustion caused by shock waves when using petrol.

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 Fig. 6.11. Indicator diagram of diesel engine when using petrol.

6.7 METHODS OF CONTROLLING DIESEL KNOCK (REDUCING DELAY PERIOD)

1. The above discussion of delay period suggests design and operating factors for reducing the delay
period.

The delay period can also be reduced by reducing the degree of turbulence as it will
reduce heat loss. However, it will increase the combustion period and thus reduce torque and

thermal efficiency. (* Optimal*)

2. The delay angle is reduced (i.e. cetane number is increased) by adding chemical dopes, called
ignition accelerators. The two chemical dopes used are ethyl-nitrate and amyl-nitrate in
concentrations of 8.8 gm/litre and 7.7 gm/litre, respectively.

32
The chemical dopes increase the preflame reactions and reduce the flash point. These

chemicals increase the cetane rating of diesel fuel by autoignition at lower temperatures. Unfortunately, these are expensive
and because they contain nitrogen, they increase NO2 emissions dramatically.

3. There would be high rate of pressure rise and high maximum pressure in the second

stage (uncontrolled combustion) if large amount of fuel collects in the delay period. It can
be reduced by arranging the injector so that only a small amount of fuel is injected at
first. Doxfords achieved this by employing two injectors, slightly out of phase. But a long
combustion would reduce the thermal efficiency.

6.8 THE CI ENGINE COMBUSTION CHAMBERS

We have seen, in chapter 5, that the design of combustion chamber is very important in the SI engine. In

the CI engine also the design of combustion chamber is equally important, if not more. It
is because in the SI engine the fuel and air are mixed outside the combustion chamber (in
the carburettor) whereas in the CI engine the mixing of fuel and air takes place inside the
combustion chamber when the fuel is injected near the end of compression stroke (only
air being compressed) during a period of some 20 to 35 degrees of crank angle. In this
short period of time fuel and air must be mixed. Thus the mixing part of the SI engine
carburettor’s duties is performed within the combustion chamber in the CI engine.

33
The most important function of the CI engine combustion chamber, therefore, is to
provide proper mixing of fuel and air in a short time. For this purpose an organised air
movement, called air swirl, is provided to produce high relative velocity between the fuel
droplets and air. The fuel is injected into the combustion chamber by an injector having
single or multiple orifices. If a single orifice injector is used, at the maximum delivery the
air movement should be so adjusted that the whole of the air in the combustion space is
swept once past the fuel jet during the process of combustion. This involves a very high
rate of air swirl. If two jets of fuel at 180° apart are used then air need make only half a
revolution during the combustion process, and for four jets one-fourth revolution and
soon. Thus increasing the number of jets induces the intensity of air swirl needed.

34
Methods of generating air swirl in the CI engine:

There are THREE BASIC METHODS of generating swirl in a CI engine combustion chamber:

1. By directing the flow of the air during its entry to the cylinder, known as induction

swirl. This method is used in open combustion chambers (Fig. 6.15)

2. By forcing the air through a tangential passage into a separate swirl chamber during

the compression stroke, known as compression swirl. This method is used in swirl chambers.

3. By use of the initial pressure rise due to partial combustion to create swirl turbulence, known as

combustion induced swirl. This method is used in pre-combustion chambers and air-cell

chambers.

Fig. 6.12 shows the classification of CI engine combustion chambers and methods of swirl generation
used in them.

35
 Fig. 6.12. Classification of CI engine combustion chambers.

6.9 INDUCTION SWIRL AND OPEN COMBUSTION CHAMBERS

In four-stroke engines induction swirl can be obtained by two methods:

(i) by careful formation of the air intake passages, and
(ii) by making or shrouding a portion of the circumference of the inlet valve (see Fig.

6.13). The angle of mask is from 90○ to 140○ of circumference. The disadvantage of masking

is that certain restriction of the free passage area occurs. Also, some arrangement is

required to be provided to prevent rotation of the valve.

36
Fig. 6.13. Induction swirl by masking the inlet valve.

37
 http://dieselsolution.blogspot.com/

In the two stroke engine the induction swirl is created by suitable inlet port forms.

