Unit 1 & Unit 2

[concise version]

Computer is a device that computes, especially a programmable electronic machine that

performs high-speed mathematical or logical operations or that assembles, stores, correlates, or
otherwise processes information. It is an electronic device that accepts user input (data) and
processes it under
the influence of a set of instructions referred to as programs to produce the desired output
generally referred to as information.
• Data are the raw facts may not make much meaning to the user.
• Programs are set of instructions that instruct a computer what to do.
• Information is result after data has been processed.
There are 4 basic types of computer parts:
a) Input devices - parts of the computer that allow data to be given to the computer like
keyboard, mouse, scanner, and joystick.
b) Processing device – It is a part of the computer that processes and controls the flow of
instructions and information; it actually does the work. The one part of the computer that
handles this job is the central processing unit or CPU. It has three main parts : Control Unit
(CU), ALU (Arithmetic and Logic Unit) and main memory which comprises of ROM (Read
Only Memory) and RAM ( Random Access Memory )
c) Output devices – These are the parts of the computer that gives out information generated
by the computer, like a monitor, printer or speaker.

d) Storage devices – These are the parts of the computer that holds information. There are two
types of memory. The primary storage device is the part of motherboard in the CPU. ROM
holds the booting programs to start the computer. RAM (random access memory)
remembers everything that is read, input, or output. But, because the computer’s memory is
on a temporary area—it forgets everything when turned off—it must have another place to
store information permanently. This secondary storage device is usually a disk. Examples of
secondary storage devices are blu-ray disc, CD-ROM, CD-RW, pendrive etc.

Example of Input device : SCANNER

 A scanner is a device that converts physical documents, images, or objects into
digital formats that can be viewed, edited, and stored on a computer. Scanners
are similar to digital photocopiers that capture the contents of an image or
document and save it as a file

Here are some types of scanners and their descriptions:

• Optical Mark Reader (OMR) scans marked fields on pre-printed forms, such as bubbles or checkboxes,
to extract data electronically. OMR is often used to process large numbers of hand-filled forms quickly and
accurately. For example, schools and colleges use OMR to scan multiple-choice tests where students fill in
ovals to indicate their answers.
• Optical Character Reader (OCR) converts printed or handwritten text into editable text using optical
scanners. OCR can read scanned paper documents, PDF files, or images from digital cameras to create
machine-encoded text. OCR is used in banks to read check numbers, and to sort millions of letters and
magazines each day.
• Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) uses magnetic ink to print codes on checks that can be
read even if overwritten. MICR is often used in banks to process large numbers of checks, as it's fast and
less error-prone. MICR readers extract encoded data from checks when they're deposited at a bank, which
is then used to verify the check's validity and ensure there are sufficient funds. MICR is also used in
automated payment systems and other documents, such as deposit slips and financial forms.
• Barcode reader Uses a rotating mirror wheel to deflect a laser beam over a barcode at frequencies
between 200 Hz and 1200 Hz

Types of
Computer

Digital Analogue Hybrid

Mainframe Mini Micro Super

Embedded PC Workstation

Desktop Laptop Notebook Subnotebook PDA

Palmtop Tablet Handheld Pocket

• Digital Computers: Digital Computer counts and answers the questions how many. The
input data is represented by a number
number.. These are used for logical and arithmetic operations.
These computers work on digital signal , so that bad noises or signals can be eliminated.
eliminate

o Signals are of two levels (0 V or 5 V)

V).
o Accuracy Limited.
o Low speed sequential as well as parallel processing
processing.
o Output is continuous but obtain when computation is completed.
Digital Signal
o Examples are PC, Workstation, PDA, Laptop, Palmtop computers.

PDA
PC – Desktop Computer

• Analogue Computer: Analogue Computer measures and answers the questions how
much. The input data is not a number infect a physical quantity like temperature , pressure,
spped and velocity.. These are used for logical and arithmetic operations. These computers
work on digital signal , so that bad noises or signals can be eliminated.
o Signals are of voltages.
o Accuracy 1% % approximately.
o High speed.
o Output is continuous
Analogue Signal
o Time is wasted in transmission time.
o Examples are voltmeter, ammeter, oscilloscope etc.

