CHAPTER 2 • Motivation, Ability, and Opportunity 49

Exhibit 2.2 1. It gives me pleasure to shop for clothes.

Are You Involved? 2. I can think of instances in which a personal experience was affected by the way I was
Are you involved with clothes?
dressed.
The more you agree with the
3. Because of my personal values, I feel that clothing ought to be important to me.
items shown in regular print
4. I enjoy buying clothes for myself.
and the more you disagree with
5. I rate my dress sense as being of high importance to me.
the items in italics, the more
6. Clothes help me express who I am.
highly you are involved with
7. I attach great importance to the way people are dressed.
clothes.
8. It is true that clothing interests me a lot.
9. The kind of clothes I buy do not reflect the kind of person I am.
10. I buy clothes for the pleasure they give me, not others.
11. Clothing is a topic about which I am indifferent.
12. Clothing is not part of my self-image.
13. Relative to other products, clothing is the most important to me.
14. Buying clothes feels like giving myself a gift.
15. I am not at all interested in clothes.

Source: From Nina Michaelidou and Sally Dibb, “Product Involvement: An Application in Clothing,“ Journal of Con-
sumer Behavior, no. 5, 2006, pp. 442–453.

You probably found the task of making this decision personally involving and were
interested, enthusiastic, and perhaps anxious and overwhelmed during the pro-
cess. Finally, we are also motivated to think deeply about issues pertinent to a given
decision when we believe we will have to justify or explain our decisions.21

What Affects Motivation?

Because motivation can affect outcomes of interest to marketers (like goal-relevant
behaviors such as purchasing, effortful information processing, and felt involve-
ment; see Exhibit 2.1) it is important for marketers to understand what affects mo-
tivation. If they know what creates motivation, they may be able to develop
marketing tactics to influence consumers’ motivation to think about, be involved
with, and/or process information about their brand or ad. Exhibit 2.1 shows that a
key driver of motivation is personal relevance. In turn, personal relevance is af-
fected by how relevant something like a brand or an ad is to consumers’ (a) self-
concepts, (b) values, (c) needs, and (d) goals.

Personal Relevance
Personal relevance A key factor affecting motivation is the extent to which something is personally
Something that has a direct relevant—that is, the extent to which it has a direct bearing on and significant im-
bearing on the self and has plications for your life.22 For example, if you learn that your laptop computer’s bat-
potentially significant conse- tery is being recalled because it can overheat and cause a fire, you will probably
quences or implications for
find this issue to be personally relevant. Careers, college activities, romantic
our lives.
relationships, a car, an apartment or house, clothes, and hobbies are likely to be
personally relevant because their consequences are significant for you. Research
indicates that the prospect of receiving a customized (and therefore more person-
ally relevant) product will motivate consumers to disclose private information,
although they are less likely to reveal details that could be embarrassing.23 People
perceive something as personally relevant when it is consistent with their values,
needs, goals, and emotions. This relevance fuels their motivation to process infor-
mation, make decisions, and take actions.
50 PAR T TWO • The Psychological Core

Consistency with Self-Concept

Self-concept Our mental view Something may be personally relevant to the extent that it bears on your self-
of who we are. concept, or your view of yourself and the way you think others view you. Self-
concept helps us define who we are, and it frequently guides our behavior. 24 Note
that different parts of a self-concept can be salient at different times.25 When we buy
clothing, we are often making a statement about some aspect of who we are—such
as a professional, a student, or a sports fan. To illustrate, some consumers find
brands like Harley-Davidson to be relevant to their self-concept. Red, a U.K. women’s
magazine, makes itself relevant by appealing to the reader’s self-concept as busy and
productive but entitled to small indulgences.26 In a similar way, reality TV shows can
be relevant when viewers identify with the lives of the people on the show.27

Values
Consumers are more motivated to attend to and process information when they
Values Beliefs about what is find it relevant to their values—beliefs that guide what people regard as important
right, important, or good. or good. Thus, if you see education as very important, you are likely to be moti-
vated to engage in behaviors that are consistent with this value, such as pursuing a
degree. (You’ll read more about values in Chapter 14.)