The induction swirl is usually augmented by secondary air movement called squish. In the CI open combustion chamber designs the clearance between
cylinder head and piston and T.D.C. position is as small as 1 to 1.5 mm. Squish is the flow of air radially inwards towards the combustion recess by
squeezing it out from between the piston and the cylinder head as they approach each other at the end of the stroke (see Fig. 6.14).

The important point to be noted about the induction swirl is that if it is formed by air intake passages it
is very weak indeed. If a masked inlet valve is used, it provides an obstruction in the passage which
reduces the volumetric efficiency and hence we cannot have too much of masking. Therefore even
with this method the swirl generated is weak. With a weak swirl, single orifice injector cannot

38
provide the desired air-fuel mixing. Therefore, with induction swirl we have to use multiple-

orifice injector (number of holes from 4 to 8).

Footnote: ‘M’ combustion chamber is a special type of open chamber

Fig. 6.14. Squish.

With multiple holes, their size becomes small, about 0.12-0.15 mm diameter. Atomization of
fuel oil through such fine holes requires high injection pressure generally not
less than 175 bar and goes up to 1000 bar. High injection pressure also helps to achieve (i)
a sharp cut off to avoid dribbling, the main cause of carbon deposits on nozzle, and (ii) very high
velocity through the orifice passage which helps to remove the carbon deposits formed.

39
The various design of open combustion chamber or non-turbulent chambers used in conjunction with
induction swirl are shown in Fig. 6.15. An open combustion chamber is defined as one in which the
combustion space is essentially a single cavity with little restriction and hence there are no large
differences in pressure between different parts of the chamber during the combustion process. There are
many designs of open combustion chambers. Fig. 6.15 (a) is a shallow depth combustion chamber
usually adopted for large engines running at low speed. Due to large diameter of cavity the squish is
negligible. Fig. 6.15 (b) shows a hemispherical shape. This also provides small squish. A cylindrical
chamber is better from the squish point of view because the depth to diameter ratio can be varied to give
any desired squish. Fig. 6.15 (c) shows a modification of the cylindrical chamber in the form of a
truncated cone with base angle of about 300. This design was used by Leyland motors. The

(a) Shallow (b) Hemispherical (c) Modified cylindrical

depth chamber chamber chamber

40
 (d) Torodial chamber (e) NACA design displacer on piston

Fig. 6.15. Open combustion chambers.

swirl was produced by making the value for nearly 180° of circumference. Fig. 6.15(d) shows what is
called toroidal chamber. This form of combustion chamber derives its name after its shape (Toroid
means shaped like an anchor ring - a coil). The idea behind such a shape is to provide a powerful squish
which imparts to air a movement similar to that of the familiar smoke ring. The cone angle of spray is
150° to 160°. Due to powerful squish the mask needed on inlet valve is small and there is better
utilisation of oxygen. Fig. 6.15(e) shows NACA design using air motion from displacer on piston.

Having described the induction swirl and the type of chambers in which it is used we can now discuss
the advantages and disadvantages of induction swirl.

41
Advantages of Induction Swirl
1. The high excess air allows lower average combustion chamber temperatures. This coupled with low
turbulence and low heat losses permits engine indicated thermal efficiency to approach the ideal air
cycle efficiency.

2. In the open combustion chamber the intensity of swirl is low. Therefore the
heat loss to the chamber walls is relatively low, resulting in easier cold
starting.
3. The swirl is obtained during induction stroke no additional work is done in producing
the swirl. This coupled with high indicated thermal efficiency means high brake thermal

efficiency, and therefore lower fuel consumption.

4. As already stated open chamber is generally used for large low speed engines
(Almost all large engines over 200 mm diameter and many of the smaller engines use open
chamber). In low speed engines injection is spread through a greater period of time and thus ignition
delay is a relatively less important factor. Consequently, less costly fuels with longer ignition delay
may be used. With high speeds this type of chamber with low ignition quality fuel will tend to
knock.

Disadvantages of Induction Swirl

42
1. As the swirl induced by induction is generally weak in intensity, multi-orifice
nozzles with high injection pressure are required. The small nozzle openings are more

frequently clogged or cause change of fuel spray pattern by carbon deposits with consequent

higher maintenance cost.

2. The other disadvantage of small nozzle openings is that it influences the minimum
quantity of fuel that can be delivered per injection and introduces complications at

light loads and under idling conditions.

