Electron mobility

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the mobility for electrons and holes in metals and semiconductors. For the
general concept, see Electrical mobility.

In solid-state physics, the electron mobility characterizes how quickly an electron can move through
a metal or semiconductor, when pulled by an electric field. In semiconductors, there is an analogous
quantity for holes, called hole mobility. The term carrier mobility refers in general to both electron
and hole mobility in semiconductors.

Electron and hole mobility are special cases of electrical mobility of charged particles in a fluid under
an applied electric field.

When an electric field E is applied across a piece of material, the electrons respond by moving with
an average velocity called the drift velocity, . Then the electron mobility μ is defined as

Electron mobility is almost always specified in units of cm2/(V·s). This is different from the SI unit of
mobility, m2/(V·s). They are related by 1m2/(V·s) = 104cm2/(V·s).

Conductivity is proportional to the product of mobility and carrier concentration. For example, the
same conductivity could come from a small number of electrons with high mobility for each, or a
large number of electrons with a small mobility for each. For metals, it would not typically matter
which of these is the case, most metal electrical behavior depends on conductivity alone. Therefore
mobility is relatively unimportant in metal physics. On the other hand, for semiconductors, the
behavior of transistors and other devices can be very different depending on whether there are
many electrons with low mobility or few electrons with high mobility. Therefore mobility is a very
important parameter for semiconductor materials. Almost always, higher mobility leads to better
device performance, with other things equal.

Semiconductor mobility depends on the impurity concentrations (including donor and acceptor
concentrations), defect concentration, temperature, and electron and hole concentrations. It also
depends on the electric field, particularly at high fields when velocity saturation occurs. It can be
determined by the Hall effect, or inferred from transistor behavior.

Contents

[hide]

 1 Introduction

o 1.1 Drift velocity in an electric field

o 1.2 Definition and units

 o 1.3 Relation to conductivity

 2 Examples

 3 Electric field dependence and velocity saturation

 4 Relation between scattering and mobility

o 4.1 Ionized impurity scattering

o 4.2 Lattice (phonon) scattering

o 4.3 Piezoelectric scattering

o 4.4 Surface roughness scattering

o 4.5 Alloy scattering

o 4.6 Inelastic scattering

o 4.7 Electron-electron scattering

o 4.8 Relation between mobility and scattering time

o 4.9 Matthiessen's rule

o 4.10 Temperature dependence of mobility

 5 Measurement of semiconductor mobility

o 5.1 Hall mobility

o 5.2 Field-effect mobility

 5.2.1 Using saturation mode

 5.2.2 Using the linear region

 6 Doping concentration dependence in heavily-doped silicon

 7 See also

 8 References

 9 External links

[edit]Introduction

[edit]Drift velocity in an electric field

Main article: Drift velocity

Without any applied electric field, in a solid, electrons (or, in the case of semiconductors,
both electrons and holes) move around randomly. Therefore, on average there will be no overall
motion of charge carriers in any particular direction over time.

However, when an electric field is applied, each electron is accelerated by the electric field. If the
electron were in a vacuum, it would be accelerated to faster and faster velocities (called ballistic
transport). However, in a solid, the electron repeatedly scatters off crystal defects, phonons,
impurities, etc. Therefore, it does not accelerate faster and faster; instead it moves with a finite
average velocity, called the drift velocity. This net electron motion is usually much slower than the
normally occurring random motion.

In a semiconductor the two charge carriers, electrons and holes, will typically have different drift
velocities for the same electric field.

Quasi-ballistic transport is possible in solids if the electrons are accelerated across a very small
distance (as small as the mean free path), or for a very short time (as short as the mean free time). In
these cases, drift velocity and mobility are not meaningful.

[edit]Definition and units

See also: Electrical mobility

The electron mobility is defined by the equation:

where:

E is the magnitude of the electric field applied to a material,

vd is the magnitude of the electron drift velocity (in other words, the electron drift speed) caused by
the electric field, and

µ is the electron mobility.

The hole mobility is defined by the same equation. Both electron and hole mobilities are positive by
definition.

Usually, the electron drift velocity in a material is directly proportional to the electric field, which
means that the electron mobility is a constant (independent of electric field). When this is not true
(for example, in very large electric fields), the mobility depends on the electric field.

The SI unit of velocity is m/s, and the SI unit of electric field is V/m. Therefore the SI unit of mobility
is (m/s)/(V/m) = m2/(V·s). However, mobility is much more commonly expressed in cm2/(V·s) =
10−4m2/(V·s).

