English 2nd Sem Complete Grammar

OXYMORON and HYPERBOLE

An oxymoron is a figure of speech that juxtaposes elements that appear to be contradictory.

It combines words that have opposite meanings or which convey seemingly different senses.

She let out a quiet scream.

The design has an irregular pattern.

Exercise:

Underline the oxymorons in the sentences given below. Explain why the combination of words you
have underlined is an oxymoron.

1. The room was filled with a deafening silence.

2. Five soldiers were wounded in friendly fire.

3. The clown was seriously funny.

4. I had to do it I had no choice!

5. He was the most learned fool in the country.

6. You are clearly confused by the explanation.

7. This is old news.

8. Did you bring the original copy?

9. She is deeply superficial.

10. That dog is pretty ugly.

11. He is quite passive aggressive.

12. The tabloid printed an article on unpopular celebrities.

Match the common oxymorons

Virtual -reality

Almost - exactly

Open- secret

Civil - war

Crash - landing

Negative - growth

Freezer - burn
Sad - smile

Working - vacation

Conspicuous - absence

Random - order

Hyperbole:
Hyperbole is a figure of speech in which exaggeration is used for emphasis or effect.

The suitcase weighed a ton.

She is as skinny as a toothpick.

Exercise:

We had to wait forever for the bus.

I died of embarrassment.

What's for dinner? I'm starving!

I have a million things to do.

She's as slow as a turtle.

I could sleep for a year.

It was the most amazing sight ever.

I am so hungry i could eat a horse.

I can't live without him.

That lecture went on forever! I was bored to death

I've told you a hundred times to wash the dishes.

This is the worst day of my life!

Main verbs and Tenses:

I eat breakfast. Eat = main verb

I am eating breakfast. Am = auxiliary verb, eating = main verb

She has eaten breakfast. Has = auxiliary verb, eaten = main verb

Main verbs:

I eat

She eats

They eat (The form of eat changes depending on person and number.)

I am eating

I ate
I have eaten.

Exercises:

1. How have you been ______ (do) doing

2. The best days of my life _______ (be) the ones _______ (spend) at college. Were, spent
3. Keep ________ (guess) the answers till you get them right. guessing
4. Were you __________ (pay) attention to what was being said? paying
5. Suraj ________ (love) going to parties with his friend’s. loves
6. I have _________ (read) many books in the last one year. read
7. Sheila __________ (be) _________ (work) very hard these days. was, working
8. She has been _______ (wear) this expensive watch for quite some time now. wearing
9. The children _______ (be) _______ (begin) to enjoy their projects. Are, beginning
10. The last candidate interviewed _______ (score) much better than the rest. scored
11. Jyothi never ____tells___ (tell) lies for she really _______ (hate) them. hates
12. When I _____ (hear) his version of the story, I _____ (be) extremely ______ (shock) heard,
was , shocking
13. He _______ (graduate) from law school after having _______ (complete) eight semesters.
Graduated, completed
14. Students who _______ (take) down notes end up _______ (score) well in the exams. Took,
scoring
15. _______ (Teach) moral values at the right age _______ (be) very important. Teaching, is
16. Asif _______ (teach) for six years at the computer institute by the time his father retires.
taught
17. My friend promised to drop in next week but I don't think he will be able to come as he
________ (travel). Will, travel
18. Before Saba _______ (become) an engineer, she _______ (dream) of becoming a singer.
Become, dreamt
19. The sun ______ (set) by the time we _____ (leave) for home. Sets, left
20. Last night, while my friend ______ (take) a walk in the park, she a _____ (see) a snake. It
(crawl) through the grass. Took, saw, crawling
21. Raman ______ (live) in Chennai for 10 years. Has been living
22. Later, Sushila ________ (return) to Nagaland many times, and _______ (become) an expert
on it. Returned, became
23. My brother is a writer. He _______ (write) novels. He _______ (write) novels since 1990 and
________ (write) nine novels so far. Writes, had been writing, wrote

Rewrite the following sentences in the tense suggested in brackets.

