Literary Devices and Language Techniques

Adage
Generally based on fact, an adage is a short and memorable saying that is considered to be the
absolute truth by the majority of people.

Some examples include –

“The world’s a stage” – As You Like It, William Shakespeare.
“Slow and steady winds the race” – The Tortoise and the Hare, Aesop.

Allegory
An allegory is a narrative with one obvious, literal meaning, and another ‘hidden’ meaning,
intended to teach a moral lesson. These ‘lessons’ are often a commentary on real life events,
or an issue specifically related to the theme of the story.

A classic example is George Orwell’s Animal Farm, where one of the rules of the farm is –
“All animals are created equal, but some animals are more equal than others.” This story is an
allegory of the Communist Revolution in Russia, right before WWI, and the animals
represent sections of Russian society post-revolution.

Alliteration
Derived from “latira”, a Latin word meaning “letters of the alphabet”, alliteration is a stylistic
device where a number of words with the same consonant sound are placed close together.
Alliteration is dependent on the sounds, rather than the letters, so nine knocks is alliterate,
but charred cords is not.
There are obvious examples, like –
“Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.”
or much less pointed, literary examples, such as the following passage from James Joyce’s
“The Dead”, where alliteration is used on s’s and f’s –
“His soul swooned slowly as he heard the snow falling faintly through the universe and
faintly falling, like the descent of their last end, upon all the living and the dead.”

Allusion
An allusion refers to a quick, indirect reference to an event, moral or character from another
time, place or story. Time is not spent explaining the reference, but rather it is merely a
passing comment, where the author relies on the reader’s assumed knowledge to understand
the meaning.

The Harry Potter series is packed full of allusions, some obvious, and some disguised… and
J.K. Rowling LOVES referring to mythology. For example, the character Remus Lupin is a
werewolf, and his name alludes to this. Remus refers to Romulus and Remus, brothers from
Greek Mythology, who were raised by wolves. Lupin also isn’t without meaning – in Latin,
“lupus” means “wolf”.

Alter-ego
A character that is used by the author to speak the author’s own thoughts; when an author
speaks directly to the audience through a character.

On many occasions, an alter-ego is used to allow the character to explore feelings and
situations they normally wouldn’t. Take Youth in Revolt, the main character is shy and
withdrawn and uses his alter ego to fulfil his outrageous and rebellious needs.
Analogy
When two unlikely things are compared to one another, this is called an analogy. The things
are often quite different from one another, and their comparison aims to explain the idea by
likening it to something more familiar to readers.

Probably the most famous example comes from Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet –
“What’s in a name? That which we call a rose
By any other word would smell as sweet.
So Romeo would, were he not Romeo called.”

Caricature
Much like the well-known caricature drawings, the caricature literary device plays on
exaggerating particular aspects of a subject for comic effect. This is often used to give a
humorous edge to a narrative, or in political satire pieces.

A great example is a piece by the great Charles Dickens –

“Mr. Chadband is a large yellow man, with a fat smile, and a general appearance of having
a good deal of train oil in his system. Mrs. Chadband is a stern, severe-looking, silent
woman. Mr. Chadband moves softly and cumbrously, not unlike a bear who has been taught
to walk upright. He is very much embarrassed about the arms, as if they were inconvenient to
him.”

Cliché
“Happily ever after” is probably the most obvious and overused cliche in the English
language. It refers to a saying that has been used to an extent of exhaustion, so it loses its
original meaning and loyalty. Unless they are used ironically, it is generally considered
unimaginative to use them.

Some examples include, “he ran like the wind”, “a matter of time” and “frightened to
death”.

Climax
The climax refers to the pinnacle of a stories arch, when the conflict, tension or excitement
reaches the highest point. It is generally the turning point of a narrative, when the rising
action becomes falling action, after a narrative resolution has been found. It is an essential
plot device.

A great example is when the clock strikes twelve in Cinderella, and she must make it home
before her carriage becomes a pumpkin, her dress becomes rags and her secrets are
discovered.