Voltmeter
Oscilloscope

• Hybrid Computer: These types of computers are, as the name suggests,

s, a combination of
Analogue and Digital Computers. The Digital Computers which work on the principle of
binary digit system of 0 and 1 can give very precise results. But
the problem is that they are slow and incapable of large scale
mathematical operations. In the hybrid type of computers the
Digital counterparts
erparts convert the analogue
Ultrasonography –
signals to perform Robotics and Process
USG machine Control.
 • Examples are ECG machine, USG machine used in medical fields.

Electrocardiogram –
ECG device

Super Computers

Unlike other variety of computers supercomputers are used for the scientific research and complex
performance specific operations like weather maps, construction of atom bombs, finding oil,
earthquake prediction, and sciences where a lot of calculations must be done. Historically, a
supercomputer is associated with the fastest computer available or the largest in size.
Supercomputing means "mass computing at ultra high speed." The speed of Supercomputer is
measured in FLOPS (Floating Point Operation Per Seconds) unlike other types of Computers where
speed of those computers are measured in MIPS (Million Instructions Per Second). Those
contemporary personal computers perform in the tens or hundreds of millions of calculations per
second; they still cannot solve certain problems fast enough. Construction of supercomputers is an
awesome and very expensive task.

Characteristics:

_ Fastest computer in the world.

_ Very large and may take several rooms.

_ Used in fields that require vast amounts of complex mathematical calculations (e.g. simulating and
nuclear research ).

Minicomputers

These computers were developed and used in the early 1960s and announced a new era in
computing. These are small general purpose system. They are relatively low cost and small. It can
support the input and output requirements of many users at a time. It can be used in networked
environment as server computer. Historically, a mini is associated with de-centralized computing.

Characteristics:

_ They support fewer users than mainframes.

_ Smaller than the mainframe computer.

Examples of application _ In networking the operations in an automobile sales and service outlet.
_ In manufacturing, for inventory control, accounts and process control.

Microcomputers

A microcomputer is a computer with a microprocessor (IC or Integrated Circuits) as its central

processing unit. Another general characteristic of these computers is that they occupy physically
small amounts of space when compared to mainframe and minicomputers. Many microcomputers
(when equipped with a keyboard and screen for input and output) are also personal computers.
Monitors, keyboards and other devices for input and output may be integrated or separate.
Computer memory in the form of RAM, and at least one other less volatile, memory storage device
are usually combined with the CPU on a system bus in a single unit. Other devices that make up a
complete microcomputer system include, batteries, a power supply unit, a keyboard and various
input/output devices used to convey information to and from a human operator (printers,
monitors, human interface devices)

Microcomputers are designed to serve only a single user at a time, although they can often be
modified with software or hardware to concurrently serve more than one user. In the 1980's when
networking started to integrate into the offices PC'S became connected with network servers, and
also mainframes and supers.

Microcomputers fit well on or under desks or tables, so that they are within easy access of the user.
Bigger computers like minicomputers, mainframes, and supercomputers take up large cabinets or
even a dedicated room.

A microcomputer comes equipped with at least one type of data storage, usually RAM. Although
some microcomputers (particularly early 8-bit home micros) perform tasks using RAM alone, some
form of secondary storage is normally desirable.

Microcomputers, or PC's as they are often called, are abundant on our desks, tables, offices,
suitcases, everywhere. This is the most visible form of computers in the present world and comes in
all forms and breeds. There are many generations of particular design and technical specifications
from the start of this particular design.

Characteristics:

- Used in homes for recreation.

_ For communication through the use of internet services.

_ In an office for processing documents, designing and processing data e.g. payroll, inventory etc.
Laptops/notebooks

A laptop computer or simply laptop (also notebook computer, notebook and notepad) is a small
mobile computer, typically weighing 1.4 to 5.4 kg, although older laptops may weigh more. Laptops
usually run on a single main battery or from an external AC/DC adapter that charges the battery
while also supplying power to the computer itself even in the event of a power failure.