1. Rosamma is keying in her paper for the conference. (Change to present perfect tense.) has keyed

2. They were working all day. (Change to simple present tense.) work

3. I lived in Kolkata for ten years. (Change to present perfect progressive tense.) have been living
4. Farukh will buy us chocolates when we visit him. (Change to future perfect tense.) we will have
visited

5. Huge boulders had rolled down the mountainside when we got there. (Change to simple past
tense.) rolled down

6. I am playing a game of cards with my uncle. (Change to past progressive tense.) was

7. Jessie met you at the clinic. (Change to simple future tense.) is meeting

8. The bees have left the hive. (Change to present progressive tense.) are leaving

9. Kunju broke his leg when, the vacation started. (Change to past perfect tense.) had broken

10. Sarabjit has been practising for the tournament since October. (Change to past perfect
progressive tense.) had

Identify the tense of the words/phrases in green.

1. I have had this dress for quite some time now. Present perfect

2. Do you know the person who lives in this house? Simple present

3. They will have been travelling all night. Future perfect progressive tense

4. He has been having this problem with the computer since yesterday. Present perfect progressive

5. I will follow up with the client on the submitted proposal. Simple future

Fill in the blanks using appropriate tense forms of the verbs in brackets. The first one

done for you.

Mr Khiangte, what do you do?

Khiangte I am (be) a teacher.

Mohanty How many years have you ______ (teach)? been

Khiangte I _______ (teach) for the last twelve years. Have been teaching

Mohanty What subject do you. (teach)?

Khiangte I usually ______ (teach) chemistry, but I _______ (teach) biology this year. Teach, am
teaching

Mohanty why?

Khiangte Our biology teacher, Ms Renthlei ___was___ (be) away. She __was invited______ (invite)
to participate in an exchange programme abroad and __was_____ (be) on leave since February. The
principal _asked _____ (ask) me to take her classes while she _was____ (be) on leave. What do you
______ (do)? do
Mohanty Oh, I run an employment agency for people _______ (look) for opportunities abroad. Have
you ever _______ (think) about ________ (work) in a foreign country? Looking, been thinking,
working

Khiangte I ______ (work) in Kuwait for a while. I _______ (be) there from 2002 to 2007. Worked, was

Mohanty would you like to go back there?

Mohanty Not at all. As a matter of fact, I ______ (get) offers from employment agencies in Kuwait,
but I ______ not ______ (accept) anything so far. Got, had accepted

Loan words
Language/culture Loanwords borrowed into English

Arabic algebra, bazaar, giraffe, sheikh, sultan

Chinese languages ginseng, kung fu, tea, tofu, typhoon

French ballet, beef, café, champagne, salon

German fest, hamburger, loafer, noodle, waltz

Indian languages avatar, banyan, guru, jungle, nirvana

Italian balcony, casino, opera, studio, violin

Japanese karaoke, karate, samurai, soy, tsunami

Russian cosmonaut, icon, pogrom, tsar/ czar, vodka

Scandinavian languages hug, husband, knife, saga, ski

Spanish cannibal, guerrilla, guitar, macho, mosquito

Auxiliary Verbs

In the previous chapter, we learnt that auxiliary verbs are those that combine with main verbs to add
information such as time of action, length of action, the attitude of the speaker, and so on. There are
a limited number of auxiliary verbs (also called 'helping verbs'), and they can be categorised into two
typesThe primary auxiliary verbs are be, have, and do.
These can be used as a main verb or as a helping verb.

We have a test tomorrow. (Have used as a main verb)We have studied for the test. (Have used as a
helping verb; study is the main verb)

They exist in multiple forms which combine with main verbs to express when an action takes place,
whether the action was active or passive, etc. For example, be has the following forms: am, are, is,
was, were, being, been, will be.

Modal auxiliary verbs include can, will, shall, may, could, would, should, might, and must. (The words
need, ought and dare also function as modal auxiliaries in many situations.)These are always used as
helping verbs to express a wide range of ideas about an action. Here are just a few examples of the
kind of details that modal auxiliaries can add: requesting permission: May I solve the problem?

expressing ability: I can solve the problem.

expressing possibility: I might solve the problem.
expressing surprise: You couldn't have solved it!
expressing necessity: I need to solve the problem.
expressing obligation: I must solve the problem.
expressing advice, warning or criticism: You shouldn't solve it. Modal auxiliary verbs never change
their forms.

Unlike main verbs, all auxiliary verbs have a negative form, which are contracted language and in
informal usage.

EXERCISES

Complete the following table.

Auxiliary Tense Forms

Be Present Am is are
Past Was were
Future Will be
Have Present Have has
Past Had
Future have
Do Present Do, does
Past Did
Future Will do

Complete the following table.

