Mechanics of Material Lab

Lab Report # 8

Objective:
To find out the deflection in the curved bars and davits.
Apparatus:
 Curved Bar Apparatus
 Base plate with four rubber feet Bar shapes
 semicircular bar
 quadrant bar
 curved davit
 angled davit
 Hanger with weights
 Dial gauge with clamp
 column with two different supports.

Introduction:
Davits and curved bars are simple and common structures examples of where you can
see them include the structures used on ships to suspend live boats and along the
railway tracks to suspend electricity cables. A limiting factor in the design of these
structures is the deflection caused by the load they will suspend. In this experiment
we will load each of four structures and measure the horizontal and vertical
deflections and compare this to theory.

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The curved bar structures have wide applications in engineering design. There is
complex situation when we apply the load on a curve structure and it is important to
investigate the deflection in the structure and to find a relation of load and deflection.
One method of calculating the displacement (shift) at specific points of this bar on the
basis of an external force is to employ the principle of virtual displacement. This
involves assigning an arbitrary (virtual) displacement to a system so that the sum total
of internal force work and external-force.

Apparatus Setup:

Procedure:

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Observations and Calculations:

The geometry yields the following values:
Load applied = P
For a rectangular section: I= bd3/12
Where:
I = Second Moment of Area (m4)
b = Breadth of the section (m)
d = Depth of the section (m)
Young’s modulus E for aluminum alloy = 69 GNm-2

Semicircle Quarter Circle Curved Davit Angled Davit

Deflections (mm) Deflections (mm) Deflections (mm) Deflections (mm)
Mass (g) Load (N) V H V H V H V H
0
100
200
300
400
500

I Value (m4)

Conclusions:

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Lab Report #9
Brinell hardness test
Objective:
To carry out hardness tests on several different specimens.

Apparatus Setup:

Introduction:
The wear behaviour of materials in particular is affected by their hardness. The harder a material is,
the greater its resistance to wear. Hardness refers to the mechanical resistance with which a body
opposes the intrusion of another body. Accordingly, in normal hardness test processes a hard test
body is impressed vertically into the surface of the specimen. A three-axle state of stress develops in
the specimen, underneath the impressing test body. Therefore, permanent impressions can be attained
even in very hard and brittle materials, without the material cracking. This differentiates hardness
testing from tensile testing, during which only a uniaxial state of stress is produced in the specimen
and where no plastic deformation is possible in hard materials. One advantage of hardness testing is
that material characteristics can be gathered without destroying the specimen, in contrast to tensile
testing – if we disregard the small indentation made by the test body. A disadvantage is that in the
hardness test it is only possible to determine one characteristic of the hardness, dependent on the test
procedure, and not the hardness itself. Therefore, the test process always has to be stated along with
the hardness value.

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In the Brinell hardness test a carbide or hardened steel ball is used as the test body, in accordance with
ISO 6506. WP 300 uses a hardened steel ball. ISO 6506 prescribes the use of carbide balls, which is
why the Brinell hardness test using WP 300 is conducted on the basis of ISO 6506. The acronym HBS
is added to the hardness value for hardened steel balls or HBW for carbide balls. In the Brinell
hardness test, the ball of specific diameter D is impressed vertically into the workpiece being tested
with a test load F under consistent load increase, and held at a specific test load for a certain amount
of time. This process produces a ball indentation, whose spherical segment diameter d is measured
after the test load is removed. The specimen must not move during this process. The Brinell hardness
is calculated from test load F and indentation area AB of the spherical segment.

The factor 0,102 is used for historical reasons and takes into account the conversion from kp/mm2 to
kN/mm2.
Using the ball diameter D and the spherical segment diameter d we get:

If the ball indentation is not circular, we have to use the average of two vertically facing
measurements.

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In order that the hardness value of different materials, specimen shapes and ball diameters can be
compared, certain rules have to be satisfied.

Specimen and room temperature

The hardness test is carried out at room temperature 18...28°C.

Ball diameter
The ball diameters of 10, 5, 2.5, and 1 mm are standardized.
We only use 10mm.

Dwell time
The test load should act upon the specimen for at least 10...15s, or 30s and more in the case of fluid
materials. The test load should take at least 5s to increase to its maximum.

Load factor
In order to obtain a readable and reproducible ball indentation, the indentation diameter d should be
between 0.2 and 0.7 D. In order to observe this for different hard materials, different surface pressures
are recommended, i.e. force and square of the ball diameter have to be in a certain ratio to each other.
This ratio is known as the load factor x.