Laptops contain components that are similar to their desktop counterparts and perform the same
functions, but are miniaturized and optimized for mobile use and efficient power consumption,
although typically less powerful for the same price. Laptops usually have liquid crystal displays
(LCD display) or LED display. It is often utilized in battery-powered electronic devices because it
uses very small amounts of electric power.

Mainframe Computer

Mainframes are computers used mainly by large organizations for critical applications, typically
bulk data processing such as census, industry and consumer statistics, ERP, and financial
transaction processing. The term probably originated from the early mainframes, as they were
housed in enormous, room-sized metal boxes or frames. Nearly all mainframes have the ability to
run (or host) multiple operating systems and thereby operate not as a single computer but as a
number of virtual machines. In this role, a single mainframe can replace dozens or even hundreds of
smaller servers, reducing management and administrative costs while providing greatly improved
scalability and reliability. Mainframes can add or hot swap system capacity non disruptively and
granularly.

Characteristics

- Used as central database server, host computer

_ It is used in large organizations such as insurance companies and banks where many people
access the same data frequently.

Embedded Computers

Embedded computers can be compared to "computers on a chip". These are used in automatic
washing machines, automatic temperature controlling AC machine, ticket machines at the subway,
camera's, cars, motors, sewing machines, clocks etc. So specific programming or task are fabricated
in the IC or small chip to regulate, control of check something. Embedded computing is associated
with self contained pre-programmed computing.
Computer hardware is tangible physical part of a computer and related devices. Internal hardware
devices include motherboards, hard drives, and RAM. External hardware devices include monitors,
keyboards, mice, printers, and scanners.

The internal hardware parts of a computer are often referred to as components, while external
hardware devices are usually called peripherals. Together, they all fall under the category of
computer hardware.

While there are thousands of parts even in the smallest computers that make up its hardware, you
are not required to know them all. You only need to know about basic computer hardware. Basic
computer hardware consists of the following parts:

2.1.2 Types of Hardware:

Computer hardware is divided into two main categories: the system unit and peripherals. The
system unit contains the electronic components used to process and temporarily store data and
instructions. These components include the central processing unit, primary memory, and the
system board.

1. CPU (Central Processing Unit): The CPU is considered the brain of the computer. It performs all
types of data processing operations, stores data, intermediate results and instructions (program). It
controls the operation of all parts of computer. A CPU has 3 components as listed below.

(A) CU (Control Unit) The control unit (CU) is a component of a computer's central processing unit
(CPU) that directs operations of the processor. It tells the computer's memory, arithmetic logic unit
and input and output devices how to respond to a program's instructions. However, the Control
Unit doesn’t process any data.

(B) ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) Think of the ALU as the logical part of the brain. When any
mathematical calculation or decision/logic needs to be carried out, the instruction is passed on to
the ALU. The ALU thinks in bits (i.e. binary digits – ‘0’s and ‘1’s.) It is made up of a group of memory
locations built directly into the CPU called registers. These are used to hold the data (binary
information) that are being processed by the current instruction.
(C) Memory (Primary memory) is memory that is part of the computer itself and necessary for its
functioning. It consists of mainly two types of memories: Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read
Only Memory (ROM).

Let us discuss about RAM and ROM.

(i) Random Access Memory (RAM)

RAM is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program and program result. It is
read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working. As soon as the machine is
switched off, data is erased. RAM is volatile. Volatile means that the data stored in memory is lost
when we switch off the computer or if there is a power failure. Hence a backup Uninterruptible
Power System (UPS) is often used with computers. UPS is not a part of CPU. There are different
types of RAM available. Some of them are described below.

Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM): A type of physical memory which is used in most
personal computers. The term dynamic indicates that the memory must be constantly refreshed or
it loses its contents. This type of memory is more economical.

Static Random Access Memory (SRAM): A type of memory that is faster and less volatile than
DRAM, but requires more power and is more expensive. The term static is derived from the fact that
it does not need to be refreshed like DRAM.

Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory (SDRAM): A type of DRAM that has a much higher
processing speed.

(ii) Read Only Memory (ROM) The memory from which we can only read but cannot write on it.
This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories
during manufacture. A ROM, stores such instructions that are required to start a computer. This
operation is referred to as bootstrap. The different types of ROM are given below.

