Cover Page

(a) Enrolment Number: 2001951862

(b) Student Name: Farhat Abdul Jabbar Shaikh.
(c) Programme Code: MAPC
(d) Course Code: MPCL-007
(e) Study Centre Code: 16144: IGNOU STUDY CENTRE
(f) Student Signature:

Table of contents
Contents Page no.
Activity no 1 2- 7
Activity no 2 8- 10
Activity no 3 11-12
Activity no 4 13-15
Activity no 5 16-21
Activity no 6 22-25
Annexure 1 26-27

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1
 Activity - 1

Title:
Social Learning Theory and Social Cognitive Theory.

Aim:
To understand the difference between social learning theory and social cognitive theory and
the applications of social learning theory.

Introduction:

Learning
Definition-
The process of learning is continuous which starts right from the time of birth of an
individual and continues till the death. Psychologists in general define ” Learning as relatively
permanent behavioural modifications which take place as a result of experience”. This
definition of learning stresses on three important elements of learning:

 Learning involves a behavioural change which can be better or worse.

 This behavioural change should take place as a result of practice and experience.
Changes resulting from maturity or growth cannot be considered as learning
 This behavioural change must be relatively permanent and last for a relatively long time
enough.

Types of learning-

i. Motor Learning: Our day to day activities like walking, running, driving, etc, must be
learnt for ensuring a good life. These activities to a great extent involve muscular
coordination.
ii. Verbal Learning: It is related with the language which we use to communicate and
various other forms of verbal communication such as symbols, words, languages,
sounds, figures and signs.
iii. Concept Learning: This form of learning is associated with higher order cognitive
processes like intelligence, thinking, reasoning, etc, which we learn right from our
childhood. Concept learning involves the processes of abstraction and generalization,
which is very useful for identifying or recognizing things.
iv. Discrimination Learning: Learning which distinguishes between various stimuli with
its appropriate and different responses is regarded as discrimination stimuli.
v. Learning of Principles: Learning which is based on principles helps in managing the
work most effectively. Principles based learning explains the relationship between
various concepts.
vi. Attitude Learning: Attitude shapes our behaviour to a very great extent, as our
positive or negative behaviour is based on our attitudinal predisposition. The
behavioural psychology described three types of learning: Classical Conditioning,
Observational Learning and Operant Conditioning.

Classical Conditioning: In case of Classical Conditioning, the process of learning is

described as a Stimulus-Response connection or association. Classical Conditioning
theory has been explained with the help of Pavlov’s Classic Experiment, in which the
food was used as the natural stimulus which was paired with the previously neutral
stimuli that’s a bell in this case. By establishing an association between the natural
stimulus (food) and the neutral stimuli (sound of the bell), the desired response can
be elicited. This theory will be discussed in detail in the next few articles.

Operant Conditioning: Propounded by scholars like Edward Thorndike firstly and

later by B.F. Skinner, this theory stresses on the fact that the consequences of
actions shape the behaviour. The theory explains that the intensity of a response is
either increased or decreased as a result of punishment or reinforcement. Skinner

2
 explained how with the help of reinforcement one can strengthen behaviour and with
punishment reduce or curb behaviour. It was also analyzed that the behavioural
change strongly depends on the schedules of reinforcement with focus on timing and
rate of reinforcement.

Observational Learning: The Observational Learning process was propounded by

Albert Bandura in his Social Learning Theory, which focused on learning by imitation
or observing people’s behaviour. For observational learning to take place effectively,
four important elements will be essential: Motivation, Attention, Retention,
Reproduction and Motivation.

Different types of observational learning –

Social cognitive theory and social learning theory are theories that try to explain
learning in the social context, with the main position being that people acquire new
behaviours by observation. The two theories focus solely on behaviour, in terms of
what can be learned, setting aside other things such as knowledge or cognitive skills.
The word ‘social’ refers to the influence of social interactions on how we acquire new
behaviours which may not necessarily be social in nature, and how we perpetuate
them. Both of these theories are rooted in behaviourist traditions in that focus on
learned behaviour and excluding thought and emotion. Still, both theories do
acknowledge the cognitive processes that play a role in learning and behaviour.

1. Social Learning Theory:

Social learning theory is a cognitive-behavioural theory of learning which

proposes that we acquire new behaviours simply by observing it along with its
consequences. Although Bandura is credited with most of this body of knowledge, the
entirety of social learning theory is a collective work from different people. The theory
traces its roots to a combination of psychoanalytic and behaviourist concepts. In
1941, Neil Miller and John Dollard published a book called Social Learning Theory. In
it they proposed that biological drives acts as stimulus for behaviour which is in turn
reinforced by social interaction. In 1954, Julian B. Rotter also published his
book Social Learning and Clinical Psychology. Rotter theorizes that the emergence of
novel behaviour is a function of expectancy of a positive outcome and the behaviour
is reinforced by positive outcomes. Sociology also has its take on social learning
theory. Edwin Sutherland’s Differential Association Theory was integrated
into operant conditioning and social learning by criminologists Robert Burgess and
Ronald Akers and they developed a comprehensive theory on how criminal behaviour
is learned. Throughout all this, cognitive perspectives maintain that a lot of novel
behaviour is acquired and reproduced even without repetition and reinforcement.

It was in this state of the social learning theory that Bandura conducted
research on how novel behaviour is acquired in the social context. Through his
famous Bobo Doll Experiments Bandura came to the conclusions that are now
basically the core concepts of modern social learning theory.

 First, learning occurs by observing the behaviour of a model, which includes

extracting information about the observation and deciding on performing the
behaviour (modelling or observational learning).
 Second, behaviour can be reinforced by observing the consequences that
happen to the model after the behaviour was performed (vicarious
reinforcement).
 Third, observation is a cognitive skill hence learning is a cognitive-
behavioural process.
 Lastly, a learner observes and copies the model that he or she sees the
most similarity with or has the most emotional attachment
with (identification).