The factor 0.102 on the other hand is the result of the conversion from KP to kN. The following table
lists the load factors for a variety of materials.

Test load

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So for the test ball with a diameter of 10mm used in the WP 300 device, we get the following test
loads

Experiment setup:
1. Turn the handwheel fully out and move the load frame all the way down.
2. Insert compression plate into the bottom crossbar.
3. Install hardness test mechanism with threaded rod and knurled nut on the crosshead. Tighten the
knurled nut by hand
4. Keep a distance between the test ball and compression plate of at least 15mm.

Preparation for the experiment:

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Specimens made of aluminum, copper, brass, and steel are tested. – Place the specimen on a
compression plate. Carefully lower the test ball onto the specimen by turning the handwheel, without
applying force.

When using WP 300.20 Data Acquisition System (optional)

– Launch the WP 300.20 measurement data collection program
– Launch the software module for collecting measurement data for the tensile test via the Start menu
 Brinell test. – From the View menu  Settings you can open a dialogue box in which you can
specify information about the specimen and the load factor.
– In the Settings dialogue that opens, enter a description for the specimen in the Kind of specimen
field. In the Material field you select the material of the specimen, or if the material is not listed you
can enter it via the Define pulldown option. Select the load factor from the Load factor pulldown
menu. For the specimens applied by G.U.N.T this factor is 10. The project is now ready

Conducting the experiment:

A load factor of x = 10 is chosen for all specimens. A load factor of x = 30 is recommended for the
steel specimen. However, the test load F = 29kN required for this cannot be applied with the WP 300
device. Since the Brinell hardness of the steel specimen is certainly below HBS 315, the load factor x
= 10 is also still permissible.

Without using WP 300.20 Data Acquisition System (optional)

– Slowly and steadily use the handwheel to apply test load of F = 9.8kN. Do not apply the load too
quickly; it should take around 5s to increase to the maximum value.
– Maintain test load for around 15s (aluminum and copper around 30s) and then remove the load
again.

When using WP 300.20 Data Acquisition System (optional)

When using measurement data collection, the hardness test process is supported by readouts of the
currently applied test load and the test time.t:
Set all displays on the software to zero.

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– Slowly and steadily apply load to the specimen by turning the handwheel with the test load F =
9,8kN. In order to support correct application of the test load, the arrow in the software indicates the
target load. Adjust the load by turning the handwheel accordingly, so that it is as close as possible to
the target load.
– The stopwatch starts after the target load is reached.
– After the load time of 10s is over the stopwatch changes from red to green - remove the load from
the specimen

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– You can also choose a longer load time; be sure to note this down in the test record after conducting
the experiment:
– Turn the handwheel fully closed and move the load frame all the way down

Measured results:
To evaluate the experiment, measure the diameter of the spherical indentation on the specimen. You
can do this via a scale or by using a measuring magnifier (WP300.12 optional). You should measure
the diameter with an accuracy of at least 0.5mm, or even better 0.1mm. Where the indentation is not
circular, for example on a cylindrical surface, you have to measure in two 90° offset directions. Do
the same for the specimens obtained from G.U.N.T.

When using WP 300.20 Data Acquisition System (optional)

The measured diameters d1 and d2 are entered into the software.
This calculates the average diameter.
The Brinell hardness HB is determined when you press Evaluation

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Observation & Calculation

Material Dwell Indentation diameter in Brinell Hardness HBS
No time in mm
seconds d1 d2 d (average) Calculated Literature
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

Result Analysis & Discussion:

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Lab Report #10

Objective:
To determine the Charpy Impact value of different test specimens using Charpy Impact
Tester.
Apparatus:
Charpy Impact Test Apparatus, with Specimens of different materials having different cross-
sections.

Introduction:
Impact Tests
Impact tests are designed to measure the resistance to failure of a material to a suddenly
applied force. The test measures the impact energy, or the energy absorbed prior to fracture.
The most common methods of measuring impact energy are the:
1. Charpy Test.
2. Izod Test.

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What is Impact Energy?

• Impact energy is a measure of the work done to fracture a test specimen.
The Charpy Test
• While most commonly used on metals, it is also used on polymers, ceramics and
composites.
• The Charpy test is most commonly used to evaluate the relative toughness or
impact toughness of materials and as such is often used in quality control applications
where it is a fast and economical test.