MROM (Masked ROM): The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that is contained a pre-
programmed set of data or instructions. These kinds of ROMs are known as masked ROMs which
are inexpensive. The MROM cannot be programmed by the user.

PROM (Programmable Read only Memory): PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only
once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM
program.
EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory): The EPROM is a type of a PROM which
can be programmed by the user multiple times. EPROM is erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light
for a duration of up to 40 minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function.

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory): The EEPROM is
programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten thousand times.
Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 milliseconds.

2. Secondary Storage (External Storage Devices): Floppy diskettes, hard disk, tapes and optical
disks come under the category of external storage devices or ancillary storage devices. These
devices are very sensitive to environmental conditions (humidity and temperature) as well as to
external magnetic fields and need to be stored carefully. They are not compulsory for the
functioning of the computer but are useful for expanding the computer’s memory.

(A) Floppy Disk Floppy disks are primarily used on PCs. Information on a floppy disk is recorded in
the magnetized states of particles of iron oxides evenly placed upon concentric circles known as
tracks.

(B) Hard Disk is a non-removable enclosed magnetic disk included in most PCs. It contains a stack
of metal platters, each coated with iron oxide, that spin on a spindle and the entire unit is encased
in a sealed chamber.

(C) Magnetic Tape is plastic tape, usually made of Mylar that is coated with iron oxide, thereby
enabling the introduction (writing); retention (memory) and reading of magnetically recorded
information. The best use of tape storage is for data that you do not use very often.

(D) Optical Disc Drive is an optical disc drive (ODD) is a disk drive that uses laser light or
electromagnetic waves for reading or writing data to or from optical discs (normally CD-ROM). A
CD-ROM is a pre-pressed optical compact disc which contains data. The name is an acronym which
stands for "Compact Disc Read-Only Memory". Computers can read CD-ROMs, but cannot write to
CD-ROMs which are not writable or erasable.

(E) USB flash drive is also commonly known as a USB drive, USB stick, pen drive and a variety of
other names. It is a data storage device that includes flash memory with an integrated USB
interface. USB flash drives are typically removable and rewritable, and physically much smaller
than an optical disc.
3. Peripherals/ Peripheral devices: These are devices connected to the computer externally. If a
peripheral device is disconnected, the computer will still be able to work; only functions performed
by this peripheral device will not be available. They are categorized into 2 types : Input device and
Output device. Here are the most used types of peripheral devices:

(A) Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps in inputting data to
the computer. It consists of keys that are capable of inputting alphabets, numbers and special
characters. You can also navigate using the keyboard and perform shortcut functions.

(B) Mouse is the most popular pointing device and cursor-control device having a small palm size
box with a round ball at its base which senses the movement of mouse and sends corresponding
signals to CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.

(C) Monitors are commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a
computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form. The
sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels.

(D) Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.

Impact Printers: The impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon which is
then pressed on the paper.

Non-Impact Printers: Non-impact printers print the characters without using ribbon. These
printers print a complete page at a time so they are also called as Page Printers. Laser Printers,
Inkjet Printers.

(E) Joy Stick is a device used to move cursor position on a monitor screen. It is mainly used in
Computer Aided Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.
(F) Scanner allows you to scan printed material and convert it into a file format that may be used
within the PC.
(G) Plotter is used to create high-quality visuals on paper. Plotters were used in applications such
as computer-aided design, though they have generally been replaced with wide-format
conventional printers. A plotter gives a hard copy of the output. It draws pictures on a paper using a
pen. It can be used to create presentation-charts, graphics, tables and high quality technical
drawings. There are two types of plotter. Drum Plotter: The paper is placed over the drum that
rotates back and forth. A carriage holding one or more pens is mounted horizontally across the
drum. The carriage with the pens moves horizontally over the paper. Each pen could be filled with
different colours. This plotter has the ability to produce colour pictures. Flat Bed Plotter: In flat bed
plotter, the paper does not move. The carriage holding the pens should provide all motions. Inkjet
plotters can also produce large drawings with different colours.