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 2. Social Cognitive Theory:
The social cognitive theory is a learning theory which states that people
acquire new behaviours by observing a model, and that personal (or cognitive)
factors, the behaviour itself and the environment (in the form of reinforcements) are
engaged in a triadic feedback relationship, called reciprocal determinism, which
influences the reproduction of the learned behaviour. This theory was proposed by
Albert Bandura officially in his 1986 book, Social Foundations of Thought and Action:
A Social Cognitive Theory, and is an expansion of his take on social learning theory.
He called it social cognitive theory to emphasize the role of cognitive factors
(encapsulated under the personal factors) in the process of learning as well as to
differentiate it from other social learning theories.

With social cognitive theory, Bandura broadens his social learning theory by
starting with a conceptualization of humanity as having agency and capability, that
is, humans are not just shaped by their environments and inner forces but also shape
their environment and can regulate those inner forces. He maintains his major
contributions to social learning theory, such as modelling, identification, and direct
and vicarious reinforcement. He expands observational learning by adding onto it four
cognitive processes that mediate learning, namely attention, retention, production
and motivation. Finally, he adds the concept of self-efficacy, the personal belief in
one’s own capability to plan and act accordingly in response to foreseeable
situations.
Responses for the questions:

1. Difference between social learning theory and social cognitive theory.

Definition:

Social cognitive theory is the expanded form of Albert Bandura’s social learning
theory which states that learning can occur by observing a behaviour and that the
manifestation of that behaviour in the learner is regulated by the triadic reciprocal
determinism between personal (cognitive) factors, the behaviour itself, and by the
environment (reinforcement). Meanwhile, social learning theory is a learning theory
that proposes that learning occurs in a social context by means of observation of the
behaviour and the consequences that follow it.

Proponent/s:

Social cognitive theory was proposed by Albert Bandura alone. Social learning theory
is a collective work, with the most contribution coming from Bandura but with earlier
contributions from Neil Miller and John Dollard, Julian Rotter, and Robert Burgess
and Ronald Akers, as well as an influence from cognitive perspectives on learning.

Core concepts:

Core concepts in the social cognitive theory are human agency, observational
learning and its four meditational processes (attention, retention, production,
motivation), triadic reciprocal determinism between cognitive, behavioural and
environment factors, and self-efficacy. In social learning theory, the core concepts are
observational learning, reinforcement (direct or vicarious), learning as a cognitive-
behavioural process, and identification with a model.

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Role of cognitive factors:

In the social cognitive theory, cognitive factors play an important and equal role with
environmental factors in the acquisition of new behaviour and in its production. In
social learning theory, the cognitive factors are only acknowledged to play a role in
the acquisition of new behaviour but not much or none at all in its production.

Role of reinforcement:

In the social cognitive theory, reinforcement or environmental factors has an equal

role with cognitive factors in the learning and production of behaviour. In social
learning theory, consequences and reinforcement play a major role in the acquisition
and production of behaviour.

Scope:

Social cognitive theory has a broader theoretical scope as it includes a

conceptualization of humans as agents capable of shaping their environment and of
self-regulation. Social learning theory on the other hand is limited to tackling the
learning process in the social context.

5
Social cognitive theory vs Social learning theory

2. Applications of Social Learning Theory :

a. Criminology-
Social learning theory has been used to explain the emergence and maintenance
of deviant behaviour, especially aggression.

b. Developmental psychology-
In her book Theories of Developmental Psychology, Patricia H. Miller lists both
moral development and gender-role development as important areas of research
within social learning theory. Social learning theorists emphasize observable
behaviour regarding the acquisition of these two skills.

c. Management-
Social learning theory proposes that rewards aren't the sole force behind creating
motivation. Thoughts, beliefs, morals, and feedback all help to motivate us. Three
other ways in which we learn are vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and
physiological states. Modelling, or the scenario in which we see someone's
behaviours and adopt them as our own, aide the learning process as well as
mental states and the cognitive process.

d. Media violence-

6
 Principles of social learning theory have been applied extensively to the study of
media violence. Akers and Burgess hypothesized that observed or experienced
positive rewards and lack of punishment for aggressive behaviours reinforces
aggression. Many research studies and meta-analyses have discovered
significant correlations between viewing violent television and aggression later in
life and many have not, as well as playing violent video games and aggressive
behaviours. The role of observational learning has also been cited as an
important factor in the rise of rating systems for TV, movies, and video games.

e. Creating social change with media-

Entertainment-education in the form of a telenovela or soap opera can help
viewers learn socially desired behaviours in a positive way from models portrayed
in these programs. The telenovela format allows the creators to incorporate
elements that can bring a desired response. These elements may include music,
actors, melodrama, props or costumes. Entertainment education is symbolic
modelling and has a formula with three sets of characters with the cultural value
that is to be examined is determined ahead of time:
i. Characters that support a value (positive role models)
ii. Characters who reject the value (negative role models)
iii. Characters who have doubts about the value (undecided)

f. Applications for Social Change-

Through observational learning a model can bring forth new ways of thinking and
behaving. With a modeled emotional experience, the observer shows an affinity
toward people, places and objects. They dislike what the models do not like and
like what the models care about. Television helps contribute to how viewers see
their social reality. Media representations gain influence because people's social
constructions of reality depend heavily on what they see, hear and read rather
than what they experience directly. Any effort to change beliefs must be directed
toward the sociocultural norms and practices at the social system level.

g. Psychotherapy-
Another important application of social learning theory has been in the treatment
and conceptualization of anxiety disorders.

3. Based on the theory and its application, do you think violence is

contagious?

I am in assertion with the statement that violence is contagious. The key aspect
to any learning theory is imitation.

According to social learning theory, people learn aggressive and violent

behaviours the same way they learn other social behaviour i.e., by direct
experience and by observing others and imitating their behaviour.

According to social cognitive theory, observers do not simply imitate the specific
social behaviours they witness; they also make cognitive inferences on the basis
of these observations, and these inferences lead to generalizations in behaviour.

For example in Albert Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment, the children imitated the
behaviour of the model. The model was hitting the doll with hammer, kicking the
doll and was using abusive words, the children were observing the model. It was
seen that the children behaved in the same manner as the model with the doll.

7
 From this experiment we can conclude that the violent behaviour of the model
was imitated by the children and hence, it can be said that “violence is
contagious”.