Needs
Consumers also find things personally relevant when they have a bearing on acti-
Needs An internal state of vated needs. A need is an internal state of tension caused by disequilibrium from
tension caused by disequilib- an ideal or desired state.
rium from an ideal/desired For example, at certain times of the day, your stomach begins to feel uncom-
physical or psychological fortable. You realize it is time to get something to eat, and you are motivated to di-
state.
rect your behavior toward certain outcomes (such as opening the refrigerator).
Eating satisfies your need and removes the tension—in this case, hunger. Once you
are motivated to satisfy a particular need, objects unrelated to that need seem less
attractive. Thus, if you are motivated to fix your hair because you’re having a bad
hair day, a product such as styling gel will seem more attractive and important than
will popcorn or another snack.28 Needs can also lead us away from a product or
service: You might stay away from the dentist because you want to avoid pain.
What needs do consumers experience? Psychologist Abraham Maslow’s theory
groups needs into the five categories shown in Exhibit 2.3: (1) physiological (the
need for food, water, and sleep); (2) safety (the need for shelter, protection, and se-
curity); (3) social (the need for affection, friendship, and acceptance); (4) egoistic
(the need for prestige, success, accomplishment, and self-esteem); and (5) self-
actualization (the need for self-fulfillment and enriching experiences).29 Within this
hierarchy, lower-level needs generally must be satisfied before higher-level needs
become activated. Thus before we can worry about prestige, we must meet lower-
level needs for food, water, and so on.
Although Maslow’s hierarchy brings useful organization to the complex issue of
needs, some critics say it is too simplistic. First, needs are not always ordered ex-
actly as in this hierarchy. Some consumers might place a higher priority on buying
lottery tickets than on acquiring necessities such as food and clothing. Second, the
hierarchy ignores the intensity of needs and the resulting effect on motivation.
Finally, the ordering of needs may not be consistent across cultures. In some soci-
eties, for instance, social needs and belonging may be higher in the hierarchy than
egoistic needs.
 CHAPTER 2 • Motivation, Ability, and Opportunity 51

Exhibit 2.3
Maslow’s Hierarchy
of Needs Self-
Maslow suggested that needs Actualization
can be categorized into a basic
hierarchy. People fulfill lower-
order needs (e.g., physiological Egoistic
needs for food, water, sleep)
before they fulfill higher order
needs. Social

Safety

Physiological

Nonsocial
Exhibit 2.4
Social
Categorizing Needs • Safety
Needs can be categorized • Modeling • Order
according to whether they are Functional
(1) social or nonsocial and • Support • Physical
(2) functional, symbolic, or well-being
hedonic in nature. This categori-
zation method helps marketers
think about consumers’ needs. • Status
• Affiliation • Self-control
Symbolic
• Belonging • Independence
• Achievement

• Sensory
• Reinforcement stimulation
• Sex Hedonic • Cognitive
stimulation
• Play
• Novelty

Types of Needs
Another way to categorize needs is as (1) social and nonsocial needs or as (2) func-
tional, symbolic, and hedonic needs30 (see Exhibit 2.4).
d Social needs are externally directed and relate to other individuals. Fulfilling
these needs thus requires the presence or actions of other people. For example,
the need for status drives our desire to have others hold us in high regard; the
need for support drives us to have others relieve us of our burdens; the need
for modeling reflects a wish to have others show us how to behave. We may be
52 PAR T TWO • The Psychological Core

