Linear Algebra and Its Applications

Sixth Edition, Global Edition

Chapter 2
The Geometry of
Vector Spaces

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Section 2.2: The Inverse of a Matrix

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Matrix Operations (1 of 5)
• An n  n matrix A is said to be invertible if there is an n  n matrix C
such that
CA = I and AC = I
where I = I n , the n  n identity matrix.
• In this case, C is an inverse of A.
• In fact, C is uniquely determined by A, because if B were another
inverse of A, then

B = BI = B ( AC ) = ( BA)C = IC = C
• This unique inverse is denoted by A−1 , so that

A−1 A = I and AA−1 = I

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Matrix Operations (2 of 5)
a b
• Theorem 4: Let A=  . If ad − bc  0, then
c d 
A is invertible and
1  d −b 
A =−1

ad − bc  −c a 

If ad − bc = 0, then A is not invertible.

• The quantity ad − bc is called the determinant of A, and
we write det A = ad − bc
• This theorem says that a 2  2 matrix A is invertible if and
only if det A  0.
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Matrix Operations (3 of 5)
• Theorem 5: If A is an invertible n  n matrix, then for each b in
𝑅𝑛 the equation Ax = b has the unique solution x = A−1b.
• Proof: Take any b in 𝑅𝑛
• A solution exists because if A−1b is substituted for x, then
Ax = A( A−1b) = ( AA−1 )b = Ib = b.

• So A−1b is a solution.
• To prove that the solution is unique, show that if u is any
solution, then u must be A−1b.
• If Au = b, we can multiply both sides by A−1 and obtain
A−1 Au = A−1b, Iu = A−1b, and u = A−1b.
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Matrix Operations (4 of 5)
• Theorem 6:
−1
a. If A is an invertible matrix, then A is invertible and
( A−1 ) −1 = A

b. If A and B are n  n invertible matrices, then so is AB, and

the inverse of AB is the product of the inverses of A and B

in the reverse order. That is,
( AB) −1 = B −1 A−1

c. If A is an invertible matrix, then so is AT , and the inverse

of AT , is the transpose of A−1 . That is,
( AT ) −1 = ( A−1 )T

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Matrix Operations (5 of 5)
• Proof: To verify statement (a), find a matrix C such that
A−1C = I and CA−1 = I

• These equations are satisfied with A in place of C. Hence A−1

is invertible, and A is its inverse.
• Next, to prove statement (b), compute:
( AB)( B −1 A−1 ) = A( BB −1 ) A−1 = AIA−1 = AA−1 = I

• A similar calculation shows that ( B −1 A−1 )( AB) = I .

• For statement (c), use Theorem 3(d), read from right to left,
( A−1 )T AT = ( AA−1 )T = I T = I .

• Similarly, AT ( A−1 )T = I T = I .
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Elementary Matrices (1 of 7)
• Hence AT is invertible, and its inverse is ( A−1 )T .

• The generalization of Theorem 6(b) is as follows:

The product of n  n invertible matrices is invertible, and the
inverse is the product of their inverses in the reverse order.
• An invertible matrix A is row equivalent to an identity matrix,
and we can find A−1 by watching the row reduction of A to I.

• An elementary matrix is one that is obtained by performing a

single elementary row operation on an identity matrix.

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Elementary Matrices (2 of 7)
 1 0 0 0 1 0 
• Example 1: Let E1 =  0 1 0  , E2 =  1 0 0  ,
   
 −4 0 1 0 0 1

 1 0 0 a b c
E3 = 0 1 0  , A =  d e f
   
0 0 5  g h i 

• Compute E1 A, E2 A, and E3 A, and describe how these

products can be obtained by elementary row operations
on A.
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Elementary Matrices (3 of 7)
• Solution: Verify that

 a b c  d e f
E1 A =  d e f  , E2 A =  a b c ,
   
 g − 4a h − 4b i − 4c   g h i 

 a b c
E3 A =  d e f .
 
5 g 5h 5i 

• Addition of −4 times row 1 of A to row 3 produces E1 A.

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Elementary Matrices (4 of 7)
• An interchange of rows 1 and 2 of A produces E2 A,
and multiplication of row 3 of A by 5 produces E3 A.

• Left-multiplication by E1 in Example 1 has the same

effect on any 3  n matrix.

• Since E1 I = E1 , we see that E1 itself is produced by this

same row operation on the identity.