Another example of violent behaviour in a person could be seen because of the

social media that is watching movies which comprise of violence scenes and
playing violent games such as PUBG. Here also the person observes and tries to
imitate whatever he has seen and hence we can say that “violence is contagious”.

Conclusion:
From the above activity we can conclude that Social cognitive theory of Bandura is
based on the idea that people learn by watching what others do and that human
thought processes are central to understanding personality. Social cognitive theory
approaches the explanation of behaviour in terms of a continuous reciprocal
interaction between cognitive, behavioural, and environmental determinants. It
identifies human behaviour as an interaction of personal factors, behaviour, and the
environment. These three segments are mutually interactive.
References:
Books

IGNOU self-learning material

Handbook on practicum IGNOU

Websites

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z0iWpSNu3NU (accessed on 15.3.2021)

https://www.managementstudyguide.com/learning-theories-classical-conditioning-
operant-conditioning-and-learning-by-observation.htm (accessed on 15.3.2021)

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5227928/(accessed on 15.3.2021)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_learning_theory#Applications(accessed on
15.3.2021)

Activity - 2

Title:

Theories of intelligence.

Aim:

To study and understand different theories of intelligence and to write interpretation on what
true intelligence is.

Introduction:

What is Intelligence?

We may define intelligence as,

 The ability to behave adaptively

 The ability to function successfully within a particular environment
 Ability to learn new things quickly, to solve different kinds of problems.

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Theories of Intelligence
Different researchers have proposed a variety of theories to explain the nature of intelligence.
Here are some of the major theories of intelligence that have emerged during the last 100
years.
1. General Intelligence
British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863–1945) described a concept he referred
to as general intelligence or the g factor. After using a technique known as factor analysis
to examine some mental aptitude tests, Spearman concluded that scores on these tests
were remarkably similar.
People who performed well on one cognitive test tended to perform well on other
tests, while those who scored badly on one test tended to score badly on others. He
concluded that intelligence is a general cognitive ability that can be measured and
numerically expressed.

2. Primary Mental Abilities

Psychologist Louis L.Thurstone (1887–1955) offered a differing theory of intelligence.
Instead of viewing intelligence as a single, general ability, Thurstone's theory focused on
seven different primary mental abilities.
 Associative memory: The ability to memorize and recall
 Numerical ability: The ability to solve arithmetic problems
 Perceptual speed: The ability to see differences and similarities among
objects
 Reasoning: The ability to find rules
 Spatial visualization: The ability to visualize relationships
 Verbal comprehension: The ability to define and understand words
 Word fluency: The ability to produce words rapidly

3. Theory of Multiple Intelligences

One of the more recent ideas to emerge is Howard Gardner's theory of multiple
intelligences. Gardner proposed that the traditional idea of intelligence, based on IQ
testing, did not fully and accurately depict a person's abilities. His theory proposed eight
different intelligences based on skills and abilities that are valued in different cultures:

 Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: The ability to control your body movements and to

handle objects skilfully
 Interpersonal intelligence: The capacity to detect and respond appropriately to the
moods, motivations, and desires of others
 Intrapersonal intelligence: The capacity to be self-aware and in tune with inner
feelings, values, beliefs, and thinking processes
 Logical-mathematical intelligence: The ability to think conceptually and abstractly,
and the capacity to discern logically or numerical patterns
 Musical intelligence: The ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and timbre
 Naturalistic intelligence: The ability to recognize and categorize animals, plants,
and other objects in nature
 Verbal-linguistic intelligence: Well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the
sounds, meanings, and rhythms of words
 Visual-spatial intelligence: The capacity to think in images and pictures, to visualize
accurately and abstractly

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 4. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "mental activity directed toward
purposive adaptation to, selection, and shaping of real-world environments relevant to
one's life."
While he agreed with Gardner that intelligence is much broader than a single, general
ability, he suggested that some of Gardner's types of intelligence are better viewed as
individual talents. Sternberg proposed what he referred to as "successful intelligence,"
which involves three different factors:

 Analytical intelligence: Your ability to evaluate information and solve problems

 Creative intelligence: Your ability to come up with new ideas
 Practical intelligence: Your ability to adapt to a changing environment

Other types of intelligence:

1. Emotional Intelligence:
Emotional Intelligence is the “ability to monitor one’s own and other people’s emotions, to
discriminate between different emotions and label them appropriately, and to use
emotional information to guide thinking and behaviour” (Salovey and Mayer, 1990)
.
2. Fluid intelligence:
Fluid intelligence is the ability to problem solve in novel situations without referencing
prior knowledge, but rather through the use of logic and abstract thinking. Fluid
intelligence can be applied to any novel problem because no specific prior knowledge is
required (Cattell, 1963). As you grow older fluid increases and then starts to decrease in
the late 20s.

3. Crystallized intelligence:
Crystallized intelligence refers to the use of previously-acquired knowledge, such as
specific facts learned in school or specific motor skills or muscle memory (Cattell, 1963).
As you grow older and accumulate knowledge, crystallized intelligence increases.

Response for the activity:

Intelligence has been defined in many ways: higher level abilities (such as abstract
reasoning, mental representation, problem solving, and decision making), the ability to
learn, emotional knowledge, creativity, and adaptation to meet the demands of the
environment effectively.
For me intelligence is ability to adapt with ever changing environment. The famous
Darwin’s theory “Survival of the fittest”. He says that the one who can adapt can only
survive and it is so true, If we have ability to adapt we can survive and those who don’t
adapt will eventually die. Similar, is the case of intelligence, we need to adapt according
to the circumstances.
Let us take an example of the doctor if he diagnoses some new symptoms of the
disease which he doesn’t know, he has to acquire knowledge of that particular disease
here he is acquiring knowledge according to circumstances which is adaptive intelligence.
Now in this case if he doesn’t try to acquire knowledge he would never know about that
disease and could end up treating person in a wrong way, so adaptive intelligence is
must.
Intelligence is not memory. It is the ability to acquire knowledge and ability to utilise
that knowledge wherever necessary. Intelligence is not really an ability to solve obscure
multiple-choice problems with largely trivial content that will have no impact on future life

10
 whatsoever. Instead, intelligence is the ability to adapt to the environment. Intelligence
cannot be defined by your academic skills, intelligence is the ability to learn and acquire
knowledge and utilise it to solve a particular problem.