Mobility is usually a strong function of material impurities and temperature, and is determined
empirically, mobility values are typically presented in table or chart form. Mobility is also different
for electrons and holes in a given semiconductor.
[edit]Relation to conductivity

There is a simple relation between mobility and electrical conductivity. Let n be the number
density of electrons, and let μe be their mobility. In the electric field E, each of these electrons will
move with the velocity vector , for a total current density of (where e is
the elementary charge). Therefore, the electrical conductivity σ satisfies:[1]

σ = neμe.

This formula is valid when the conductivity is due entirely to electrons. In a p-type semiconductor,
the conductivity is due to holes instead, but the formula is essentially the same: If p is the density of
holes and μh is the hole mobility, then the conductivity is

σ = peμh.

If a semiconductor has both electrons and holes, the total conductivity is[1]

σ = e(nμe + pμh).

[edit]Examples

Typical electron mobility for Si at room temperature (300 K) is 1400 cm2/ (V·s) and the hole mobility
is around 450 cm2/ (V·s).[2]

Very high mobility has been found in several low-dimensional systems, such as two-dimensional
electron gases (2DEG) (3,000,000 cm2/(V·s) at low temperature),[3] carbon
nanotubes(100,000 cm2/(V·s) at room temperature) [4] and more recently, graphene (200,000 cm2/
V·s at low temperature).[5] Organic semiconductors (polymer, oligomer) developed thus far have
carrier mobilities below 10 cm2/(V·s), and usually much lower.

[edit]Electric field dependence and velocity saturation

Main article: Velocity saturation

At low fields, the drift velocity vd is proportional to the electric field E, so mobility μ is constant. This
value of μ is called the low-field mobility.

As the electric field is increased, however, the carrier velocity increases sub-linearly and
asymptotically towards a maximum possible value, called the saturation velocity vsat. For example,
the value ofvsat is on the order of 1×107 cm/s for both electrons and holes in Si. It is on the order of
6×106 cm/s for Ge. This velocity is a characteristic of the material and a strong function of doping or
impurity levels and temperature. It is one of the key material and semiconductor device properties
that determine a device such as a transistor's ultimate limit of speed of response and frequency.

This velocity saturation phenomenon results from a process called optical phonon scattering. At high
fields, carriers are accelerated enough to gain sufficient kinetic energy between collisions to emit an
optical phonon, and they do so very quickly, before being accelerated once again. The velocity that
the electron reaches before emitting a phonon is:
where ωphonon(opt.) is the optical phonon angular frequency and m*is the carrier effective mass in the
direction of the electric field. The value of Ephonon (opt.) is 0.063 eV for Si and 0.034 eV for GaAs and Ge.
The saturation velocity is only one-half of vemit, because the electron starts at zero velocity and
accelerates up to vemit in each cycle.[6] (This is a somewhat oversimplified description.[6])

Velocity saturation is not the only possible high-field behavior. Another is the Gunn effect, where a
sufficiently high electric field can causes intervalley electron transfer, which reduces drift velocity.
(This is unusual; increasing the electric field almost always increases the drift velocity, or else leaves
it unchanged.) The result is negative differential resistance.

In the regime of velocity saturation (or other high-field effects), mobility is a strong function of
electric field. This means that mobility is a somewhat less useful concept, compared to simply
discussing drift velocity directly.

[edit]Relation between scattering and mobility

Recall that by definition, mobility is dependent on the drift velocity. The main factor determining
drift velocity (other than effective mass) is scattering time, i.e., how long the carrier is ballistically
accelerated by the electric field until it scatters (collides) with something that changes its direction
and/or energy. The most important sources of scattering in typical semiconductor materials,
discussed below, are ionized impurity scattering and acoustic phonon scattering (also called lattice
scattering). In some cases other sources of scattering may be important, such as neutral impurity
scattering, optical phonon scattering, surface scattering, and defect scattering.[7]

Elastic scattering means that energy is (almost) conserved during the scattering event. Some elastic
scattering processes are scattering from acoustic phonons, impurity scattering, piezoelectric
scattering, etc. In acoustic phonon scattering, electrons scatter from state k to k', while emitting or
absorbing a phonon of wave vector q. This phenomenon is usually modeled by assuming that lattice
vibrations cause small shifts in energy bands. The additional potential causing the scattering process
is generated by the deviations of bands due to these small transitions from frozen lattice positions. [8]