2.2 Software :
In this section you will learn about the different types of software. The programs, procedures,
routines, and symbolic languages that control the functioning of the hardware and direct its
operation is called Software. It is a collection of computer programs and related data that provides
the instructions for telling a computer what to do and how to do it. It is an interface between the
computer hardware and the user.

2.2.1 Relationship between HW and SW :

Hardware is any part of the computer that you can touch. The seeming miles of wires that get
tangled on your desk, the CD drive, the monitor are all hardware. Software, on the other hand,
consists of the programs and applications that run on computers. Software is a set of electronic
instructions consisting of complex codes (Programs) that make the computer perform tasks.
Because software runs on computer hardware, software programs often have system
requirements that list the minimum hardware required for the software to run. Firmware and
Operation System are the special software which boot up the computer. The process of starting up
computer is also known as booting up the computer. There are two kinds of booting up process:
hot boot and cold boot. Hardware of computer cannot function without the layers of software
installed on hardware.
2.2.2 Classification of Software:

2.2.3 System Software :

System software is computer software designed to operate and control the computer
hardware and to provide a platform for running application software.

• Device drivers such as computer BIOS and device firmware provide basic
functionality to operate and control the hardware connected to or built into the
computer.

• The operating system ( Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X and Linux) allows the parts of a
computer to work together by performing tasks like
transferring data between memory and disks or rendering output onto a display
device. It also provides a platform to run high-level system software and application
software. Window systems are components of a graphical user interface (GUI), and
more specifically of a desktop environment, which supports the implementation of
window managers, and provides basic support for graphics hardware, pointing
 devices such as mice, and keyboards. The mouse cursor is also generally drawn by
the windowing system.

Utility software helps to analyze, configure, optimize and maintain the computer.

Roles of System Software:-

o To minimize the amount of human intervention necessary during processing.

o To use the computer hardware in an efficient manner.

o To control the resource of a computer.

o To ensure proper environment for developing and executing programs.

o To control the job scheduling in multitasking environment.

o To translate the user input data and instructions into binary code.

o To ensure integrity and security of the system.

Three Categories of SYSTEM SOFTWARE:

System Management / Control Program: This category of system software is most

important set of programs which control program execution, manage storage units and
different processing activities, manage resources. They also perform different
monitoring and management functions. Operating System, Telecommunication software
are major System control Software.

Operating System :

The OS is an organized collection of software which is the extension of hardware,

consisting of control routines for operating a computer and for providing an
environment for execution of programs.

It creates a platform through which the user interacts with the computer.

The main function of the OS :

• Process Scheduling and Management: the OS manages one program or many

programs within a computer system simultaneously. That is, this function of
operating system manages the completion of users' tasks. A scheduler is an OS
module that selects the next job to be admitted into the system and the next process
to run. It governs the order in which the work to be done by a computer system. FCFS
 ( First Come First Serve), RR( Round Robin) , SJF (Shortest Job First) are some of the
Scheduling methods.

• Memory Management: The OS manages computer system resources, including its

CPU, primary memory, virtual memory, secondary storage devices, input/output
peripherals, and other devices.

• I/O Management: An operating system manages a collection of computer hardware

resources by using a variety of programs.

• File Management: This is a function that manages data files. An operating system
contains file management programs that provide the ability to create, delete, enter,
change, ask, and access of files of data. They also produce reports on a file.

• Provide Data Security and Integrity

• Provide User-friendly environment on demand

System Support Program: The System Support Programs perform routine and
repetitive functions. Examples of System Support Programs are Monitor, Linker, Loader,
and Editor.

• Monitor: - A monitor is a program which resides in a ROM. It carries out the following
functions :

Installation of the system

Loading of the system

Control of Input and Output devices

Displaying the contents of internal CPU registers or memory locations.

Modifying the content of CPU registers or memory locations.

• Linker: - A large program is divided into a number of smaller programs, known as

modules. A linker is a program which links smaller programs together to form a large
program.

• Loader: - A loader is a program which loads object code into system memory.

• Editor: - Editors are some interactive programs which are loaded into memory and
allow the user to write a program, generate text etc. A text editor allows user to write
 source program or text into RAM. It can be copied from RAM to a file on the magnetic
disk.