Conclusion:

From this activity we can conclude that intelligence is the ability to learn new things,
being creative and acquire knowledge and apply that knowledge to solve problems
and ability to adapt with ever changing environment.

References:

Books

IGNOU self-learning material

Handbook on practicum IGNOU

Websites

https://www.multipleintelligencesoasis.org/blog/
2020/9/1/67pmqk1mg1uzre4qlcxetz6pbl3ayj (accessed on 16.3.2021)

https://www.simplypsychology.org/intelligence.html#theory (accessed on 16.3.2021)

https://www.verywellmind.com/theories-of-intelligence-2795035 (accessed on
16.3.2021)

11
 Activity – 3

Title:

Interview an older adult

Aim:

To interview an older adult to understand the aging process of the subject.

Introduction:

Ageing

In humans, ageing represents the accumulation of changes in a human being over time and
can encompass physical, psychological, and social changes. Reaction time, for example, may
slow with age, while knowledge of world events and wisdom may expand.

Ageism

Ageism is a type of discrimination that involves prejudice against people based on their
age.Similar to racism and sexism, ageism involves holding negative stereotypes about people
of different ages.
The term ageism was first used by gerontologist Robert N. Butler to describe the
discrimination of older adults. Today, the term is often applied to any type of age-based
discrimination, whether it involves prejudice against children, teenagers, adults, or senior
citizens.
Stereotypes That Contribute to Ageism
Researchers Susan Fiske has suggested that stereotypes about older people often relate to
how younger people expect them to behave.4

1. The first stereotype she described relates to succession. Younger people often assume
that older individuals have "had their turn," and should make way for the younger
generations.
2. The second stereotype relates to what Fiske refers to as consumption. Younger people
frequently feel that limited resources should be spent on themselves rather than on older
adults.
3. Finally, young people also hold stereotypes about the identity of older adults. Younger
people feel that those who are older than they should "act their age" and not try to "steal"
the identities of younger people, including things such as speech patterns and manner of
dress.

Participant’s profile:

Name: Keshav Balkrishna Phadnis

Age: 79
Gender: Male
Education: graduate
Occupation: no service
Procedure and administration:

Preparation:

A set of unstructured questions was prepared. The questions are attached as Annexure 1.

Rapport:

12
 A rapport was developed with the subject and the subject was informed about the interview
and the reason why interview is conducted.

Thematic analysis based on answers:

Theme 1 ageing process:

Based on the answers given by the subject he has grown in humble environment. The person
is educated and has worked for a long period. According to his answers he belongs to a
religious family as his name was given after the name of one the god. The person is kind and
warm hearted as his first memory is of poverty around me. The subject is art oriented as he
likes Marathi literature and is interested in classical music and gazals.

Theme 2 family profile:

The subject had 5 older brothers and he was a posthumous boy. He has been raised in
poverty.

Theme 3 coping with physical and psychological change:

The subject says that age is just a number for him. Age has not affected him as such, he has
accepted the physical and psychological changes around it and is quite contained with it. He
has strong inner strength and thus is a graceful and strong-willed person.

Theme 4 thoughts on ageism:

The subject has aged gracefully as he has said that age is just a number and quite accepted
it. He has no regrets from life there fore has no despair. He has lived his life to the fullest and
has accepted all the outcomes of the life. He says he can learn gadgets at any age of his life.
Thus, ageism has not affected him. He accepts the new generation the way they are has very
broad-minded view about life.

Theme 5 stereotypes against old age:

The old age has not affected the subject at all. He lives his life without any setbacks and has
lived his life the way he wanted and has no regrets about it.

Conclusion:

From the above activity helped to understand the ageing process in an older adult also it
helped in understanding the process of interview and how thematic analysis is done.

References:

Books
IGNOU self-learning material
Handbook on practicum IGNOU
Websites
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ageing#:~:text=In%20humans%2C%20ageing%20represents
%20the,events%20and%20wisdom%20may%20expand (accessed on 20.3.2021)
https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-ageism-2794817 (accessed on 20.3.2021)

13
 Activity – 4

Title:
Locus of Control
Aim:

To measure the locus of control of subject i.e. to operationally measure the tendency of the
subject to believe that control resides internally within him or externally with others or
situation.

Introduction:

"A Locus of control orientation is a belief about whether the outcomes of our actions are
contingent on what we do (internal control orientation) or on events outside our personal
control (external control orientation)," explained psychologist Philip Zimbardo in his 1985
book Psychology and Life.

In 1954, psychologist Julian Rotter suggested that our behaviour was controlled by rewards
and punishments and that it was these consequences for our actions that determined our
beliefs about the underlying causes of these actions.

Our beliefs about what causes our actions then influence our behaviours and attitudes.
In 1966, Rotter published a scale designed to measure and assess external and internal locus
of control. The scale utilizes a forced-choice between two alternatives, requiring respondents
to choose just one of two possibilities for each item.

While the scale has been widely used, it has also been the subject of considerable criticism
from those who believe that locus of control cannot be fully understood or measured by such
a simplistic scale.

Internal vs. External Locus of Control

It is important to note that locus of control is a continuum. No one has a 100 percent external
or internal locus of control. Instead, most people lie somewhere on the continuum between
the two extremes.

These are characteristics of people with dominant internal or external locus of control.
Internal Locus of Control
 Are more likely to take responsibility for their actions
 Tend to be less influenced by the opinions of other people
 Often do better at tasks when they are allowed to work at their own pace
 Usually, have a strong sense of self-efficacy.
 Tend to work hard to achieve the things they want
 Feel confident in the face of challenges
 Tend to be physically healthier
 Report being happier and more independent
 Often achieve greater success in the workplace

External Locus of Control

 Blame outside forces for their circumstances
 Often credit luck or chance for any successes
 Don't believe that they can change their situation through their own efforts
 Frequently feel hopeless or powerless in the face of difficult situations
 Are more prone to experiencing learned helplessness.