 Auxiliary Negative Contraction of
negative
Is Is not Isn’t
Are Are not Aren’t
Was Was not Wasn’t
Were Were not Weren’t
Has Has not Hasn’t
Have Have not Haven’t
Had Had not Hadn’t
Does Does not Doesn’t
Do Do not Don’t
Did Did not Didn’t
Will Will not Won’t
Would Would not Wouldn’t
Shall Shall not Shan’t
Should Should not Shouldn’t
Can Can not Can’t
Could Could not Couldn’t
May May not Mayn’t
Might Might not Mightn’t
Must Must not Mustn’t
Need Need not Needn’t
Ought Ought not Oughtn’t
Dare Dare not Daren ’t

Underline the helping verbs and the corresponding main verbs in the sentences given below, and say
which is which.

For example: Did Suresh play the game alone? (did = helping verb; play = main verb)

1. I could come along with you. HV MV

2. The visitor has been waiting for a long time. HV MV

3. If she doesn't do well in the exam, she'll have to attend remedial classes. HV MV

4. I have bought a new bag to replace the one that was lost. HV MV

5. We hope you don't meet him. HV MV

6. She wouldn't dare do that. HV HV MV

7. You must work hard every day. HV MV

8. The clothes might look clean, but they aren't. HV MV

9. I am going to the railway station. I have to catch a train. Do you want to hitch a ride? HV MV, HV
MV, HV MV

10. Does the restaurant have a delivery service? It might have. HV MV

Fill in the blanks with the correct auxiliary verbs from the given choices.

1. Where ________ your friends going yesterday? (are, was, were, did)
2. That car ________ always been my favourite. (was, has, is, have)
3. Whom _______ you meet this afternoon? (have, are, were, did)
4. My team ______ yet lost a match. (didn't, hasn't, has, won't)
5. He _________ going to be angry when he finds out. (will, might, is, was)
6. My aunt _______ like driving-she prefers to be chauffeured instead. (will,does, doesn't, may)
7. Gayatri ______ enjoy the movie. It wasn’t interesting (did, hasn’t, didn’t, might)
8. I love the seaside, but I ______ know how to swim (can’t, do, may, don’t)
9. Where _________ you see my phone? (is, have, did, are)
10. Mehraj ________ reached yet; he is late as usual. (has, hadn’t hasn’t wouldn’t)

Rearrange each group of jumbled sentences below so as to have well-written paragraphs.

1. a. It contains, of course, the meanings of words.3

b. One of the most important reference books that you must possess is a dictionary. 1
c. It also gives you the pronunciation of the words. 4
d. You do possess one, perhaps, but I doubt whether you are aware of the different kinds of
information it contains.6

e. The dictionary can be referred to for the various grammatical forms of words as well. 5

f. Every college dictionary should provide at least these four kinds of information about words,
namely pronunciation, meaning, grammatical patterns and usage. 2

g. Finally, a good dictionary contains illustrative sentences or phrases, showing how words are
actually used. 7

2. a. They are chemistry, physics, physiology or medicine, literature and peace. 5

b. It is awarded from funds bequeathed by Alfred Nobel, a Swedish inventor and philanthropist. 2

c. In 1968, economics was added to the list. 7

d. Nobel's will designated five areas for which prizes could be awarded. 4

e. Prizes in these six areas are presented in December every year, in the presence of the

King of Sweden, as a fitting tribute to Alfred Nobel. 6

f. The Nobel Prize is considered one of the most prestigious awards made to people

whose work benefits humanity. 1

g. The funds are administered by the Nobel Foundation in Stockholm. 3

3. a. The commercial uses of bamboo are astonishing. 2

b., India produces over 3 million tonnes of bamboo annually, and nearly half of it is turned into
paper. 1
 c. Another important use of bamboo is in housing. 3

d. Concrete reinforced with bamboo can replace even steel in building, for example, suspension
bridges. 4

e. Scientists at the Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, are working on the extraction of diesel
fuel from the jointed stem of bamboo. 6

f. With its network of rhizomes and roots, bamboo also plays an important role in the prevention
of soil erosion. 5

4. a. The foundation stone was laid in 1972. 1

b. As a result, the city suffered from horrendous traffic congestion. 2

c. It was going to be the first in South Asia. 4

d. They plied in the centre of the road. 5

e. To ease traffic in the city, it was decided that an underground railway line would be built. 3

f. Calcutta, unlike other cities, kept its trams. 6

Use the portmanteau words listed above in sentences of your own.