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Elementary Matrices (5 of 7)
• Example 1 illustrates the following general fact about
elementary matrices.
• If an elementary row operation is performed on an m  n
matrix A, the resulting matrix can be written as EA, where
the m  m matrix E is created by performing the same row
operation on I m .
• Each elementary matrix E is invertible. The inverse of E is
the elementary matrix of the same type that transforms E
back into I.

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Elementary Matrices (6 of 7)
• Theorem 7: An n  n matrix A is invertible if and only if A
is row equivalent to I n , and in this case, any sequence
of elementary row operations that reduces A to In
also transforms I n into A−1 .
• Proof: Suppose that A is invertible.
• Then, since the equation Ax = b has a solution for each b
(Theorem 5), A has a pivot position in every row.
• Because A is square, the n pivot positions must be on the
diagonal, which implies that the reduced echelon form of
A is I n . That is, A I n .
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Elementary Matrices (7 of 7)在這裡鍵入方程式。
• Now suppose, conversely, that 𝐴~𝐼𝑛
• Then, since each step of the row reduction of A
corresponds to left-multiplication by an elementary matrix,
there exist elementary matrices E1 , , E p such that
𝐴~𝐸1 𝐴~𝐸2 𝐸1 𝐴 ~ … ~𝐸𝑝 (𝐸𝑝−1 …𝐸1 𝐴) = 𝐼𝑛

• That is, E p ...E1 A = I n - - - (1)

• Since the product E p E1 of invertible matrices is

invertible, (1) leads to ( E p ...E1 ) −1 ( E p ...E1 ) A = ( E p ...E1 ) −1 I n
A = ( E p ...E1 ) −1
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Algorithm for Finding Inverse of A (1 of 3)

• Thus A is invertible, as it is the inverse of an invertible

matrix (Theorem 6). Also,
−1
A = ( E p ...E1 ) −1  = E p ...E1.
−1

• Then A−1 = E p ...E1  I n , which says that A−1 results from

applying E1 , , E p successively to In .

• This is the same sequence in (1) that reduced A to I n .

• Row reduce the augmented matrix A I . If A is row
equivalent to I, then A I is row equivalent to  I A−1  .

Otherwise, A does not have an inverse.

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Algorithm for Finding Inverse of A (2 of 3)

• Example 2: Find the inverse of the matrix

0 1 2
A =  1 0 3 , if it exists.
 
 4 −3 8

• Solution:

0 1 2 1 0 0  1 0 3 0 1 0
 A I  =  1 0 3 0 1 0 0

1 2 1 0 0

 4 −3 8 0 0 1  4 −3 8 0 0 1

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Algorithm for Finding Inverse of A (3 of 3)

1 0 3 0 1 0 1 0 3 0 1 0
0 1 2 1 0 0 0 1 2 1 0 0 
   
0 −3 −4 0 −4 1 0 0 2 3 −4 1

1 0 3 0 1 0 
0 1 2 1 0 0 
 
0 0 1 3 / 2 −2 1/ 2 

1 0 0 −9 / 2 7 −3 / 2 
0 1 0 −2 4 −1 
 
0 0 1 3 / 2 −2 1/ 2 

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Reasonable Answers
• Theorem 7 shows, since 𝐴~𝐼 that A is invertible, and

 −9 / 2 7 −3 / 2 
A−1 =  −2 4 −1  .
 
 3 / 2 −2 1/ 2 

• Now, check the final answer.

0 1 2   −9 / 2 7 −3 / 2  1 0 0 
AA−1 =  1 0 3  −2 4 −1  = 0 1 0 
    
 4 −3 8  3 / 2 −2 1/ 2  0 0 1 

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Another View of Matrix Inversion (1 of 2)
• It is not necessary to check that A−1 A = I since A is.
invertible.
• Denote the columns of I n by e1 , , en .
• Then row reduction of  A I  to  I A−1  can be viewed
as the simultaneous solution of the n systems
Ax = e1 , Ax = e 2 , , Ax = e n - - - ( 2)

where the “augmented columns” of these systems have all

been placed next to A to form
 A e1 e2 en  =  A I .
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Another View of Matrix Inversion (2 of 2)
• The equation AA−1 = I and the definition of matrix
multiplication show that the columns of A−1 are precisely
the solutions of the systems in (2).

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