Applications
The construct is applicable to such fields as educational psychology, health psychology,
and clinical psychology.

14
Description:

Julian Rotter (1966) devised a locus of control personality test to assess the extent to which
an individual possesses internal or external reinforcement beliefs.

The test which we are going to use for assessment is designed by Terry Pettijohn, the author
of Psychology: A ConnecText, based on Rotter's original idea.

There are in all 20 questions in the test. For each question we have to indicate either true or
false. There are no right or wrong answers. The test will give us a general idea of where one
stands on the locus of control personality dimension.

The questions for the test are as follows.

1. I usually get what I want in life.

2. I need to be kept informed about news events.
3. I never know where I stand with other people.
4. I do not really believe in luck or chance.
5. I think that I could easily win a lottery.
6. If I do not succeed on a task, I tend to give up.
7. I usually convince others to do things my way.
8. People make a difference in controlling crime.
9. The success I have is largely a matter of chance.
10. Marriage is largely a gamble for most people.
11. People must be the master of their own fate.
12. It is not important for me to vote.
13. My life seems like a series of random events.
14. I never try anything that I am not sure of.
15. I earn the respect and honours I receive.
16. A person can get rich by taking risks.
17. Leaders are successful when they work hard.
18. Persistence and hard work usually lead to success.
19. It is difficult to know who my real friends are.
20. Other people usually control my life.

The maximum time required to complete the test is 5mins.

SCORING:

Give 5 points for each question if indicated False on questions:

2,3,5,6,9,10,12,13,14,16,19,20

Give 5 points for each question if indicated True on questions:

1, 4, 7, 8, 11,15,17,18

RESULTS:

0-15 Very strong external locus of control

20-35 External locus of control
40-60 both external and internal locus of control
65-80 internal locus of control
85-100 Very strong internal locus of control

15
Materials required:

Questionnaire sheet, pencil, eraser, stopwatch(not necessary).

Participants Profile:

Name: ABC
Age: 26
Gender: Male
Education: post graduate
Occupation: teacher.

Procedure and administration:

Standard procedure was followed to assess the test.

Preparation:
All the materials were kept ready before the test
Rapport:
A rapport was build up with the subject. Everything regarding the test was explained to the
subject before the test. The subject was well informed about the purpose of the test and how
the test is conducted. Any queries related to the test were answered. The subject was
ensured that results will be kept confidential.
Introspective Report:
After the successful completion of the test the subject was asked how he felt about the test.
Subject reported, “The test was very good. The questions were quite fundamental and are
designed in such a way that they will really bring out the real person.”

Scoring and Interpretation:

The subject answered F for Q (1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 17, 19, and 20)
The subject answered T for Q (3, 8, 10, 14, 15, 16 and 18)

The subject scored 40 for false answer.

The subject scored 15 for true answer.

The total score of the subject is 55.

Discussion:
The subject acquired a score of 55 which indicates that subject has both internal and external
locus of control. It can be assumed that the subject believes that causation of any events in
his life is due to both i.e. external factors as well as internal factors.
Conclusion:
The test was successfully completed. It provided brief understanding of locus of control of the
subject. The subject found most of the finding to be correct. The subject is of the view that
both luck as well as efforts are important for success.

References:
Books
IGNOU self-learning material
Handbook on practicum IGNOU
Websites
https://www.uaex.edu/life-skills-wellness/personal-finance/Locus-of-Control.pdf (accessed on
20.3.2021)
https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-locus-of-control-2795434 (accessed on 20.3.2021)

16
 Activity - 5

Title:

Cattell’s 16 P.F

Aim:
To assess the personality of a person using 16PF test.

Introduction:

"Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems
that determine his characteristics behaviour and thought". (Allport, 1961, p. 28).

Personality is “The characteristics or blend of characteristics that makes a person unique”.

(Weinberg & Gould, 1999).

A number of approaches and theories have been put forth by different psychologist to
understand and explain personality.

Two type of approaches which are prominent are:

a. Type theories: The type approaches attempts to comprehend human personality by

examining certain broad patterns in the observed behavioural characteristics of
individuals.
b. Trait theories: The trait approach focuses on the specific psychological attributes
along which individuals tend to differ in consistent and stable ways.

1. Type theories of personality:

i. Personality type based on fluid or humour-

One of the earliest Type theories of Personality was proposed in 5th Century
B.C by Greek physician Hippocrates. He had proposed a typology of personality
based on fluid or humour. He classified people into four types:

Fluid Temperament Personality

Blod Sanguine Cheerful and active

Apathetic and
Phelgm Phlegmatic
Sluggish

Black bile Melancholy Sad and brooding

Yellow Irritable and

Chloeric
Bile excitable

India also, Charak Samhita, classifies people into the categories of vata, pitta
and kapha on the basis of three humoural elements called tridosha. Each
refers to a type of temperament, called prakriti (basic nature) of a person.

17
 ii. William Sheldon’s Type Theory

American physician William Sheldon (1942) related Physique to temperament.

He assigned people to categories based on their some to type or body
builds: Sheldon proposed the Endomorphic, Mesomorphic, and
Ectomorphic typology.

iii. Jung’s theory of Introverts & Extraverts

Jung has proposed an important & widely recognised typology by grouping

people into introverts and extraverts.

iv. Friedman and Rosenman

Friedman and Rosenman have classified individuals into Type-A and Type-B
personalities.

v. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

MBTI (Myers-Briggs Type Indicator) typology is another typology which is

modern one and based upon Carl Jung’s theory of personality types. Using the
MBTI, individual’s self-reported preferences are used to assess four dimensions
of personality:

 E or I (Extraversion- Introversion),
 S or N (Sensing or Intuition),
 T or F (Thinking-Feeling) and
 J or P (Judgement-Perception).