Conflict
Conflict is a literary element, where two opposing forces struggle against one another in the
fight for their own desired outcome. The conflict can be between a protagonist and
antagonist, or the protagonist can face resistance from a much broader force.

For example, in the movie Castaway, the main characters conflict is that he is stranded on a
deserted island and must find a way to survive. The conflict is between him, and the fight to
survive.
Dramatic Irony
Dramatic Irony works to increase suspense or comedic effect by letting the audience know
something important, while the characters are kept in the dark.

Imagine a scene where the character walks into a house and only the audience knows the
killer is in the house. Or in comedy when a character is imitating or ridiculing a protagonist
while they are unknowingly standing behind them.

One clear example is Hamlet’s decision to test the guilty conscience of King Claudius by
orchestrating the ‘play with the play’.

Epiphany
Originating from the Greek word epipaneia, an epiphany describes the moment when a
character suddenly achieves realisation or awareness that brings clarity to a particular
situation.

Isaac Newton had one of the most famous epiphanies of our time, when an apple fell from a
tree onto his head, causing him to develop his Universal Law of Gravity.

Euphemism
An idiomatic expression used to veil a perhaps unpleasant or impolite meaning behind a
phrase. It is a less offensive way of saying something that could be deemed harsh. A
euphemism can also be used to exaggerate correctness and add a touch of humour.

For example, the term “vertically challenged” can be used in place of “short”, or you can tell
someone that they’re “thinning a little on top” when they are going bald.

Flashback
Used to create a background to the present situation, place or person. Effective at giving the
reader any extra information to understand an event or character motivation better. It is
important to use flashbacks carefully or they can easily become cliché.

Harry Potter is another perfect example. The many flashbacks to Harry’s parents and
traumatic events help build empathy in the reader and increase emotional investment in the
plot.

Foreshadowing
Foreshadowing is used to give readers a hint of the events that will unfold later in the story.
Chekhov’s Gun is perhaps the most famous example of this technique. It says, “if in the first
act you have hung a pistol on the wall, then in the following one it should be fired”.
Shakespeare used foreshadowing to warn of Romeo and Juliet’s fate in Act II –
“Life were better ended by their hate, than death prorogued, wanting of thy love.”

Hyperbole
A hyperbole is a figure of speech, which uses specific words or phrases to exaggerate a
statement for dramatic effect and emphasis. We also use hyperboles frequently in our day to
day language.
Some examples include “I haven’t seen you in ages”, “Something weighs a tonne” and “I am
dying of shame”.

Hypophora
A hypophora, also known as an antipophora or an anthypophora, is a rhetorical device where
the writer poses a question, and then immediately answers it.

One example comes from Henderson the Rain King, by Saul Bellow –
“What made me take this trip to Africa? There is no quick explanation. Things got worse and
worse and pretty soon they were too complicated”.

Imagery
Imagery uses rich, figurative language to describe characters, settings and scenes to build a
mental image for the reader, appealing to their senses. It could be said that imagery is the
writer’s way of painting a picture in the readers’ minds.

J.R.R Tolkien is a master of imagery, as shown in the following passage from the Lord of the
Rings –
“It was in appearance a tall spacious tree of graceful form, with thin unwrinkled bark over
white wood.”
Imagery doesn’t always appeal only to our ability to visualise. Imagery can also appeal to
other senses, e.g. sound (auditory imagery), smell (olfactory imagery), taste (gustatory
imagery) and touch (tactile imagery).

Inference
Inferences are used not only throughout literature, but also in everyday life. An inference is
when you draw a conclusion based on logical deductions and facts.

For example, if your best friend were to walk out of an exam looking dejected, you would
assume that the exam was not a success for them – this is an inference.

Irony
There are actually two types of irony, rather different from one another. Verbal Irony is a
figure of speech, where words are used in a way that implies their meaning is vastly different
from the actual, literal meaning. Situational Irony describes a scenario that ends in a way
different than what would be anticipated.