3. The use of shrouded valve lowers the volumetric efficiency. Further, in the interest
of symmetry, the multiple orifice injector has to be placed near the centre of the cylinder and
therefore between the valves; this restricts somewhat the diameter of the valves and therefore further
restricts the breathing capacity, (i.e. the volumetric efficiency).

4. Weak swirl necessitates excess air, i.e. low air utilization, say about 60%. This results in
lower mean effective pressure and hence large size (and therefore costlier) engine for a given power.

5. One of the major disadvantages of induction swir1 is that it is not proportional to

speed and hence efficiency is not maintained over a wide range in a variable speed engine.

6.10 COMPRESSION SWIRL AND DIVIDED OR TURBULENT SWIRL

CHAMBERS

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The second method of generating swirl is by compression swirl, in what is known as swirl chamber.
A swirl chamber is a divided chamber. A divided combustion chamber is defined as one in
which the combustion space is divided into two or more distinct compartments,
between which there are restrictions or throats small enough so that
considerable pressure differences occur between them during the combustion
process.

An example of swirl chamber is Ricardo Comet Mark II shown in Fig. 6.16. It consists of a

spherical-shaped swirl chamber separated from the engine cylinder and into this chamber
maximum possible air is transferred during the compression stroke. The chamber is
connected to the cylinder by a throat or passage which enters the chamber in a tangential
direction so that the air, on flowing into the chamber, is given a strong rotary movement
in it. This swirl is maximum at about 15° before top dead centre, i.e. close to the time of injection. The fuel is
injected into the swirl chamber and the ignition and bulk of the combustion takes place
therein. The products of combustion pass back through the same throat of passage at a
still higher velocity.

44
This causes considerable loss of heat to the walls of the passage, particularly
because at this time the temperature and pressure of the products of
combustion is maximum. This loss of heat is reduced by employing a heat-insulated
member. When running, it attains temperature of 450° to 700°C. This is higher than the normal
compression temperature but much below the combustion temperature. Thus, it serves as a thermal
regenerator receiving heat during combustion and expansion and returning heat to the air during the
compression stroke. However, even with a heat insulated member the loss of heat to the surface of the
combustion chamber is greater than with induction swirl having direct injection into an open chamber.

In compression swirl, a very strong swirl which increases with speed, is generated. The
strong swirl enables a single hole nozzle, generally of pintle type, to be used.

45
FIg. 6.16. Ricardo swirl chamber Comet, Mark II

46
The improved design of Ricardo comet Mark II is Mark III as shown in Fig. 6.17. In this
design about half of the clearance volume is formed by the swirl chamber, and
the rest comprises of circular cavities in the piston communicating with the
throat. The whole of fuel is delivered into the swirl

47
chamber and when ignition takes place the increase in pressure in the swirl chamber causes a rush of
hot gases and partially burned fuel outwards into the two shallow depressions. A rotating

movement is thereby set in the depressions and the air contained in them is fed into
the gases coming out of the swirl chamber and thus helps in completing the
combustion. Thus this design in fact uses both compression swirl and combustion
induced swirl. The advantages of Mark III over Mark II are as follows:

48
1. Less work is done in transferring the air from the cylinder to the swirl chamber and back again, as only about half the air is
transferred.
2. In Mark II there is a thin layer of air between the piston and cylinder head which is not readily available to fuel but in this design, due
to shallow depressions the air in the thin layer is reduced. The air in the shallow depression is embraced by the fuel and is utilized.

This increases brake mean effective pressure by about 10 percent.

Advantages of Compression Swirl

1. Due to strong swirl a single orifice injector (orifice diameter 1 to 2 mm) with low
injection pressure (125 to 150 bar) is required. Low injection pressure allows the duration of
injection to be disturbed little by the length or capacity of the fuel piping or by the elasticity of fuel.
The injector is generally of pintle type which has self-cleaning properties. Thus it is less apt to

clogging and maintenance difficulties are, therefore, reduced.