2. Trait Theory of Personality

a. Allport’s Trait Theory

Allport argued that the words people use to describe themselves and others provide
a basis for understanding human personality. He analysed the words of English
language to look for traits which describe a person. Allport, based on this,
categorised traits into cardinal, central, and secondary.

b. Eysenck’s Three Dimension Theory

H.J. Eysenck proposed that personality could be reduced into two broad
dimensions. These are biologically and genetically based. Each dimension
subsumes a number of specific traits. These dimensions are:

 Neuroticism vs. emotional stability

 Extraversion vs. introversion

 Psychoticism vs. Sociability,

c. Five-Factor Theory of Personality

During the recent times, the most talked about trait approach to personality is
the Five Factor Model (FFM) also known as the Big Five. According to this model
there are five broad personality factors, each of which is composed of constellation
of traits. Those Big Five dimensions of personality using the names assigned
by MC Crae and Robert Costa are:

18
  Openness to experience
 Extraversion
 Agreeableness
 Neuroticism
 Conscientiousness

d. Cattell’s Trait Approach

Raymond Cattell believed that there is a common structure on which people differ
from each other. This structure could be determined empirically. He tried to identify
the primary traits from a huge array of descriptive adjectives found in language.

He applied a statistical technique, called factor analysis, to discover the common

structures. He found 16 primary or source traits. The source traits are stable, and
are considered as the building blocks of personality. Besides these, there are also a
number of surface traits that result out of the interaction of source traits. Cattell
described the source traits in terms of opposing tendencies.

He developed a test, called Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF), for

the assessment of personality. This test is widely used by psychologists.

Description of the test:

Raymond cattel developed a method of analysing behaviour related to 16 basic

factors of personality.

The first test was published in 1949 using factor analysing with subsequent edition
in 1956, 1962, & 5th edition in 1993.

The test is designed to give better and broad understanding of various factors of
human personality. The 16 PF was the result of factor analysing hundreds of
measures of everyday behaviour.

Scales (16 personality factors):

Warmth Reasoning Emotional stability Dominance

Liveliness Rule Social boldness Sensitivity

consciousness
Vigilance Abstractness Privateness Apprehension
Openness to Self-reliance Perfectionism Perfectionism
change

According to cattel each trait factor label or code letters are used. The major source
traits are represented on 16PF inventory are as follows:
Factors Description

A Outgoing- Reserved Outgoing-Reserved

B Intelligence
C Stable-Emotional
E Dominant-Submissive
F Sober-Happy-go-lucky
G Conscientious-Expedient
H Venturesome-Shy
I Tough-minded-Tender-minded
L Trusting-Suspicious
M Imaginative-Practical
N Shrewd-Forthright

19
O Apprehensive-Placid
Q1 Radical-Conservative
Q2 Self-sufficient-Group-dependent
Q3 Undisciplined-Controlled
Q4 Relaxed-Tense

The test which we are going to use for is the internet version of the 16PF test called
as 16 Preliminary IPIP. The test consists of 164 statements of yourself, for which
the subject has to choose any one of the five options i.e.

 strongly disagree,
 disagree,
 neither agree nor disagree,
 agree,
 strongly agree.

There is no right or wrong answers. The test requires at most 10 minutes to complete.

The test can be used for different purposes:

 self-awareness
 personal career development
 relationship counselling
 HR development
 Teamwork development
 Leadership development

Reliability:
The psychometric properties of the fifth edition of the 16PF are well documented in its
technical manual. The mean test-retest reliability (aka coefficient of stability) for the
Primary Factor scales over a two-week and two-month period are 0.80 and 0.70
respectively. The internal consistency-reliability (aka coefficient alpha) averages 0.76.
Reliability coefficients for the Global Factor scales are higher, because they are
aggregates of several positively correlated Primary Factors. Given the length and
breadth of the scales, the reliability estimates are considered sufficiently high to
provide meaningful personnel and career guidance.

Validity:
Validity studies reported in the technical manual and in the research literature provide
a considerable amount of evidence regarding the construct and criterion-related
validity of the primary and global 16PF scales. Many studies have found high
correlations between trait scores for 16PF scales and those of other well-known
personality inventories (i.e., the Personality Research Form, the California
Psychological Inventory, and the NEO Personality Inventory). This suggests that the
16PF scales do indeed assess the traits they are purported to measure. Occupational
and social psychologists have also found 16PF scales to be good predictors of a
number of important social outcomes, ranging from leadership effectiveness to drug
use to creative achievement. As indicated by a recent comparative study of several
major personality instruments, the 16PF was among the best in predicting a number
of behavioural acts.

Materials Required:
Any device (mobile or laptop) with working internet connection, Stop watch(not
essential), pencil, paper and eraser.

Participant’s profile:
Name: ABC
Age: 26
Gender: Male

20
 Education: post graduate
Occupation: teacher.

Procedure and administration:

The test requires a standard procedure for conducting the test.

Preparation:

All the materials were kept ready before the test

Rapport:

A rapport was build up with the subject. Everything regarding the test was explained to the
subject before the test. The subject was well informed about the purpose of the test and how
the test is conducted. Any queries related to the test were answered. The subject was
ensured that results will be kept confidential.

Introspective Report:

After the successful completion of the test the subject was asked how he felt about the test.
Subject reported, “The test was very good. The questions were quite fundamental and are
designed in such a way that they will really bring out the real person.”

Test scoring and interpretation:

Following are the screenshots of the test conducted online:

21
 Scoring :
Following is the screenshot of the scores acquired by the subject.

Interpretation:
As per the test results it was interpreted that the scoring was done between 0 to 4
and the subject scored:
Between (0 to 1.5)- 2 factors(O, Q4)- low score
Between (1.5 to 2.5) – 6 factors ( B,F, H ,L, M, Q3) – average score
Between (2.5 to 4) – 8 factors (A, C, E, G, I, N, Q1, Q2) – high score

Discussion:
The subject according to 16PF is an outgoing person who is kind and helpful. He is
generous in his personal relationship. Intellectually he is an abstract thinker. He is
emotionally stable and thus is mature and adaptive. The subject has dominating nature
and thus can be bossy and could be stubborn. The person is lively and thus will be
socially acceptable and happy go lucky. He works according to the rules thus he will be
dutiful, moralistic and rule bound.
He is socially intimated and shy. The subject is sensitive person, tender minded and
refined. The subject could be trustworthy. The subject is practical and solution oriented.
The person is shrewd and diplomatic. The person worries less and is self-satisfied. The
person is open to change and is liberal. The person is self-reliant, solitary, resourceful,
individualistic and self-sufficient. The person might be careless of social rules and
uncontrolled. The subject is placid relaxed and patient.