For example, Verbal Irony would describe a moment when you exclaim “Oh, great!” after
dropping your ice cream, whereas Situational Irony would be, as described by the great
Alanis Morrissett, rain on your wedding day, or a free ride when you’ve already paid…

Juxtaposition
Juxtaposition occurs when a number of characters, ideas or places are presented side by side,
to highlight and develop contrasts and comparisons. This is often used by writers to achieve
greater detail in a narrative, by highlighting particular aspects of something, by placing it
with the opposing ideal.

The opening lines of Charles Dickens’ A Tale of Two Cities provide the perfect example –
“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of
foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity…”
Litotes
Another word with Greek origins, this one is derived from the Greek word for “simple”.
Litotes employ two double negatives to create a positive ideal, but leaving it entirely
understated.

For example, replying “not bad” when you’re good is the most common example of this.
Another example if saying “I am not as young as I used to be” in order to communicate that
you are old without explicitly stating it.

Metaphor
A metaphor is a figurative comparison between two entirely unrelated things, used in order to
draw attention to a similarity between them. The resemblance between the two differing
things is made possible based on a single similarity. Basically, it is when a writer portrays a
place, thing, person or action are being something, even though it isn’t actually.

For example, if you describe your brother as the “black sheep” of the family, this is entirely
metaphorical as your brother is neither black, nor a sheep (we assume). It instead describes
the similarities between your brother and a black sheep.

Moral
This device is derived from the Latin word ‘morālis”, and describes a lesson learned or
message conveyed through a story, poem or event, that may either be expressed explicitly or
simply inferred. They originate from the late 1700s and early 1800s, when literature was seen
as something that need to serve a purpose, particularly to children.

A great example of this is the classic boy who cried wolf – if you cry wolf falsely, then
nobody will believe you when you are actually telling the truth and in need of help.

Motif
A motif is a repetitive element that occurs rather obviously throughout a story, such as a
reference, concept or symbolism. They are used to present and reinforce an overall theme
within a narrative, and help readers identify and understand an underlying message.

For example, the recurring motif throughout To Kill a Mockingbird is the suggestion that you
cannot truly understand the plight of another person unless you try and see things from their
perspective.

Non Sequitur
Derived from a Latin phrase meaning “it doesn’t follow”, non-sequiturs are statements that
ignore the fundamental principles of reason, to form outlandish conclusions that make no
logical sense. They are often used to inject humour into a piece.

An example would be – Sarah is a good surfer. Sarah is Australian. Therefore, all Australians
must be good surfers.
Nostalgia
The term nostalgia originates from a Homeric word, nostos, which means homecoming. It
refers to a feeling that is often a mix of pleasure and sadness in the remembering of past
events and longing to experience them again.
An example of nostalgia would be – Oh how I miss the summer holidays. The days spent in
the sun at the beach.

Onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia is a form of auditory imagery that somewhat recreates the sound of the thing
that it describes, allowing readers to ‘hear’ the action, immersing them further within a
narrative.

For example, a writer could describe “a gushing river flowing through the valley”, which
paints a much clearer image of the action, as opposed to “a river flowing through a valley” –
you can ‘hear’ the sound of a river gushing.

Oxymoron
An oxymoron draws together two opposing ideas to create a dramatic effect. The union of the
two contradictory terms is used to provoke the reader, leaving them pondering on the
meaning of the phrase, creating a paradox.

Shakespeare’s famous oxymoron, “sweet sorrow” is a great example of this, along with the
terms “a deafening silence”, an “honest thief” and a “mini jumbo jet”.

Paradox
A Paradox describes a seemingly illogical or contradictory statement that may include
something that is sound to be true, upon further investigation. It can also be used to highlight
something that is contrary to traditional beliefs, generally used to lure the readers into
thinking of something in a new light.

Shakespeare provides the best example of this in Hamlet – “I must be cruel to be kind”.

Personification
Personification is a device used to give human-like characteristics or attributes are given to
inanimate objects, phenomena or animals.