2. Due to strong swirl there is a greater utilization of air. Therefore higher mean effective pressure

is attained at the clean exhaust limit. Hence for a given power, the size of the engine is

smaller (and less expensive) than that of an open chamber induction swirl engine.
3. In the swirl chamber design the injector is located towards one side of the
cylinder, hence there is freedom to use LARGER VALVES with a free

entry, and so volumetric efficiency and therefore mean effective pressure can be maintained up to
considerably higher speeds.

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4. One of the important advantages of swirl chamber is that the swirl is proportional to
speed. Thus they are suitable for variable speed operation.

5. The transference of the air to a separate chamber makes it possible to provide a heated

surface over which the air is caused to flow during it passage from the cylinder to the
combustion chamber. Therefore delay period is reduced and a fuel of low ignition
quality can be used; the products of combustion will be less odourous.

6. The swirl chamber produces smoother engine operation, because the small swirl

chamber absorbs the initial shock of peak pressure add saves the piston from extreme
pressure variations.

Disadvantages of Compression Swirl

1. The work done during compression is considerable and there is

corresponding loss during expansion also, with the result that the mechanical

efficiency is lower. The indicated thermal efficiency is also lower because of lower air-fuel ratio
(i.e., small amount of excess air). The net result is 5 to 8 per cent higher fuel consumption than in the

50
 open combustion chamber. This factor is of major importance where the cost of fuel and fuel
conservation are important considerations.

2. Because of strong swirl there is greater heat loss to the combustion chamber walls.

The heat loss is also greater because the swirl tends to weep away any stagnant layers of gas, near
the walls of the combustion chamber which normally act as ‘insulator’. Another reason for greater
heat loss is that compression swirl is normally used in smaller engines whose surface/volume (S/V)
ratio is generally greater than that of larger engines. The larger the S/V ratio, more is the heat

transferred to cylinder walls. The greater heat loss particularly causes trouble under starting
conditions when the engine is cold. This makes starting in swirl chamber engines somewhat less
easy than in the case of open combustion chamber engines. In swirl engines, for starting it may be

necessary to use a ‘glow plug’.

3. More energy is wasted in the exhaust gases which may lead to decreased exhaust
valve life and other problems in exhaust manifold.

4. The cylinder construction is more expensive than in the case of open chambers. Table
6.3 compares the advantages and disadvantages of induction swirl and compression swirl.

Table 6.3. Comparison of induction and compression swirl.

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 Induction Swirl Compression Swirl

Advantages Disadvantages
1. High excess air (low temperature), 1. Less excess air, lower indicated
low turbulence (less heat loss). efficiency 5 to 8% more fuel
Therefore indicated thermal consumption. Decreased exhaust
efficiency is high. valve life.

2. Due to low intensity of swirl 2. Cold starting trouble due to high

easier starting. heat loss due to strong swirl, greater
s/v ratio. (Lower CR ??)

3. No additional work for producing 3. Work absorbed in producing

swirl. High mechanical efficiency compression swirl, mechanical
and hence high brake thermal efficiency lower.
efficiency.

4. Used with low speeds. Therefore low quality fuel can be used. 4. Cylinder more expensive in
construction.

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 Disadvantages Advantages
1. Weak swirl, multiorifice nozzle, 1. Single injector, pintle type (self
high injection pressure, clogging of cleaning), less maintenance.
holes. High maintenance.

2. Influences minimum quantity of 2. Large valves, higher volumetric

fuel. Complication at high loads and efficiency.
idling.

3. Shrouded valves, smaller valves, 3. Greater air utilization due to

low volumetric efficiency. strong swirl. Smaller (cheaper)
engine.
4. Weak swirl, low air utilisation 4. Swirl proportional to speed,
(60%), lower mep, large size (costly) suitable for variable speed operation.
engine,

5. Swirl not proportional to speed. 5. Smooth engine operation.

Efficiency not maintained in a
variable speed engine.

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6.11 COMBUSTION INDUCED SWIRL AND DIVIDED (TURBULENT) CHAMBERS

The turbulent combustion chambers using combustion induced swirl, described below, are not much
favoured nowadays. There are two important designs of chambers using combustion

induced swirl — the pre-combustion chamber and the air cell combustion chamber.

