Unit-1

Chapter 1
Set Theory

This chapter deals with the most fundamental items in Mathematics- the Sets.

1.1 Definition of Set:

A set is any collection of well defined objects.
Example: 1) The set of all integers.
2) The set of all letters of the alphabet.
3) The students of this class etc.
1.1.1 Notation:
Sets are usually denoted by capital letters, e.g A, B, X, Y
And elements are usually denoted by lower case letters, e.g. a, b, x, y.
The objects in a set are called its element or members. Set can be represented in two
forms;
1) A = {a, b, c} ---- tabular form
The elements are separated by commas and enclosed in brackets { }.
2) Let B be the set of all even numbers, then, B = {x│x is even} ---- This is known as
set builder form which is read as “B is the set of number x such that x is even” the
vertical line “│” is read “such that”.
* If an object x is a member of a set A, then we write x  A, which can also be read “x
belongs to A” or ‘x is in A’.
On the other hand, if an object x is not a member of set A, then we write x  A.

1.1.2 Finite and Infinite sets:

A set is finite if it contains a finite number of different elements; otherwise the
set is infinite.
A = {1, 3, 5} ------ Finite set
B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5…….} ----- Infinite set.
1.1.3Equity of two sets:
Two sets A and B are said to be equal if and only if every member of A is a
member B and every member of B is a member of A. We express this as A = B.
Let A = {1, 2, 4, 6} and B = {4, 1, 6, 2}, then A = B
* A set does not change if its elements are rearranged.
Let A = {5, 6, 7, 5, 7} and B = {5, 6, 7}, then A = B
* A set does not change if its elements are repeated.
1.1.4 Empty set or null set:
A set which has no element is called the empty or null set. It is denoted by Φ
and written as Φ = { }.
1.1.5 Singleton set:
A set having only one element is called a singleton.
Example: S = {m} or P = {7}

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1.1.6 Subset:
If every element of a set is also an element of another set, then the first one is called a
subset of the second one.
Suppose sets C and D are such that C = {b, c, d} and D = {a, b, c, d, e} then C is a
subset of D and the relationship is written as C  …. D (read as C is contained in D)
or D  C (read as D contains C)
1.1.7 Proper subset:
A is a proper subset of B if A is a subset of B and if A is not equal to B. More briefly
A is a proper subset of B if A  B and A ≠ B.
1.1.8 Comparability:
The set A and B are said to be comparable if A  B or B  A.
Two sets A and B are said to be not comparable if A  B and B  A.
Example: Let A = {a, b}, B = {a, b, c} and C = {a, d}. Then A is comparable to B, since
A  B and C is not comparable since C  B and B  C.
1.1.9 Set of sets:
If all the elements of a set are sets them selves then it is called a set of sets or family
of sets or class of sets.
Example: A = {{1, 3}, {3}, {2, 5}}
1.1.10 Universal set:
If all sets under consideration are subsets a fixed set, then the fixed set is called the
universal set. We denoted it by U.
Example: Total population of the world.
A = {a, b, c, d}, B = {m, n, o, p} and U = {a, b,………..,y, z}
1.1.11 Power set:
The family of all the subsets of any set S is called the power set of S. We denote the
power set of S by 2 s or P(s).
Example: Let S = {a, b}
Then 2 s = {  , {a}, {b}, {a, b}}
If a set S is infinite, say S has n elements, then the power set of S can be shown to
have 2 n .
1.1.12 Disjoint set:
If sets A & B have no element in common, then A & B are disjoint set.
Example: A = {a, b, c}
B = {x, y, z}
1.1.13 Venn-Euler diagram:
A Venn diagram is a pictorial representation of sets where sets are represented
by enclosed area as in the plane. The universal set is represented by the points (or space)
in a rectangle, and the other sets which are subsets of the universal set, are represented by
circles lying within the rectangle.