Conclusion:
The test successfully provided a brief profiling of the subject. The subject agreed with most of
the findings.

References:

Books
IGNOU self-learning material
Handbook on practicum IGNOU
Websites
https://openpsychometrics.org/tests/16PF.php (accessed on 20.3.2021)

22
 http://career.iresearchnet.com/career-assessment/sixteen-personality-questionnaire-
16pf/ (accessed on 20.3.2021)
Activity – 6
Title:

Halo effect experiment

Aim:

To understand the concept of halo effect, its advantages, applications and disadvantages.

Introduction:

The halo effect is a type of cognitive bias in which our overall impression of a person
influences how we feel and think about their character. Essentially, your overall impression
of a person ("He is nice!") impacts your evaluations of that person's specific traits ("He is also
smart!"). Perceptions of a single trait can carry over to how people perceive other aspects of
that person.
One great example of the halo effect in action is our overall impression of celebrities. Since
people perceive them as attractive, successful, and often likable, they also tend to see them
as intelligent, kind, and funny.
What Is the Halo Effect?
The halo effect is also something referred to as the "physical attractiveness stereotype" and
the "what is beautiful is also good" principle.
Physical appearance is often a major part of the halo effect. People who are considered
attractive tend to be rated higher on other positive traits as well.
However, this effect doesn't just affect our perceptions of people based on their
attractiveness. It can also encompass other traits as well. People who are sociable or kind,
for example, may also be seen as more likable and intelligent. The halo effect makes it so
that perceptions of one quality lead to biased judgments of other qualities.
The term itself uses the analogy of a halo to describe how it can affect perceptions. In
religious art, a halo is often portrayed over a saint's head, bathing the individual in a
heavenly light to show that that person is good.
When you see someone through the lens of the halo effect, you are seeing them cast in a
similar light. That "halo" created by your perception of one characteristic covers them in the
same way.
The History of the Halo Effect
Psychologist Edward Thorndike first coined the term in a 1920 paper titled "The Constant
Error in Psychological Ratings." In the experiment described in the paper, Thorndike asked
commanding officers in the military to evaluate a variety of qualities in their subordinate
soldiers. These characteristics included such things as leadership, physical appearance,
intelligence, loyalty, and dependability.
Thorndike's goal was to determine how ratings of one quality bled over to assessments of
other characteristics. He found that high ratings of a particular quality correlated to high
ratings of other characteristics, while negative ratings of a specific quality also led to lower
ratings of other characteristics.

Description of experiment for the activity:

The Halo Effect: Evidence for Unconscious Alteration of Judgments is an experiment

conducted by Richard E. Nisbett and Timothy DeCamp Wilson (1977) in which Two different
videotaped interviews were staged with the same individual—a college instructor who spoke
English with a European accent. In one of the interviews the instructor was warm and friendly,

23
 in the other, cold and distant. The subjects who saw the warm instructor rated his
appearance, mannerisms, and accent as appealing, whereas those who saw the cold
instructor rated these attributes as irritating These results indicate that global evaluations of a
person can induce altered evaluations of the person's attributes, even when there is sufficient
information to allow for independent assessments of them. Furthermore, the subjects were
unaware of this influence of global evaluations on ratings of attributes. In fact, the subjects
who saw the cold instructor actually believed that the direction of influence was opposite to
the true direction. They reported that their dislike of the instructor had no effect on their
ratings of his attributes but that their dislike of his attributes had lowered their global
evaluations of him.

Responses on the basis of experiment:

1. The key takeaways from the main experiment.

a. The global evaluation of a person may alter the interpretation of the meaning or
evaluation of ambiguous attributes. Thus, if one is told that a warm and friendly
person is impetuous, a quite different set of behaviours come to mind from those
that occur when one is told that the impetuous person is angry and hostile.
b. Global evaluations may be capable of altering perceptions of even relatively
unambiguous stimuli, about which the individual has sufficient information to render
a confident judgment. For example, a person's appearance may be perceived as
more attractive if we like the person than if we do not.
c. The halo effect involves much more than influence on presumptions about
attributes or interpretations of the meaning of attributes, but extends to alteration of
judgments about attributes for which we generally assume we are capable of
rendering independent assessments.

2. How is halo effect being used to one’s advantage?

There are various fields in which halo effect can be used to one’s advantage, they are as
follows,
a. At school, the students with attractive personalities tend to be smart and intelligent
and teacher favours such students thus, grades of such students are more as
compared to average looking student. It also includes how teacher are perceived
by students a good looking teacher is supposed to warm and friendly.
b. In marketing a product is endorsed by a famous celebrity thus creating the halo
effect of that product.
c. In politics, the politician uses warm and friendly behaviour thus creating an halo
effect of oneself never talking about the actual problems.
d. At workplace, a good looking person is supposed to be hard working and get
always praised by the boss.
e. At interviews, showing good communication skills and confidence can land up a
job.

3. Find the application and common uses of halo effect.

a. Marketers take advantage of the halo effect to sell products and services. When a
celebrity spokesperson endorses a particular item, our positive evaluations of that
individual can spread to our perceptions of the product itself.
b. The halo effect can also be used in the case of institutions as one's favourable
perceptions regarding an aspect of an organization could determine positive view
on its entire operations. For example, if a hospital is known for an excellent open
heart and cardiac program, then the community would expect it to excel in other
areas as well.
c. Advertising in one channel has been shown to have a halo effect on advertising in
another channel.

24
 d. A halo effect with regard to health, dubbed a "health halo", is used in food
marketing to increase sales of a product; it can result in increased consumption of
the product in the halo which may be unhealthy.