(a) Pre-combustion chamber. A typical pre-combustion chamber design is shown in Fig. 6.18. It
consists of pre-combustion chamber or anti-chamber connected to the main chamber through a

number of very small holes (as against a relatively large passage in swirl chamber). The pre-
combustion chamber contains 20 to 30 per cent of the clearance volume

54
 Fig. 6.18. Pre-combustion chamber.

(as against about 50 per cent in swirl chamber). The fuel is injected into pre-
chamber in such a manner that bulk of it reaches the
neighbourhood of the orifice separating the two chambers. The
combustion is initiated in the pre-chamber and the resulting pressure
rise forces the flaming droplets together with some air and their
combustion products to rush out at high velocity through the small
holes, thus both creating strong secondary turbulence and distributing

55
them throughout the air in the main combustion chamber where bulk
of combustion takes place. About 80 per cent of energy is released in
main combustion chamber. It should be noted that in pre-combustion
chamber design there is more of “turbulence” rather than “organised
air movement or swirl”.

The advantages of pre-combustion chamber are : it uses single hole pintle type of nozzle, the
initial shock of combustion is limited to pre-combustion chamber only (peak pressure in main chamber

is low), low ignition quality fuels are required (as violent combustion is required in pre-

chamber to force burning droplets out and create secondary turbulence). Further, the pre-combustion

chamber has multifuel capability without any modification in the injection system. It is because

the temperature of pre-chamber is nearly constant at 2000°C and the difference between optimum

injection timing between petrol and diesel fuels is only 2° compared to 8° to 10° in other designs. The

disadvantage of pre-chamber is high heat losses due to high velocity, and smaller size of
valve due to central location of pre-chamber. In the past, pre-combustion chambers were
very popular in Germany.

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(b) Air-Cell chamber. The air-fuel chamber is another design of combustion chamber associated with combustion induced swirl. This design was once quite
popular in America. Fig. 6.19 shows the modified air-cell chamber of Lanova design sometimes called energy-cell chamber. In the air-cell chamber also, like
pre-combustion chamber, there is no

Fig. 6.19. Lanova combustion chamber

organised air swirl. The Lanova design consists of an air-cell in two parts, major and minor, which are separated from each other and from the main chamber
by narrow orifices. The air cell contains about 10-15 per cent of the clearance volume. A pintle type of nozzle is placed in the main combustion space which
injects fuel across this space towards the open neck of the air cell. The process of combustion in such a design is not very clear. The first ignition probably
starts near the neck of minor air-cell chamber where pressure rises sharply. This result in outflow of air, burning gas and fuel to the main chamber, but

57
because of the restricted passage and start of expansion stroke the high pressure is not transmitted to the main chamber. The outcoming gases create a strong
double rotary motion in the main chamber as shown in the figure. As the combustion proceeds in the expansion stroke the pressure in the minor cell falls and
the major cell also discharges its air into the main chamber. It is thus clear that the bulk of the air entrapped in the air-cell is utilized rather later in the stroke
resulting in reduced efficiency and power output. This design is also not suitable for variable speed operation as the combustion induced swirl bears no
relationship to the speed of the engine.

The advantages claimed for air-cell chamber design are: the maximum pressure in the main chamber is fairly low and hence it gives smooth running and
easy starting. For easy starting compression ratio may be increased by closing part of the air-cell. This type of chamber is therefore most suitable for
comparatively small engines of medium duty where relatively high fuel consumption can be tolerated.

Fig. 6.20 shows the pressure-time diagrams for different types of diesel combustion chambers. It can be seen that the peak pressure is highest for the open
combustion chamber and lowest for the pre-combustion chamber.

6.12 ‘M’ COMBUSTION CHAMBER

Dr. Meurer of M.A.N., Germany, after twenty years of research, developed (in 1954) ‘M-process’

engine which ran without typical diesel combustion noise and hence it was

named ‘whisper’ engine.

The ‘M-combustion chamber’ is a special type of open combustion chamber, having

combustion chamber in the piston cavity (see Fig. 6.21). It differs in principle from other open chamber

designs in that the fuel spray impinges on and spreads over the surface of a spherical
cavity in the piston. Earlier it had usually been assumed that fuel spray impingement was undesirable,
though in most diesel engines some impingement always takes place at full load.