[edit]Ionized impurity scattering

Semiconductors are doped with donors and/or acceptors, which are typically ionized, and are thus
charged. The Coulombic forces will deflect an electron or hole approaching the ionized impurity. This
is known as ionized impurity scattering. The amount of deflection depends on the speed of the
carrier and its proximity to the ion. The more heavily a material is doped, the higher the probability
that a carrier will collide with an ion in a given time, and the smaller the mean free time between
collisions, and the smaller the mobility. When determining the strength of these interactions due to
the long-range nature of the Coulomb potential, other impurities and free carriers cause the range
of interaction with the carriers to reduce significantly compared to bare Coulomb interaction.

If these scatterers are near the interface, the complexity of the problem increases due to the
existence of crystal defects and disorders. Charge trapping centers that scatter free carriers form in
many cases due to defects associated with dangling bonds. Scattering happens because after
trapping a charge, the defect becomes charged and therefore starts interacting with free carriers. If
scattered carriers are in the inversion layer at the interface, the reduced dimensionality of the
carriers makes the case differ from the case of bulk impurity scattering as carriers move only in two
dimensions. Interfacial roughness also causes short-range scattering limiting the mobility of quasi
two-dimensional electrons at the interface. [8]

[edit]Lattice (phonon) scattering

At any temperature above absolute zero, the vibrating atoms create pressure (acoustic) waves in the
crystal, which are termed phonons. Like electrons, phonons can be considered to be particles. A
phonon can interact (collide) with an electron (or hole) and scatter it. At higher temperature, there
are more phonons, therefore increased phonon scattering which tends to reduce mobility.

[edit]Piezoelectric scattering

Piezoelectric effect can occur only in compound semiconductor due to their polar nature. It is small
in most semiconductors but may lead to local electric fields that cause scattering of carriers by
deflecting them, this effect is important mainly at low temperatures where other scattering
mechanisms are weak. These electric fields arise from the distortion of the basic unit cell as strain is
applied in certain directions in the lattice. [8]

[edit]Surface roughness scattering

Surface roughness scattering caused by interfacial disorder is short range scattering limiting the
mobility of quasi two-dimensional electrons at the interface. From high-resolution transmission
electron micrographs, it has been determined that the interface is not abrupt on the atomic level,
but actual position of the interfacial plane varies one or two atomic layers along the surface. These
variations are random and cause fluctuations of the energy levels at the interface, which then causes
scattering. [8]

[edit]Alloy scattering

In compound (alloy) semiconductors, which many thermoelectric materials are, scattering caused by
the perturbation of crystal potential due to the random positioning of substituting atom species in a
relevant sublattice is known as alloy scattering. This can only happen in ternary or higher alloys as
their crystal structure forms by randomly replacing some atoms in one of the cubic lattices
(sublattice) that form zinc-blende structure. Generally, this phenomenon is quite weak but in certain
materials or circumstances, it can become dominant effect limiting conductivity. In bulk materials,
interface scattering is usually ignored.[8][9][10][11]

[edit]Inelastic scattering

During inelastic scattering processes, significant energy exchange happens. As with elastic phonon
scattering also in the inelastic case, the potential arouses from energy band deformations caused by
atomic vibrations. Optical phonons causing inelastic scattering usually have the energy in the range
30-50 meV, for comparison energies of acoustic phonon are typically less than 1 meV but some
might have energy in order of 10 meV. There is significant change in carrier energy during the
scattering process. Optical or high-energy acoustic phonons can also cause intervalley or interband
scattering, which means that scattering is not limited within single valley. [8]

[edit]Electron-electron scattering

Due to the Pauli exclusion principle, electrons can be considered as non-interacting if their density
does not exceed the value 1017 cm-3 or electric field value 103 V/cm. However, significantly above
these limits electron-electron scattering starts to dominate. Long range and nonlinearity of the
Coulomb potential governing interactions between electrons make these interactions difficult to
deal with.[9][8][10]

[edit]Relation between mobility and scattering time

A simple model gives the approximate relation between scattering time (average time between
scattering events) and mobility. It is assumed that after each scattering event, the carrier's motion is
randomized, so it has zero average velocity. After that, it accelerates uniformly in the electric field,
until it scatters again. The resulting average drift velocity is:[12]

where q is the elementary charge, m* is the carrier effective mass, and τ is the average scattering
time.

If the effective mass is anisotropic (direction-dependent), m* is the effective mass in the direction of
the electric field.