System Development Program: System Development Programs help user to develop

application software. These programs convert high-level language program to machine
language.

• Language Processor: Programmers develop application programs by using high level

language, such as BASIC, COBOL, Pascal, FORTRAN, C, C++ etc. The High Level
Languages are the aid in developing programs. The syntax is as simple as English
language.

• Assembler: An assembler translates the assembly language programs into machine

language. Assembly language is an intermediate language between high-level
language and machine language. It is written in mnemonics.

• Compiler: A compiler is a translating program that translates the whole of the high-
level language source program into machine language before loading into the
computer memory.

• Interpreter: An interpreter is a translating program that translates one instruction at

a time into machine language and executes the same before translating the next
instruction.

Comparisons between Compiler and Interpreter

Compiler Interpreter

1. Translates the entire source code into machine 1. Translates the source cede line by line,
code in one go when all the syntax errors are indicated errors at each step every line
removed, execution takes place. is checked for syntax error and then
converted to equivalent machine code.

2. It has capability to store compiled code for 2. Cannot retain object code.
future usage.

3. More useful for commercial 3. More useful for learning

purposes. purpose.

4. Execution time is less. 4. Execution time is more.

 5. Slow for debugging (removal of 5. Good for fast debugging.
mistakes from a program).

2.2.4 Application Software :

Application Software is the set of software required by the computer to perform the
specific task.

• Some General Application software are MS-Office, Oracle, Foxpro, Tally etc.

• Some Special Application software are Inventory control management system,

Library management system, Network Analysis, Sales control etc.

Application software can be classified into the following various categories:

• Data Processing Software : These software package systems are readily available to
carry out the task of data processing in applications such as accounting, inventory,
payroll etc. (Tally)

Data Management Software: These allow huge amount of data handling. (My-SQL, Oracle
etc.)

• Presentation Software: Presentation Software provides a facility to prepare the

presentation material for seminars, discussions, demonstration of information
relevant to product, service or any other aspect of an organization. (3D studio,
PowerPoint, Flash etc.)

• Word Processing and Editing Software: Word Processing software packages are most
useful for preparation of text documents on computers. (MS-Word)

• Multimedia and Animation Software : Multimedia and Animation Software is meant

for preparation of films, video mixing, audio mixing, animation of stories etc. (
moviemaker)

• Spreadsheet Software : Spreadsheet Software provides functions for mathematical,

statistical calculations, data interpretations etc. (Ms-Excel , SPSS etc. )

• Productivity and CAD/CAM software: CAD/CAM software packages not only support
the design of the parts but also help manufacturing . (AutoCAD)

• Real time Software: A real time software package is useful to control a process. (
Software used in embedded system like cell phones, TV tuning etc.)
• Transaction Processing Software: Transaction Processing Software is utilized to
provide day-to-day transactions. (Software for booking tickets on Railway
Reservation System, depositing tax etc.)

• Web Application Software: This is the newest trend of software to utilize the Internet
and get the application. (Internet Explorer, Google Chrome etc.)

2.2.5 Utilities:

Utility software is system software designed to help analyze, configure, optimize or maintain a
computer. A single piece of utility software is usually called a utility or tool. Utility software usually
focuses on how the computer infrastructure (including the computer hardware, operating system,
and application software and data storage) operates.

Utility software categories

• Anti-virus utilities scan for computer viruses.

• Backup utilities can make a copy of all information stored on a disk, and restore either the
entire disk (e.g. in an event of disk failure) or selected files (e.g. in an event of accidental
deletion).

• Data compression utilities output a shorter stream or a smaller file when provided with a
stream or file.

• Data synchronization utilities establish consistency among data from a source to target data
storage and vice versa. There are several branches of this type of utility:

o File synchronization utilities maintain consistency between two sources. They may
be used to create redundancy or backup copies but are also used to help users carry
their digital music, photos and video in their mobile devices.

o Revision control utilities are intended to deal with situations where more than one
user attempts to simultaneously modify the same file.

• Disk checkers can scan operating hard drive.