Look up the meanings of each of the portmanteau words given below.

Figure out the original words from which each portmanteau was created.

Use each portmanteau in sentences of your own.

Spork – spoon + fork Hangry – hungry + angry Infomercial – information +

commercial
Sitcom – situational + comedy Frenemy – friend + enemy Guesstimate – guess + estimate
Brunch – breakfast + lunch Listicle – list + article Breathalyser – breath +analyser

Identify the portmanteau words created from the combinations given below.

Use each portmanteau in sentences of your own.

British+ exit = Brexit Math + athlete =mathlete iPod + broadcast = podcast

Motorised + bicycle Car + hijack = carjack Oxford + Cambridge = Oxbridge
= motorcycle
Jeans + leggings = jeggins Fourteen + night = fortnight Aviation + electronics = avionics

Non-finite Verbs

In Unit 5, we learnt that finite verbs change their form depending on tense, and on the person
(first/second/third) and number (singular/plural) of the subject. A non-finite verb is not affected by
tense, person or number.

A non-finite verb is unlikely to be the primary verb in a sentence-there will probably be a finite verb
in that sentence. There are three types of non-finite verbs: infinitives, gerunds and participles.

Infinitives are the most basic form of a verb, preceded by the word to. They may function as adverbs,
nouns or adjectives in a sentence.

To exercise is good for the body. (The infinitive to exercise functions as a noun phrase which acts as
the subject of the sentence.)

I struggle to understand. (The infinitive to understand functions as an adverb which qualifies the
verb struggle.)

I do not have time to enjoy dinner. (The infinitive to enjoy functions as an adjective which qualifies
the noun time.)

A gerund is a verb ending in -ing which functions as a noun.

Travelling is my favourite hobby. (The gerund travelling acts as a noun and is the subject of this
sentence.)

I love swimming. (The gerund swimming functions as the object in this sentence.)

A participle is a verb ending (most commonly) in -ed or -ing and is used as an adjective.

The movie was interesting. (The present participle interesting functions as an adjective that

qualifies the noun movie.)

• Eating freshly picked fruits is good for health. (The past participle picked functions as an adjective
that modifies the noun fruits.)

Ladakh is fascinating. We are all excited to be going there. (The participle fascinating describes
Ladakh, while excited qualifies the pronoun we.)

Participles combine with be and have to indicate tense (as you have already seen in Unit 5).

Non-finite verbs are often used to create variety in sentence structures and to rephrase long, clumsy
sentences into shorter ones that are easy to understand.

EXERCISES

Underline the non-finite verbs, if any, in each of the sentences below. Also identify the finite verbs in
each sentence.

1. He gave me a pen to write with. Infinitive

2. It was a sight to see. Infinitive

3. I want to buy some vegetables. Infinitive

4. Barking dogs do not bite. Gerund

5. She was wearing a designer outfit. Participle

6. I had my car polished. Participle

7. Finding the door open, my mother went inside. Gerund

8. Nitya is doing her homework at the moment. participle

9. The proposal has been examined today. Participle

10. Vardhan has finished his exams. Participle

Simile and Metaphor

A simile is a literary device used to compare two different things in an attempt to make a description
more interesting or vivid. Such comparisons are made through the use of the words like or as. Look
at the examples below.

His hair is as black as coal. hair compared to coal

She is as brave as a lion. a person compared to a lion

Her eyes sparkled like diamonds; eyes compared to diamonds

The things being compared (marked in green) are dissimilar-hair and coal; human and lion: eyes and
diamonds.

These dissimilar things have something in common (underlined)-blackness: bravery: sparkle.

In each case, the points of comparison are made clear using like or as

The basic formula of a simile is X is like y' or 'X is as Z as y.

A simile may be used to connect an unfamiliar object or idea with something familjar. The bell at his
new home sounds very much like the song of birds at dawn. (sound made by an unfamiliar bell
compared to the chirping of birds in the morning)

Given below are a few more examples of similes. The things being compared are marked in green,
and the points of similarity between these things are underlined.

The water was black as night.

She was as busy as a bee and had no time to relax.

The room was so warm it was like a sauna.

She moves with such grace, like a gazelle.