motivated to buy products like Hallmark cards or use services such as MySpace.
com because they help us achieve a need for affiliation.31 Other products may
be valued because they are consistent with our need for status or our need to
be unique. We also have antisocial needs—needs for space and psychological
distance from other people. Plane seats that are too close together violate our
need for space and motivate us to escape the confining environment.
d Nonsocial needs are those for which achievement is not based on other people.
Our needs for sleep, novelty, control, uniqueness, and understanding, which
involve only ourselves, can affect the usage of certain goods and services. We
might purchase the same brand repeatedly to maintain consistency in our
world—or we might buy something different to fulfill a need for variety.
Functional needs Needs that d Functional needs may be social or nonsocial (see Exhibit 2.4). Functional needs
motivate the search for offer- motivate the search for products that solve consumption-related problems. For
ings that solve consumption- example, you might consider buying a product like a car with side airbags be-
related problems. cause it appeals to your safety needs (a functional, nonsocial need). For moth-
ers with young children, hiring a nanny would solve the need for support (a
functional, social need).
d Symbolic needs affect how we perceive ourselves and how we are perceived by
Symbolic needs Needs that others. Achievement, independence, and self-control are symbolic needs be-
relate to how we perceive our- cause they are connected with our sense of self. Similarly, our need for unique-
selves, how we are perceived ness is symbolic because it drives consumption decisions about how we
by others, how we relate to express our identity.32 The need to avoid rejection and the need for achieve-
others, and the esteem in
ment, status, affiliation, and belonging are symbolic because they reflect our
which we are held by others.
social position or role. For example, some consumers wear Jimmy Choo shoes
to express their social standing.
d Hedonic needs include needs for sensory stimulation, cognitive stimulation,
and novelty (nonsocial hedonic needs) and needs for reinforcement, sex, and
Hedonic needs Needs that re- play (social hedonic needs). These hedonic needs reflect our inherent desires
late to sensory pleasure. for sensory pleasure. If the desire is intense enough, it can inspire fantasizing
about specific goods, simultaneously pleasurable and discomforting.33 Con-
sumers may buy perfume for the sensory pleasure it can bring or go to luxury
shopping areas like the Shoppes at Palazzo in Las Vegas for the eye-catching
ambiance.34 For the same reason, products containing fake fat failed because
they did not meet consumers’ hedonic needs—they tasted bad.
d Needs for cognition and stimulation also affect motivation and behavior. Con-
sumers with a high need for cognition35 (a need for mental stimulation) enjoy
being involved in mentally taxing activities like reading and deeply processing
information when making decisions. People with a low need for cognition may
prefer activities that require less thought, such as watching TV, and are less
likely to actively process information during decision making. In addition, con-
sumers often need other kinds of stimulation. Those with a high optimum
stimulation level enjoy a lot of sensory stimulation and tend to be involved
in shopping and seeking brand information. 36 They also show heightened
involvement in ads. Consumers with thrill-seeking tendencies enjoy activi-
ties like skydiving and white-water rafting. In contrast, consumers who feel
overstimulated want to get away from people, noise, and demands—a desire
revealed in the popularity of vacations at monasteries and other sanctuaries.
 CHAPTER 2 • Motivation, Ability, and Opportunity 53