1.2 Set operation:

1.2.1 Union: The union of sets A and B is the set of all elements which belong to A or to
B or to both. We denote the union of A and B by A  B.
Example: A = {a, b, c, d}, B = {c, d. e, f}

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 A  B = {a, b, c, d, e, f}
We can also write A  B = {x¦ x  A or x  B}
 The union of two sets that A  B and B  A are the same set i.e. A  B = B  A
 Both A and B are always sub sets of A  B i.e. A  A  B & B  A  B

1.2.2 Intersections:
The intersection of set A and B is the set of elements which are common to A & B, i.e.
those elements which belong to A and which also belong to B. We denote the intersection
as A  B.
Example: Let A = {a, b, c, d}
B = {a, c, e, f, g}
A  B = {a, c}
The intersection of A and B may also be denoted concisely by, A  B = {x¦ x  A and
x  B}
 A  B = B  A.
 If A and B are disjoint then A  B = 
Example: If A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {4, 5}, then A  B = 
1.2.3 Complement: The absolute complement or simply complement of a set A is the set
of elements which belong to the Universal set U but which do not belong to set A. It is
denoted by A  or Ac .
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, and U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
Then we get A  = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9} and B  = {1, 2, 8, 9}
1.2.4 Difference:
The difference of sets A and B is the set of elements which belong to A but which do not
belong to B. We denote the difference of A and B by A-B which is read “A difference B”
A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, C = {6, 7, 8, 9}
A - B = {1, 2}, B - C = {3, 4, 5}, B - A = {5, 6, 7}, C - B = {8, 9}
1.2.5 Symmetric difference:
The symmetric difference of the sets A and B, denoted by A  B consists of those
elements which belong to A or B but not to both A and B.
That is A  B = (A  B)–(A  B)
Or, A  B = (A–B)  (B–A)

1.3 Solved Problems

i) Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, C = {6, 7, 8, 9}

A  B = {1, 2, 5, 6, 7} and B  C = {3, 4, 5, 8, 9}

ii) If A = {a, b, c, d, e, f}
B = {a, e, i, o, u}
C = {m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u}
Find a) A  B b) A  B c) A  B  C d) A  B  C

Solution:
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 a) A  B = {a, b, c, d, e, f, i, o, u}
b) A  B = {a, e}
c) A  B  C = {a, b, c, d, e, f, i, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u}
d) A  B  C = { } = 
iii) If A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {3, 4, 5, 6}, C = {4, 5, 6, 7}
Find a) A-B, b) (A  B)-C, c) A-(B  C), d) (A  B)-(B  C)

Solution:
a) A-B = {1, 2}
b) A  B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
C = {4, 5, 6, 7}
(A  B)-C = {1, 2, 3}
c) A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
B  C = {4, 5, 6}
A-(B  C) = {1, 2, 3}
d) A  B = {3, 4}
B  C = {4, 5, 6}
  B)-(B  C) = {3}
(A
iv) If  = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
A = {1, 4, 7, 10}
B = {2, 5, 8}
Find a) A  , b) B  , c) A  B  , d) A   B  , e) A   B
Solution:
a) A  = {2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9}
b) B  = {1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10}
c) A  B  = {1, 4, 7, 10}
d) A   B  = {3, 6, 9}
e) A   B = {2, 5, 8}

v) Find the power set of a) {1, 2}, b) {m, n, p}, c) {3, 4, 5, 6}

Solution:
a) A = {1, 2}
This set has two elements: the power set of A will have 22 = 4 elements.
P (A) = {{1}, {2}, {1, 2}, { }}
b) B = {m, n, p}
Power set of B will have 23 = 8 elements
P (B) = {{m}, {n}, {p}, {m, n}, {n, p}, {p, m}, {m, n, p}, { }}
c) C = {3, 4, 5, 6}
Power set of C will have 24 = 16 elements
P (C) = {{3}, {4}, {5}, {6}, {3, 4}, {3, 5} {3, 6}, {4, 5}, {4, 6}, {5, 6}, {3, 4, 5},
{3, 5, 6}, {4, 5, 6}, {4, 3, 6}, {3, 4, 5, 6}, { }}

1.4 Algebra of sets

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Sets under the operations of union, Intersection and complement satisfy various laws i.e.
identities:
1) Idempotent laws:
a) A  A = A b) A  A = A
2) Associative laws:
a) (A  B)  C = A  (B  C)
b) (A  B)  C = A  (B  C)
3) Commutative laws:
a) A  B = B  A b) A  B = B  A
4) Distributive laws:
a) A  (B  C) = (A  B)  (A  C)
b) A  (B  C) = (A  B)  (A  C)
5) Identity laws:
a) A   = A, b) A   = A, c) A   =  , d) A   = 
6) Complement laws:
a) A  A  =  , b) A  A  =  , c) ( A) = A, d)  =  , e)   = 
7) De- Morgan’s laws:
a) ( A  B) = A   B  , b) ( A  B) = A   B 
Prove this by example:

1.5 Application of set theory:

If A is a finite set. We denote the number of elements in A by n (A).
If A and B are two finite sets, then n (A  B) = n (A) + n (B) – n (A  B)
n (a) = n (A) – n (A  B)
n (b) = n (A  B)
n (c) = n (B) – n (A  B)
n (d) = n (  ) – n (a) – n (b) –n (c)
Or, n (d) = n (  ) – n (A) + n (A  B) – n (A  B) – n (B) + n (A  B)
n (A  B  C) = n (A) + n (B) + n (c) – n (A  B) – n (B  C) – n (A  C)
– n (A  C  B)

1.5.1 Use of Venn-Euler Diagram to solve these problems

Problem-1:
Consider the following data among 110 students in a college dormitory:
30 students are on a list A (taking Accounting),
35 students are on a list of B (Biology), 20 students are on both lists.
Find the number of students
a) On exactly one of the two lists
b) On neither list

Solution :

n (A  B) = n (A) + n (B) – n (A  B)
= 30 + 35 – 20 = 45
a) n(A) = 30

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n (A – B) = n (A) – n (A  B) = 30 – 20 = 10
Similarly n (B – A) = n (B) – n (A  B)
= 35 – 20 = 15
The students that are exactly at one of the two lists are in
n ( A  B ) + n ( B  A ) = 10 + 15 = 25.
b) On neither list by Demorgan’s law
n ( AC  B C ) = n ( ( A  B) C ) = n (  ) – n (A  B) = 110 – 45 = 65

Problem-2:
In a survey of 30 students, it was found that 19 take Mathematics, 17 take Music, 11
take History, 7 take Mathematics and History, 12 take Mathematics and Music, 5 take
Music and History and 2 take all three courses. Find------
1) The number of students that take Mathematics but do not take History
2) The number that take exactly two of the three courses.

Solution:
Let  be the universal set, M, N, H represent the set of the students who take
Mathematics, Music and History respectively.
Then,
n (  ) = 30
n(M) = Mathematics =19
n (N) = Music = 17
n (H) = History =11
n (M  N) = 12
n (M  H) = 7
n (M  N  H) = 2
n (N  H) = 5

The above information is shown in the above Venn-diagram. So the required solutions
can be calculated from the diagram as:

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 1) n(M - H) = n(M) - n( M  H ) = 19 - 7 = 12
2) {n( M  N ) - n(M  N  H) }+ { n(M  H) - n(M  N  H) }
+ { n(N  H) - n(M  N  H) }=(12-2) + (7-2) + (5-2) = 10 + 5 + 3 = 18

Problem-3:
Consider the following data for 120 mathematics students:
65 study French, 45 study German, 42 study Russian,
20 study French & German, 25 study French & Russian, 15 study German & Russian,
8 study all three languages.
a) Find the number of students studying at least one of the three languages i.e. n
(F  G  R)
b) Fill in the correct number of students in each of the eight regions of the Venn
diagram.

Solution:
n (U) = 120 n ( F  G ) =20 n ( F  R ) = 25
n (F) = 65 n ( G  R ) = 15 n (F G  R ) = 8
n (G) = 45
n (R) = 42

b)

a) n ((F  G  R) = n (F) + n (G) + n (R) – n (F  G) – n (G  R) – n (R  F) + n

(F  G  R) = 65 + 45 + 42 – 20 – 25 – 15 + 8 = 160 – 60 = 100

1.6 Supplementary Problems

1.6.1 Which of the following sets are equal ?

A= x : x 2  4 x  3 0 B= x : x 2  3x  2 0 C= x : x  P, x  3 
D= x : x  P, xisodd , x  5  E= 1,2 G= 3,1 H= 1,1,3  F= 1,2,1 

1.6.2
List the elements of the following sets if the universal set is U = {a, b, c, . . . , y, z}.
Furthermore, identify
Q which of the sets, if any, are equal.

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A={x: x is a vowel}, C={x: x precedes f in the alphabet}
B={x: x is a letter in the word” little”} , D={x: x is a letter in the word” Title”}

1.6.3 A = {1,2,...,8,9}, B= {2,4,6,8} ,C = {1,3,5,7,9} ,D={3,4,5} ,E={3,5}

Which of the above sets can equal a set X under each of the following conditions?

(a) X and B are disjoint. (b) X  A but X  C.

(c) X  D but X  B. (d) X  C but X  A.