58
The fuel is injected tangentially from a multi-hole nozzle on the surface of the
chamber in the direction of the air swirl. Injected fuel forms a film,

Fig. 6.20. Pressure-time diagrams of different types of diesel combustion chambers,

59
about 0.15 mm thick, on the surface of the chamber. The combustion is initiated by the auto-ignition of a small portion of fuel which is air-borne at the very
beginning. The amount of this airborne fuel is controlled by selecting a proper distance between the nozzle tip and the combustion chamber wall.
Subsequently the fuel vapours rise from the hot wall and are mixed with the swirling air in successive layers and combustion takes place in a near
homogeneous air-fuel mixture at the desired rate. The rate of energy release is thus almost equal to the rate of evaporation of fuel. Thus, even though the
engine works on diesel cycle, once the ignition takes place, the combustion characteristics are similar to those of Otto cycle combustion. It is claimed that in-
this case

Fig. 6.21. M.A.N. ‘M’ combustion chamber.

thermal decomposition, which occurs in atomized fuel burning, is prevented because of hot surface provides an excellent means of evaporation without
affecting the structure of the original fuel molecule. Consequently soot formation is avoided.

The advantages of ‘M-chamber’ are low rates of pressure rise, low peak
pressure, low smoke level, and the ability to operate on a wide range of liquid
fuels (multi-fuel capability). No combustion noise is reported even for 80-octane petrol. The disadvantages

60
of M-chamber are: since fuel vaporization depends upon the surface temperature of the combustion chamber, cold starting
requires certain aids. Some white smoke, diesel odour, and high hydrocarbon emission may occur at starting and idling
conditions. Also, volumetric efficiency is low.

Table 6.4 gives combustion chamber characteristics for 4-stroke unsupercharged high-speed engines. From the table and
from the previous comparisons we see that each combustion chamber design has its own characteristics, advantages and
disadvantages. Any one of these combustion chambers may produce good results in one field of application, but less
desirable, or even poor results in another. Thus a combustion chamber design must be chosen according to the requirements
of the particular job. The important factors which should be taken into consideration in the design of the CI combustion
chambers can be listed as follows:

1. High thermal efficiency.

2. Fuel requirement — ability to use less expensive fuel; ability of multi-fuel operation.
3. Ease of starting (heat loss to combustion chamber wall should be less).
4. Capacity of variable speed operation.
5. Smoothness of operation and avoidance — of diesel knock (combustion noise).
6. Low exhaust emission.
7. Nozzle design (injection pressure maintenance problems).
8. High volumetric efficiency.
9. High Bmep (engine weight per unit power).

61
62
6.13 COLD STARTING OF CI ENGINES
Easy starting from cold is a very important requirement of a CI engine. To ensure easy cold starting,
frequently compression ratios higher than necessary are used. Even so, cold starting may become
difficult in (1) extreme cold climate like Himalayan region, (ii) when the cylinder liner is heavily worn,
and (iii) when the valves are leaky. It is, therefore, sometimes necessary to provide some electrical aid
for cold starting.

Table 6.4. Comparison of combustion chamber characteristics (Mainly for 4-Stroke unsupercharged
high speed engines)

Sr. Characteristics Open M.A.N. Swirl Pre- Air-cell

No. chamber ‘M’- chamber combustion chamber
chamber chamber
1. Speed capability, 3500 3500 4000 3000 3500
rpm
2. bmep, bar 6.6 6.9 8.3 6.3 6.3
3. Rate of pressure 7.7- 7.9 4.1 -5.5 4.1 2.7 2.7
rise, bar/degree
crank angle
4. Compression ratio 15 – 16 16 – 17 17 – 19 18 13 - 16
5. Injection pressure, 560 280 350 140 280

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 bar
6. Nozzle holes 6-8 1 1 1 1
7. Pumping loss Low Medium High High High
8. Volumetric Low Lowest High High High
efficiency
9. Coolant load Low Medium Highest High High
10. Air motion Medium High Highest High High
11. Combustion noise High Lowest Low Low Low
12. Cold starting Excellent Fair Needs help

We have already seen that for ignition in the CI engine we depend on high temperature and pressure of
the compressed air. For the combustion to take place in the short time available, the temperature must be
high enough to exceed the self-ignition temperature of the fuel by a sufficient margin. High pressures
ensure intimacy of contact and therefore rapid transfer of heat from the air to the surface of the liquid
fuel.