• Disk cleaners can find files that are unnecessary to computer operation, or take up
considerable amounts of space. Disk cleaner helps the user to decide what to delete when
their hard disk is full.
• Disk compression utilities can transparently compress/uncompress the contents of a disk,
increasing the capacity of the disk.

• Disk defragmenters can detect computer files whose contents are broken across several
locations on the hard disk, and move the fragments to one location to increase efficiency.

• Disk partitions can divide an individual drive into multiple logical drives, each with its own
file system which can be mounted by the operating system and treated as an individual
drive.

• Disk storage utilities

• Memory testers check for memory failures.

• Network utilities analyze the computer's network connectivity, configure network settings,
check data transfer or log events.

• Screensavers were desired to prevent phosphor burn-in on CRT and plasma computer
monitors by blanking the screen or filling it with moving images or patterns when the
computer is not in use. Contemporary screensavers are used primarily for entertainment or
security.

• An antivirus utility is a program that prevents, detects, and removes viruses from a
computer's memory or storage devices. One popular antivirus program is Norton Antivirus.
An antivirus utility scans for programs that attempt to modify the boot program, the
operating system, and other programs that are normally read from but not modified.
Antivirus utilities normally look for virus signatures to identify a virus. A virus signature, or
virus definition, is a known specific pattern of virus code. Users of antivirus utilities must
update the virus definition files as often as possible to ensure that such files contain
patterns for newly discovered viruses. However, a polymorphic virus modifies its program
code each time it attaches itself to another program or file, so that even an antivirus utility
cannot detect it by its virus signature. Antivirus utilities may also detect viruses by
inoculating existing program files. To inoculate a program file, the antivirus utility records
its file size and file creation date in a separate inoculation file, and uses this information to
detect if a virus has altered the inoculated program file. However, a stealth virus infects a
program file, but still reports the size and creation date of the original, uninfected program.
If an antivirus utility cannot remove the virus, it often quarantines the infected file in a
separate area of a hard disk until the virus can be removed. Most antivirus utilities can
 create a recovery disk to remove or repair infected programs and files (e.g., boot sector
virus). In extreme cases, a hard disk may need to be reformatted to remove a virus.

Unit – 3 Internet
Computer network connects two or more autonomous computers. The computers can be
geographically located anywhere. Network in small geographical Area (Room, Building or a
Campus) is called LAN (Local Area Network) Network in a City is called MAN (Metropolitan
Area Network. Network spread geographically (Country or across Globe) is called WAN (Wide
Area Network). Internet is a type of WAN which refers to www and related applications.

Meaning of Internet:
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer
networks that use the standard Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to serve
billions of users worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of
millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks,
of local to global scope, that are linked by a broad array of electronic,
wireless and optical networking technologies.

World Wide Web (WWW): The World Wide Web is a system of interlinked hypertext documents
accessed via the Internet. With a web browser, one can view web pages that may contain text,
images, videos, and other multimedia, and navigate between them via hyperlinks. A computer is
comprised of hardware parts and peripherals but works like an intelligent body. A computer has
different layers through which a user can interact with the processor of the computer and perform
versatile operations. Computer is made up of hardware which is regulated by software as per the
user’s instructions. A special layer of software called OS or Operation System is installed on the
layer of hardware so that the device gets switched on (booting up) to start its various functions.

Basic Internet Terminologies:

HTML: Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) is the main markup language for web pages. Hyper
text is a special text which on clicking opens information related to that word. Hyper link is a link
which opens another web page when user clicks on it.

Website: It a collection of World Wide Web pages of an individual’s, a company, an organization

Firewall: A firewall is a device or set of devices designed to permit or deny network transmissions
based on a set of rules and is frequently used to protect networks from unauthorized access while
permitting legitimate communications to pass.

Many personal computer operating systems include software-based firewalls to protect against
threats from the public Internet. Many routers that pass data between networks contain firewall
components and, conversely, many firewalls can perform basic routing functions.