For example, when we say that the “sky weeps”, we are giving the sky the human ability to
cry, or when the “sun hides its face behind the clouds”, the sun is given human
characteristics.

Red Herring
A Red Herring is a something introduced into a narrative under the guise of relevance, but is
actually a fallacy used to detract the reader from the actual issue. It is often used throughout
crime stories to mislead both characters and readers into drawing false conclusions.

In Sir Arthur Conan Doyle’s Sherlock Holmes: Hound of the Baskervilles, readers are
introduced to an escaped convict early in the story, so that they will assume he is guilty given
his past, detracting attention from the real killer.
Repetition
Repetition refers to act of using the same word, or words over and over again, to reinforce its
importance or build suspense. While stylistically appealing, especially within poetry and
theatre, this device also stresses the significance of a specific message.

S.T. Coleridge employs this device is his poem, Rime of the Ancient Mariner –
I looked upon the rotting sea,
And drew my eyes away;
I looked upon the rotting deck,
And there the dead man lay.

Satire
Satire employs the use of humour, irony and exaggeration to ridicule or ironically
commentate on a serious subject or group. It often sorts to initially expose, and then criticise
acts of foolishness and corruption through the use of a fictional situation that mirrors real life
events.

In modern times, most examples of satire are pointed toward political figures. Popular TV
shows such as The Daily Show and The Colbert Report rely on satire as the cornerstone of
their content.

Setting
Setting refers to the time and place in which a narrative takes place. The setting can be as
particular as a tiny cottage in the countryside, or as broad a region or time period. Different
aspects of setting can also include weather conditions, social conditions and environment,
historical time period, geographical location and timing. Setting is often vital to a narrative.

For example, Emily Bronte’s Wuthering Heights relies heavily upon its setting, as the
surroundings directly reflect the mood of the characters and their actions, lending to the
overall atmosphere of the narrative.

Simile
A simile is a figure of speech that draws vivid and often dramatic comparison between two
very different things. It differs from a metaphor in that is draws resemblance between the two
things using words such as “like”, “as” or “than”.

In Vladimir Nabokov’s Lolita, he employs the following simile –

“Elderly American ladies leaning on their canes listed toward me like towers of Pisa.”

Solecism
Another word derived from Greek, Solecism originates from the word soloikismos, meaning
to speak incorrectly. It is a stylistic device which deviates from conventional grammar,
syntax or pronunciation for dramatic effect. It is often used to add authenticity to a setting or
character.
For example, Hagrid, from the Harry Potter series, has solecism employed in his dialogue –
“I’m a what?” gasped Harry.
“A wizard, o’ course,” said Hagrid, sitting back down on the sofa, which groaned and sank
even lower, “an’ a thumpin’ good’un I’d say, once yeh’ve been trained up a bit. With a mum
an’ dad like yours, what else would yeh be?”
Soliloquy
A soliloquy is used to reveal a character’s innermost thoughts to the reader, often portrayed
as the character talking to themselves without the presence of another person. It is often used
to create a revelation or manifestation to the reader.

The most famous soliloquy, without question is from Shakespeare’s Hamlet –

“To be, or not to be – that is the question.”

Symbolism
Symbolism refers to a character, object or action that is concealing a different meaning that is
generally much deeper and more significant to the narrative.

Examples of every day symbolism include the use of red roses, or the colour red in general,
to symbolise love, and the dove as a symbol of peace.

Tone
Tone often refers to the attitude that a writer has towards a particular subject or audience,
made obvious through the delivery, figurative language and organisation. Tone can vary from
formal to informal, playful to serious or sad to cheerful. While every narrative contains a
central theme, the way in which the writer approaches this theme provides the overall tone of
the piece.

For example, in Robert Frost’s poem The Road Not Taken, the last stanza begins with “I
shall be telling this with a sigh”, setting the tone as unhappy, or perhaps leading the reader to
thinking that the speaker had to make a difficult choice.