Procedure:

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Observations and Calculations:

Charpy Impact Value or Notched Bar Impact Strength is given as:

Notched Bar Charpy Impact Average Impact

Cross-sectional Impact Value / Notched Bar strength
Specimen
Area Ao of work Impact strength
Specimen Dimensions
Specimen in the Snbi
Material (mm)
Notch root Wnbi Snbi
(L/W/H) (Nm/cm2)
(cm2)
(Nm) (Nm/cm2)
Steel
U-shaped
Steel
U-shaped

Steel R5

Steel R5

Brass
Thin
Brass
Thick

Result Analysis & Discussion

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Lab Report #11

Objective:
To determine the respective Elastic modulus of the beam material and to study the
effect of span length on deflection under constant load and three-point bending condition.
Apparatus Setup:
Install the bending device into compression area of the material test device, between
bottom crossbar and crosshead as shown in the figure below:

Dial Gauge
Force Gauge
Top Cross-bar

Cross Head
Beam in Three point
Bending

Bottom Cross-bar

Figure 1 Bending test experiment setup

Introduction:
Elastic bending test:
In the elastic bending test, it is possible to demonstrate the relationship between the
load of a bending beam and its elastic deformation. The effects of modulus of elasticity and
area moment of inertia become obvious.
Bending is present when a beam in a state of equilibrium, not subject to external
loads, is subject to load by a force acting perpendicular to its major axis so that it is bent.
Determining modulus of elasticity with 3-point
bending test:

Figure 2 Bending loading case

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The most commonly studied bending loading case in materials testing is that of the
beam placed on two supports, which is subjected to load by a single centered force – the 3-
point bending test.
The resulting shear force and bending moment profile shows that the prone cross-section lies
directly under the point of load application at L/2. The
bending moment Mbmax applied there is calculated as:
F. L
M bmax=
4
Where ‘Mbmax’ is Maximum bending moment in
Nm, ‘F’ is Load in N and L is Span in m.
The maximum deflection f is present at this point, which
is calculated as follows:
3
F. L
f=
48. E . I
Where ‘f’ is Deflection in mm, ‘F’ is Load in N,
‘L’ is Span in mm, ‘I’ is Area moment of inertia in
Figure 3 Bending stress
mm4 and ‘E’ is Modulus of elasticity in N/mm2.
The axial area moment of inertia I is calculated
for the rectangular cross-section from width B and height H,
whereby B is parallel to the bending axis.
3
BH
I=
12
The modulus of elasticity E (also E-modulus) is a
material-independent variable that described how strongly a
material resists deformation (keyword: Hooke's law). By
converting and combining the formulae above, the E-modulus
can be calculated as follows:
Figure 4 Rectangular Cross-
3
F .L Sections
E= 3
4. f . B . H
Permissible load on the beam:
When conducting the experiments, it is important to know the maximum permissible
load on the beam. If the stresses exceed the material's yield point as a result of overloading,
the beam is lastingly deformed and thus becomes unusable. The maximum stress occurs in
the center of the beam:
M bmax
σ max=
Wb

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Where ‘Mbmax’ is the Maximum bending moment in Nm, ‘Wb’ is the axial section
modulus in m3 and ‘σmax’ is the Maximum normal stress in N/mm2
By using the formula for Max bending moment and the section modulus for
rectangular cross-section from width ‘B’ and height ‘H’, whereby ‘B’ is parallel to the
bending axis
2
B. H
W b=
6
We get the maximum permissible load Fmax
2
2. σ max . B . H
F max=
3. L
You have to calculate the maximum permissible load ‘Fmax’. The permissible load
Fmax’ can be calculated as a function of the span L on the basis of the yield point ‘Re’ or the
elastic limit ‘Rp0.2’. Since the permissible load is smallest with the largest possible span, this
can be applied to the lower spans without risk. For each span of the beam specimens, the
permissible load L = 300mm is applied.

Procedure:

Calculation:

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Elastic Bending Test Material: Steel (9 SMn28)

Span L in mm 300 200 100
Applied Load Fmax in kN
Measured Deflection f in mm

Elastic Bending Test: Calculated vs Actual Modulus of Elasticity

Calculated Modulus of Elasticity E in N/mm2
Modulus of Elasticity E in N/mm2 (From Literature) 210

Conclusions:

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Lab Report #12

Objective:
To carry out shear test on a given specimen and find out shear strength and
corresponding tensile strength and compare with the literature
Apparatus Setup:

Introduction:

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Procedure:

Observation & Calculation:

S.NO Material Diameter Area, A0 Failure Shear τ t=0.8 R m Tensile
(specimen) of the load, Ff strength, strength
specimen τt from
literature

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Conclusions:

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