1.6.4 Consider the following sets:
, A = {a}, B = {c,d},
C = {a,b,c,d},
D = {a,b},
E = {a,b,c,d,e}.
Insert the correct symbol,  or  , between each pair of sets:
(a)  , A (b) A,B
(c) B,C (d) D,A
(e) B, C (f) C,D
(g) C, D (h) B, D

SET OPERATIONS
1.6.5 Let U = {I, 2, 3,...,8, 9} be the universal set and let:
A-{1, 2, 5, 6}, B-{2,5,7}, C-{1,3,5,7,9}
Find: (a) A  B and A  C, (b) A  B and A  C, (c) A-C and C-C.

1.6.6 For the sets in Problem 1.6.5 find: (a) A\B and A\C, (b) A  B and A  C.

1.6.7 For the sets in Problem 1.6.5 find: (a) (A  C)\B, (b) (A  B)-C, (c) (B  C)\A.
1.6.8 Let A = {a,b,c,d,e}, B = {a,b,d,f,g}, C = {b,c,e,g,h}, D = {d,e,f,g,h}. Find:
a) A  B (c) B  C (e) C\D (g) A  B
(b) C  D (d) A  D ,(f) D\A (h) A  C
1.6.9 For the sets in Problem 1.6.8 find:
a) A  (B  D) (c) (A  D)\C .(e) (C\A)\D
(b) B\(C  D) ,(d) B  C  D (f) (A  D)\B

(g) (A  D)\(B  C) ,(h) (A\C)  (B  D)

1.6.10 Let A and B be any sets. Prove AU B is the disjoint union of A\B, A  B,

and B\A.

1.6.11 Prove the following:

(a) A  B if and only if A  B c = Ø

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(b) A  B if and only if B c  A c  A = U
(c) A  B if and only if A c  B =U (d) A  B if and only if A\B = 

(Compare with Theorem 1.3.)

1.6.12 Prove the absorption laws: (a) A  (A  B) = A, (b) A  (A  B) = A.

1.6.13 The formula A\B = A  B c defines the difference operation in terms of the
operations of inters complement. Find a formula that defines the union A  B in terms
of the operations of inters complement.

1.6.14 (a) Prove: A  (B\C) = (A  B)\(A  C).

(b) Give an example to show that (B\C)-A = (A  B)\(A  C).

1.6.15 Prove the following properties of the symmetric difference:

(a) A  (B  C) = (A  B)  C (Associative law)
(b) A  B = B  A (Commutative law)
(c) If A  B = A  C, then B = C (Cancellation law)
(d) A  (B  C) = (A  B)  (A  C) (Distributive law)

1.6.16 The Venn diagram shows sets A, D, C. Shade the following sets:
(a) A\(D  C), (b) A c  (B  C), (c) (A  C)  (D  C).

1.6.17 Write the dual of each equation:

(a) A = ( B c  A)  (A  D)  ( A  B) , (b) (A  B)  (A  B c )  ( A c  B) 
( Ac  B c ) = U
.
1.6.18 Use the laws in 1.4 to prove:?
(a) (A  B c )  (A  B) = A,
(b) A  B = (A  B c )  ( A c  B)  (A  B)

FINITE SETS AND THE COUNTING PRINCIPLE

1.6.19 Determine which of the following sets are finite:

(a) lines parallel to the x axis, (b) letters in the English alphabet, (c) months in the year,
(d) animals living on the earth, (e) circles through the origin (0,0), if) positive multiple of 5.

1.6.20 Given n( U) =20, n( A) =12, n( B) =9, n(A  B) =4. Find,

(a) n(A  B), (b) n( A c ), (c) n ( B c ), (d) n(A\B), (e) n (  ).

1.6.21 Among the 90 students in a dormitory, 35 own an automobile, 40 own a bicycle,

and 10 have both an automobile and a bicycle. Find the number of the students who:
(a) do not have an automobile.
(b) have an automobile or a bicycle;
(c) have neither an automobile nor a bicycle;

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(d) have an automobile or a bicycle, but not both.

1.6.22 Among 120 Freshmen at a college, 40 take mathematics, 50 take English, and 15
take both mathematics and English. Find the number of the Freshmen who:
(a) do not take mathematics; (d) take English, but not mathematics;
(b) take mathematics or English;(e) take exactly one of the two subjects;
(c) take mathematics, but not English; if) take neither mathematics nor English.

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