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### O Level Notes - Human Digestive System

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8 views

### O Level Notes - Human Digestive System

Uploaded by

boyanesh
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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### O Level Notes: Human Reproductive System

#### Overview
The human reproductive system is responsible for producing, storing, and delivering gametes
(sperm in males, eggs in females) and supporting the development of offspring.

#### Male Reproductive System

1. **Testes (Testicles)**
- Produce sperm (spermatogenesis) and testosterone.
- Located in the scrotum, which keeps them at a temperature slightly lower than body
temperature, optimal for sperm production.

2. **Epididymis**
- Stores and matures sperm cells.

3. **Vas Deferens**
- Transports mature sperm from the epididymis to the urethra during ejaculation.

4. **Seminal Vesicles**
- Produce seminal fluid, which nourishes and protects sperm.

5. **Prostate Gland**
- Produces a fluid that is part of semen, which helps to activate sperm and maintain its
mobility.

6. **Urethra**
- Conducts semen (sperm and fluids) out of the body through the penis.

7. **Penis**
- Delivers sperm into the female reproductive tract during sexual intercourse.

#### Female Reproductive System

1. **Ovaries**
- Produce eggs (ova) and hormones (estrogen and progesterone).

2. **Fallopian Tubes (Oviducts)**


- Transport eggs from the ovaries to the uterus.
- Fertilization usually occurs here.

3. **Uterus**
- Hollow organ where a fertilized egg implants and develops into a fetus.
- Lined with the endometrium, which thickens in preparation for potential implantation.
4. **Cervix**
s.

2. **Esophagus**
- A muscular tube connecting the throat (pharynx) with the stomach.
- **Peristalsis:** Rhythmic contractions of muscles that push food toward the stomach.

3. **Stomach**
- **Mechanical digestion:** Churning action mixes food with gastric juices.
- **Gastric juices:** Contain hydrochloric acid and the enzyme pepsin which digests proteins.
- **Mucus:** Protects the stomach lining from acid.

4. **Small Intestine**
- Divided into three parts: duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.
- **Duodenum:** Receives bile from the liver and gallbladder and pancreatic juice from the
pancreas. Most chemical digestion occurs here.
- **Jejunum and Ileum:** Absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream.
- **Villi and Microvilli:** Increase surface area for absorption.

5. **Liver**
- Produces bile which emulsifies fats, breaking them into smaller droplets for easier digestion.
- Detoxifies various metabolites, synthesizes proteins, and produces biochemicals necessary
for digestion.

6. **Gallbladder**
- Stores and concentrates bile, releasing it into the duodenum via the bile duct.

7. **Pancreas**
- Produces digestive enzymes (amylase, protease, lipase) and bicarbonate, which are
released into the small intestine.

8. **Large Intestine**
- **Cecum:** First part of the large intestine.
- **Colon:** Absorbs water and salts from the material that has not been digested as food.
- **Rectum:** Stores feces before they are expelled from the body.
- **Anus:** The opening at the end of the digestive tract where feces leave the body.

#### Digestion Process

1. **Ingestion**
- Taking in food through the mouth.

2. **Propulsion**
- Swallowing (voluntary) and peristalsis (involuntary) move food through the digestive tract.

3. **Mechanical Digestion**
- Physical breakdown of food (e.g., chewing, stomach churning).

4. **Chemical Digestion**
- Breakdown of food by enzymes into simpler molecules.

5. **Absorption**
- Transport of nutrients from the lumen of the GI tract into the blood or lymph.

6. **Defecation**
- Elimination of indigestible substances as feces.

#### Key Enzymes and Their Functions

- **Amylase:** Breaks down carbohydrates into simple sugars. Found in saliva and pancreatic
juice.
- **Pepsin:** Breaks down proteins into peptides. Found in the stomach.
- **Lipase:** Breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol. Found in pancreatic juice.
- **Proteases:** Break down proteins into amino acids. Found in the stomach (pepsin) and small

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