4. Is there any relationship between learned behaviour and halo effect?

We have all been told that first impressions are important. How important would you
say they are and at what point in life do they begin to matter? Would you believe it if
someone told you that unattractive infants have significantly lower developmental
skills? Although this may not be scientifically true, 64% of parents believe this. In fact,
this kind of presumption does not stop with infant abilities but continues in the
classroom, work area, and even when choosing politicians?

The halo effect is described as a cognitive tendency to place particular traits or

expectations on someone based on perceptions of a former trait .Simply put this
suggests that, what is beautiful is good (i.e. beautiful people are smarter). This
tendency is a learned behaviour that everyone experiences from the time they are
children. In fairy tales such as, Cinderella, those who are good are often presented as
beautiful princesses and handsome princes, while the ‘evil doers' are often referred to
as ‘ugly step sisters' or ‘beasts'. The attractive characters are often portrayed as
honest and trustworthy, while unattractive ones are crooks and villains. Is there any
scientific evidence behind this theory and if so do they lead to greater implications
within society?

It is apparent that one's first impressions of another affect their successive

interactions and that one's expectations influence another's behaviour. But can a
pupil's attractiveness also influence a teacher's judgment on that student's IQ, social
status with peers, parental attitude toward school, and future educational
accomplishments? Yes, studies show that teachers did perceive attractive children to
have a greater potential for education than those who were unattractive. What does
this mean? This suggests that not only were they expected to perform better based
upon the way they looked, but because of this they were given more attention and
favoured by the teachers leading to a higher grade increase within a six month period.
Thus, within society, the consequences of the halo effect can lead to an inequality in
education.

Another place in society where the halo effect appears is within the work
environment. Though this is tackled in human resource training it is said to be an
unconscious judgment and even if we were told that our judgments are affected by
the halo effect, we may still have no clue when it influences us. This is interesting
because not only is one often guilty of prejudging but it does not seem to go through a
part of brain where one can pin point its occurrence. So how unbiased are
interviewers and recruiters? Some research shows that people who are determined to
be attractive make about 5% more than people considered to be unattractive and are
often promoted before their employee counterparts. According to these statistics it is
clear that the more attractive you are the better chance in the job market. A similar
trend is noted in dating, people select for a more attractive counterpart than
themselves. Women tend to choose men who are taller, more attractive, and smarter
than they are (same as men). According to these trends attractive people are not only
making more money but also highly selected for. It seems as though we are a society
selectively breeding for beauty and brains.

Throughout the research, the different studies that were done with infants, school
aged student, and adults were of great interest. I realized that the way we treat
attractive people is a learned behaviour and that many of our choices are made
without our knowledge. This cognitive tendency affects our lives in so many ways yet
goes unnoticed almost every time. The idea that the halo effect, something so small,
can affect major decisions as well as the way we interact with people in our lives
leaves room for lots of issues.

25
Conclusion:

From the above activity we were able to understand what is meant by halo effect, its
applications, advantages and disadvantages.

References:

Books
IGNOU self-learning material
Handbook on practicum IGNOU
Websites
https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/92158/TheHaloEffect.pdf
(accessed on 20.3.2021)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halo_effect
(accessed on 20.3.2021)
https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-the-halo-effect-2795906
(accessed on 20.3.2021)
https://serendipstudio.org/exchange/organizedkhaos/halo-effect-learned-behavior
(accessed on 20.3.2021)

26
 Annexure 1

Interview questions and responses for activity 3.

Researcher: Tell me your full name and when and where you were born.

Subject: My full name is Keshav Balkrishna Phadnis. I was born on 22nd November,1932 in Pune.

Researcher: Do you know why you were given that name?

Subject: My mother named her children after different names of God. So, I was also named in the
same way.

Researcher: Tell me about your parents and grandparents.

Subject: I am a posthumous boy so I didn’t see my father. My mother was a very staunch woman of
that era who raised us with morals and values, though she had not received higher education
formally. Unfortunately, I don’t know anything about my grandparents.

Researcher: What about your brothers and sisters?

Subject: I had 5 elder brothers. They all have passed away.

Researcher: What was your home like growing up?

Subject: I was born and brought up in Pune in very humble surroundings. We used to live in the town
which was the heart of the city. The house though was not big in size but was definitely big enough to
accommodate 6 little children with their single mother.

Researcher: Did you have a nickname growing up?

Subject: I was and am still called Nana.

Researcher: Tell me about your friends.

Subject: I have had a limited friend circle. Some have passed away and couple of them are
fortunately surviving.

Researcher: What was your favorite subject in school/high school/college?

Subject: My favourite subject has always been Marathi literature.

Researcher: Ur educational qualification?

Subject: I graduated with a Bachelor’s degree in Economics.

.Researcher: Were you ever in the service?

Subject: Yes, I did serve for about 35 years.

Researcher: What did you do in the service?

Subject: I was a banker and retired as the Regional Manager of a nationalized bank.

Researcher: What was your first job?

Subject: My first job was of a Drawing Teacher in one of the reputed schools of Pune

Researcher: What’s your earliest memory?

27
Subject: My earliest memory is witnessing the poverty around me when I was growing up.

Researcher: What kind of music did you like?

Subject: I have always liked Indian Classical Music and Gazals

Researcher: How did you and your spouse meet?

My spouse and I grew in the same neighbourhood and our marriage was a mere accident.

Researcher: What were your children like when they were little?

Subject: I had only one son and his childhood was like any other boy.

Researcher: How are you coping physically and psychologically at this age?

Subject: I feel that age is just a number. But people tend to glorify their old age and their misery
coming out of it. I see old people of my age losing their inner strength too early. I am glad that I don’t
really live like them. I feel and think that people should rather live gracefully till the end.

Researcher: Do you think you will be able to operate smart phones and computers at this age?

Subject: I don’t feel that learning smart gadgets would be difficult for me at this age but frankly
speaking I am not that interested in them as I personally feel that they make you dependent.

Researcher: Any regrets about life?

Subject: I have never held regrets about life.

Researcher: Any advice to new generation?

Subject: I feel that new generation is smart and capable enough to live their life wisely so my advice
to them would be to continue to live in the same fashion.

Researcher: What is the most important thing you’ve learned during your life?

Subject: The only thing that I have been learning throughout the life is humanity.

28