Firewalls are part of a good defense in depth strategy. The idea is to place several layers of
protection between your machines and the potential threats. There are some obvious threats from
the outside, so you should naturally place a firewall between the outside and your internal
network(s). Because a firewall is placed at the intersection of two networks, it can be used for many
other purposes besides simply controlling access. For example:

1) Firewalls can be used to block access to particular sites on the Internet, or to prevent certain
users or machines from accessing certain servers or services.

2) A firewall can be used to monitor communications between your internal network and an
external network. For example, you could use the firewall to log the endpoints and amount of data
sent over every TCP/IP connection between your organization and the outside world.

3) A firewall can even be used to eavesdrop and record all communications between your internal
network and the outside world.

Network Components:

• Physical Media: Optical Fiber Cables, Coaxial Cable, Radio Wave (for wireless
connection), twisted pair cable.

• Computers: Laptop, Smartphone, PDA, Notepad, workstation, Server.

• Interconnecting Devices/ Networking Devices: HUB, Switches, Routers,

Wireless Access Points (WAP), Modems (Modulator Demodulator) etc.

• Networking Software: Networking media can be defined simply as the means

by which signals (data) are sent from one computer to another (either by cable
 or wireless means). Web browsers are like Google Chrome, Opera, and Internet Explorer
etc.
• Applications: Video Conferencing App (WebEx, Google Duo, Zoom), E-Mailing Application
(Gmail, Ymail), Instant chatting App etc.

Structure of Network and Internet Protocol:

The network topology defines the way in which computers, printers, and other devices are
connected. A network topology describes the layout of the wire and devices as well as the paths
used by data transmissions.

Bus Topology: Commonly referred to as a linear bus, all the devices on a bus
topology are connected by one single cable.

• Star & Tree Topology: When installed, the star topology resembles spokes in a bicycle
wheel.
• Larger networks use the extended star topology also called tree topology. When used with
network devices like bridges, switches, and routers, this topology significantly reduces the
traffic on the wires by sending packets only to the wires of the destination host.
•
• Ring Topology: A frame travels around the ring, stopping at each node. If a node wants to
transmit data, it adds the data as well as the destination address to the frame.
• The frame then continues around the ring until it finds the destination node, which
takes the data out of the frame.

• Single ring – All the devices on the network share a single cable
• Dual ring – The dual ring topology allows data to be sent in both directions.
•

• Mesh Topology: The mesh topology connects all devices (nodes) to each other
for redundancy and fault tolerance. It is used in WANs to interconnect LANs and
for mission critical networks like those used by banks and financial institutions.
Implementing the mesh topology is expensive and difficult.

Internet Protocols:
Set of rules or language use by computer and networking devices to communicate with one another

Networking Protocols

• TCP/IP - Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (the suite of communications

protocols used to connect hosts on the Internet )
• UDP – User Datagram Protocol
• Dial Up Networking Protocols
• PPP - Point-to-Point Protocol a method of (connecting to a computer to the Internet )
• Transferring File Protocols
• FTP - File Transfer Protocol
• World Wide Web Protocol
• HTTP - Hypertext Transfer Protocol, the underlying protocol used by the World Wide Web.
It lets the browser communicate with the web server.
• E-Mail Protocols
POP3 - Post Office Protocol, this protocol used for receiving incoming e-mail.

SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, a protocol for sending e-mail messages between
servers.

IMAP4 – Internet Messaging Protocol, it is used by mail clients

 3.2.2 Usage of Internet to the Society:

• Searchable Data (Web Sites)

• E-Commerce
• News Groups
• Internet Telephony (VoIP)
• Video Conferencing
• Chat Groups
• Instant Messengers
• Internet Radio
• Resource Sharing
o Hardware (computing resources, disks, printers)
o Software (application software)
• Information Sharing
o Easy accessibility from anywhere (files, databases)
o Search Capability (WWW)
• Communication
o Email
o Message broadcast
• Remote computing
• Distributed processing (GRID Computing)

3.2.3 Search Engines:

A web search engine is designed to search for information on the World Wide Web and FTP
servers. The search results are generally presented in a list of results often referred to as search
engine results pages. The information may consist of web pages, images, information and other
types of files. Some search engines also mine data available in databases or open directories.
Example- www.google.com , www.yahoo.co.in