Characteristics of Needs
Each of the preceding needs has several characteristics:
d Needs are dynamic. Needs are never fully satisfied; satisfaction is only tempo-
rary. Clearly, eating once will not satisfy our hunger forever. Also, as soon as
one need is satisfied, new needs emerge. After we have eaten a meal, we might
next have the need to be with others (the need for affiliation). Thus, needs are
dynamic because daily life is a constant process of need fulfillment.
d Needs exist in a hierarchy. Although several needs may be activated at any
one time, some assume more importance than others. You may experience a
need to eat during an exam, but your need for achievement may assume a
higher priority—so you stay to finish the test. Despite this hierarchy, many
needs may be activated simultaneously and influence your acquisition,
usage, and disposition behaviors. Thus, your decision to go out for dinner
with friends may be driven by a combination of needs for stimulation, food,
and companionship.
d Needs can be internally or externally aroused. Although many needs are inter-
nally activated, some needs can be externally cued. Smelling pizza cooking in
the apartment next door may, for example, affect your perceived need for food.
d Needs can conflict. A given behavior or outcome can be seen as both desirable
and undesirable if it satisfies some needs but fails to satisfy others. The result is
Approach-avoidance called an approach-avoidance conflict because you both want to engage in
conflict A feeling of conflict- the behavior and want to avoid it. Teenagers may experience an approach-
edness about acquiring or avoidance conflict in deciding whether to smoke cigarettes. Although they may
consuming an offering that believe that others will think they are cool for smoking (consistent with the
fulfills one need but fails to
need for belonging), they also know that smoking is bad for them (incompati-
fulfill another.
ble with the need for safety).
Approach-approach d An approach-approach conflict occurs when someone must choose between
conflict A feeling of conflict- two or more equally desirable options that fulfill different needs. A consumer who
edness about which offering is invited to a career-night function (consistent with achievement needs) might
to acquire when each can sat- experience an approach-approach conflict if he is invited to see a basketball game
isfy an important but different
with friends (consistent with affiliation needs) on the same evening. This person
need.
will experience conflict if he views both options as equally desirable.
Avoidance-avoidance d An avoidance-avoidance conflict occurs when the consumer must choose be-
conflict A feeling of conflict- tween two equally undesirable options, such as going home alone right after a
edness about which offering late meeting (not satisfying a need for safety) or waiting another hour until a
to acquire when neither can friend can drive her home (not satisfying a need for convenience). Neither op-
satisfy an important but dif-
tion is desirable, which creates conflict.
ferent need.
Identifying Needs
Because needs influence motivation and its effects, marketers are keenly interested
in identifying and measuring them. However, consumers are often unaware of their
needs and have trouble explaining them to researchers. Inferring consumers’ needs
based only on their behaviors is also difficult because a given need might not be
linked to a specific behavior. In other words, the same need (for example, affilia-
tion) can be exhibited in various and diverse behaviors (visiting friends, going to
the gym), and the same behavior (going to the gym) can reflect various needs
(affiliation, achievement). Consider the activity of shopping. One study found that
54 PAR T TWO • The Psychological Core

when women shop in drugstores, they are seeking information about items that
provide peace of mind (satisfying needs for safety and well-being). When they shop
in club stores like Costco or Price Chopper, they are seeking adventure and enter-
tainment (satisfying the need for stimulation).37
Inferring needs in a cross-cultural context is particularly difficult. For example,
some research indicates that U.S. consumers use toothpaste primarily for its cavity-
reducing capabilities (a functional need). In contrast, consumers in England and some
French-speaking areas of Canada use toothpaste primarily to freshen breath (a hedo-
nic need). French women drink mineral water so they will look better (a symbolic
need), whereas German consumers drink it for its health powers (a functional need).38
Given these difficulties, marketers sometimes use indirect techniques to un-
cover consumers’ needs.39 One technique is to ask consumers to interpret a set of
relatively ambiguous stimuli such as cartoons, word associations, incomplete sen-
tences, and incomplete stories. Using Exhibit 2.5, one consumer might reveal needs
for esteem by interpreting the man in the cartoon as thinking, “My friends will
think I’m really cool for riding in this car!” Another might reveal needs for affiliation
by filling in the cartoon with “I could take all my friends for rides with me.”
When one study asked cigarette smokers why they smoked, most said they en-
joyed it and believed that smoking in moderation was fine. However, when they
were given incomplete sentences like “People who never smoke are ,”
respondents filled in the blanks with words like happier and wiser. And when given
sentences like “Teenagers who smoke are ,” respondents answered with
words like crazy and foolish. These smokers were clearly more concerned about
smoking than their explicit answers indicated.40

SURVEY
Exhibit 2.5
Uncovering Consumers’
Needs
Marketers sometimes uncover
A. Cartoon drawing:
consumers’ needs using am-
What do you think the people
biguous stimuli like cartoon
in this cartoon are thinking?
drawings, sentence completion
tasks, and tell-a-story tasks.
The idea is that consumers will
project their needs, wishes,
and fantasies onto these am- B. Sentence completion:
biguous stimuli. Fill in the blanks with the first word that comes to your mind:
1. The perfect gift .
2. The gifts I still treasure .
3. If I give a gift to myself .

C. Tell a story:
Tell a story about the gift being
unwrapped in this picture.