A metaphor is another literary device used in descriptive writing. Like a simile, it compares two
different things; but unlike a simile, a metaphor equates the two things directly, without using the
words like or as. Look at the examples below.

This city is a concrete jungle.. equating the city with a jungle

Her words were poison. equating someone's words to poison

All the world's a stage. equating the world to a stage

Here, too, the things being compared (marked in green) are dissimilar-city and jungle; wil words and
poison; world and stage.

The point of comparison is often implied rather than being mentioned directly. You may need to
figure out what is common to the two things being compared, based on context. Both the city and
the jungle are dangerous places. The person's words harm like poison does. Everyone in the world is
performing a role like an actor on a stage.

The basic formula of a metaphor is X is Y! (Note that there are other complex types of metaphors. To
begin with, however, you should learn to recognise this basic type.) Given below are a few more
examples of metaphors. The things being compared are marked in green.

My children are the light of my life.

London is a melting pot.

How old are these computers? They're practically dinosaurs!

EXERCISE

In each of the following sentences:

• Identify the two things being compared. (Hint: look at the nouns.)

Say whether the comparison is made using a simile or a metaphor.

• Explain the point of comparison. (Re-read the original texts, if required.)

1. I wandered lonely as a cloud (William Wordsworth, 'I Wandered Lonely as a cloud ) simile

2. Bells for the feet of blue pigeons

Frail as a dragon-fly's wing (Sarojini Naidu, 'In the Bazaars of Hyderabad") simile

3. all experience is an arch (Alfred Tennyson, "Ulysses) metaphor

4. How soon hath Time, the subtle thief of youth,

Stol'n on his wing my three-and-twentieth year! (John Milton, 'How Soon Hath Time') metaphor

5. His gaiety was… a sound investment. (A.G. Gardener On Saying Please') metaphor

6. Trees are sacred my grandmother used to say metaphor

Felling them is a crime but he massacred them all (Dilip Chitre, "The Felling of the Banyan Tree')
metaphor

7. the huge banyan tree stood like a problem (Dilip Chitre, "The Felling of the Banyan Tree") simile

8. death will wipe you off the face of the earth as though you were no more than mice burrowing
under the floor (Anton Chekhov, "The Bet') metaphor

9. When, like a thing that is not ours / This earthliness goes by, Simile

And we behold the spiritualness / Of all that cannot die. (Henry Derozio, 'A Walk by Moonlight)

10. Official language smitheryed to sanction ignorance and preserve privilege is a suit of armor
polished to shocking glitter, a husk from which the knight departed long ago. (Toni MorrisonNobel
Lecture) metaphor

11. I infested public meetings like (simile) an officer afflicted with cowardice, who takes every
(metaphor) opportunity of going under fire to get over it and learn his business. (G.B. Shaw, "How I
Became a Public Speaker')

12. O my love's like (Simile) the melody/ That's sweetly played metaphor in tune (Robert Burns, 'A
Red, Red Rose')

Adverbs

Adverbs are words used to modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. They add meaning to the
word they modify.

The old man walks slowly. adverb slowly modifies the verb walks

This place is very peaceful. adverb very modifies the adjective peaceful

The news came quite suddenly. adverb quite modifies the adverb suddenly

EXERCISES

Fill in the blanks with suitable adverbs, using the adjectives in brackets as clues. Also identify what
kind of adverb it is.

1. Come _____ before it finishes! (quick) quickly

2. Although he is a good student, he did not do ______ in the exam. (good) well

3. Telugu is my mother tongue. I speak it ________ (fluent) fluently

4. He did not complete the course as _____ as he thought he would. (easy) easy

5. I reached on time because I left ______ home. (early) early

Correct the error in the use of adverbs in each of the following sentences. If there is no error in the
sentence, put a tick mark against it.

1. My sister always worked hardly, hard

2 . He is driving too fastly. fast

3. He is dressed casually. casual

4. The plane flew highly in the sky. high

5. The pan is really hot. very

Fill in each blank with the correct adverb from the choices given below.

1. Mrs Reddy had begun the class ___early___ I had been late ____yesterday__ and was punished
__severely___ for it.

I decided to sneak into class. I tiptoed in ___quietly_____ from the back door and slid into my seat
__quickly___before she noticed.

2. I go to the park __every___ evening. I __often____ run into my neighbour, Tara. Her pet dog wags
its tail ___happily_____ when it sees me.