There is both a minimum and maximum speed for cold starting of CI engines. At very low speeds the
engine will not start because of high heat losses to the cold walls of the cylinder during compression and
greater time available for leakage past the piston rings. Though it may look somewhat unconvincing, the
engine may also not col-start at too high a speed because of too short a time available for vaporization
and preparation of mixture chemically for ignition. However, with hand-cranking, engine cannot be run

64
at too high a speed and therefore upper speed limit for cold starting is of academic interest only. The
optimum speed for cold starting depends on surface-volume ratio (which controls the heat loss to
cylinder walls), intensity of air swirl (higher swirl makes the cold starting difficult due to removal of
stagnant ‘insulator’ gas film), and the physical condition of engine (leakage past piston and valves
reduces temperature and pressure of compressed air)’. It has been found in practice that for engines of
1000-2000 cc per cylinder optimum starting speed when the engine is in good condition is about 200-
300 rpm, provided a sufficiently heavy flywheel is used to maintain a more or less uniform angular
velocity throughout the cycle. It should be emphasized that for cold starting it is not the mean rotational
speed that matters, but rather the angular velocity during the end of compression stroke (lasting about
60° of crank angle). A heavy flywheel ensures that the angular velocity is maintained high during this
critical period.

The requirements of easy cold starting often conflict with the other requirements of the engine such as
greater air utilisation, smooth running, and less smoke and air pollution. Hence, compromise in design
and operation are necessary. For example, easy cold starting would be achieved by directing a finely
atomised fuel jet against the air movement. For normal operation this would cause rough running.
Again, provision of excess fuel at starting would help in cold starting, but would cause excess smoke
and air pollution.

Open chamber direct injection engines are easiest to cold start. The reasons for easy starting of open
chamber direct injection engines are as follows

65
1. They have smallest surface to volume (S/V) ratio. Because of this the loss of heat is minimum.
2. They have lowest intensity of air swirl. Low intensity of swirl allows stagnant gas film to remain on
cylinder walls, which reduces heat transfer.

6.14 COLD STARTING AIDS

Many methods have been used in the past to achieve easy cold starting. Few of them are described
below:
1. Injection of a small quantity of lubricating oil or fuel oil. This ad hoc method helps by temporarily
raising the compression ratio and sealing the piston rings and valves.
2. Provision of cartridges. These may be self-igniting or requiring lighting before insertion into the
combustion chamber.
3. Starting as petrol engines. The engine is provided with a sparking plug and carburetor. At starting,
compression ratio is reduced by providing an auxiliary chamber and the engine is started as a petrol
engine.
4. Preheating the engine cylinder by warm water.
5. Modifying valve timings for starting.

Modern starting aids of high speed engines. Basically three types of starting aids are used on modern
high speed diesel engines:

(i) Electric glow plugs in the combustion chamber.

66
(ii) Manifold heaters which ignite a small feed of fuel.
(iii) The injection into the intake, of controlled amounts of low-ignition temperature liquids, usually
ethyl-ether with addition of other fuels.

1. Electric glow plugs. These are very common with swirl type combustion chambers. Electric

glow plug initiates combustion by acting as localized igniter (some of the fuel spray reaching the
plug). The advantages of electric glow plug are simplicity and reliable operation. However, the
presence of the plug and its recess reduces the engine performance slightly.

2. Manifold heaters. Manifold heaters fed with fuel are widely used for starting. It consists of a
small electrical incandescent heater rated at about 150 watts and is installed in the manifold. A small
amount of fuel is fed on to it. The ingoing air passing past the heater picks up heat as well as
partially burnt products of combustion. The combustion is aided by heat of the air as well as
chemical reactivity of the partial products of combustion.

Manifold heaters are commonly used for direct injection engines where the heater plugs cannot be
fitted in the combustion chamber. In its crude form holding a burning pad soaked in fuel at intake
can be used with any engine in case difficulty is experienced in starting.

3. Injection of ether. This method is based on the unique properties of ether. Ether has a very low
self-ignition temperature and has wide range of mixture strength. Therefore, injection of a small

67
amount of externally carburetted mixture (with limited air to avoid too high pressure rise) would fire
a diesel engine even at very low ambient temperature or at low cranking speeds.

68