[edit]Matthiessen's rule

Normally, more than one source of scattering is present, for example both impurities and lattice
phonons. It is normally a very good approximation to combine their influences using "Matthiessen's
Rule" (developed from work by Augustus Matthiessen in 1864):

where µ is the actual mobility, μimpurities is the mobility that the material would have if there was
impurity scattering but no other source of scattering, and μlattice is the mobility that the material
would have if there was lattice phonon scattering but no other source of scattering. Other terms may
be added for other scattering sources, for example

Matthiessen's rule can also be stated in terms of the scattering time:

.
where τ is the true average scattering time and τimpurities is the scattering time if there was impurity
scattering but no other source of scattering, etc.

Matthiessen's rule is an approximation and is not universally valid. This rule is not valid if the factors
affecting the mobility depend on with each other, because individual scattering probabilities cannot
be summed unless they are independent of each other. The average free time of flight of a carrier
and therefore the relaxation time is inversely proportional to the scattering probability. [8][9][11]For
example, lattice scattering alters the average electron velocity (in the electric-field direction), which
in turn alters the tendency to scatter off impurities. There are more complicated formulas that
attempt to take these effects into account.[13]

[edit]Temperature dependence of mobility

Typical temperature dependence of

mobility[1]
(depends on the temperature range and
sample)

Si Ge GaAs

Electrons ∝T −2.4 ∝T −1.7 ∝T −1.0

Holes ∝T −2.2 ∝T −2.3 ∝T −2.1

With increasing temperature, phonon concentration increases and causes increased scattering. Thus
lattice scattering lowers the carrier mobility more and more at higher temperature. Theoretical
calculations reveal that the mobility in non-polarsemiconductors, such as silicon and germanium, is
dominated by acoustic phonon interaction. The resulting mobility is expected to be proportional
to T −3/2, while the mobility due to optical phonon scattering only is expected to be proportional
to T −1/2. Experimentally, values of the temperature dependence of the mobility in Si, Ge and GaAs
are listed in table.[1]

As , where Σ is the scattering cross section for electrons and holes at a scattering
center and is a thermal average (Boltzmann statistics) over all electron or hole velocities in the
lower conduction band or upper valence band, temperature dependence of the mobility can be
determined. In here, the following definition for the scattering cross section is used: number of
particles scattered into solid angle dΩ per unit time divided by number of particles per area per time
(incident intensity), which comes from classical mechanics. As Boltzmann statistics are valid for

semiconductors .

For scattering from acoustic phonons for temperatures (Θ=Debye temperature), the
estimated cross section Σph is determined from the square of the average vibrational amplitude of a
phonon to be proportional to T. The scattering from charged defects (ionized donors or acceptors)

leads to the cross section . This formula is the scattering cross section for
“Rutherford scattering”, where a point charge (carrier) moves past another point charge (defect)
experiencing Coulomb interaction.

The temperature dependencies of these two scattering mechanism in semiconductors can be

determined by combining formulas for τ, Σ and , to be for scattering from acoustic
−3/2
phononsμph∼T and from charged defects μdef∼T3 / 2. [9][11]

The effect of ionized impurity scattering, however, decreases with increasing temperature because
the average thermal speeds of the carriers are increase.[7] Thus, the carriers spend less time near an
ionized impurity as they pass and the scattering effect of the ions is thus reduced.

These two effects operate simultaneously on the carriers through Matthiessen's rule. At lower
temperatures, ionized impurity scattering dominates, while at higher temperatures, phonon
scattering dominates, and the actual mobility reaches a maximum at an intermediate temperature.

[edit]Measurement of semiconductor mobility

[edit]Hall mobility

Main article: Hall effect

Hall Effect measurement setup for holes

Hall Effect measurement setup for electrons

Carrier mobility is most commonly measured using the Hall effect. The result of the measurement is
called the "Hall mobility" (meaning "mobility inferred from a Hall-effect measurement").
Consider a semiconductor sample with a rectangular cross section as shown in the figures, a current
is flowing in the x-direction and a magnetic field is applied in the z-direction. The resulting Lorentz
force will accelerate the electrons (n-type materials) or holes (p-type materials) in the (−y) direction,
according to the right hand rule and set up an electric field ξy. As a result there is a voltage across the
sample, which can be measured with a high-impedance voltmeter. This voltage, VH, is called the Hall
voltage. VH is negative for n-type material and positive for p-type material.

Mathematically, the Lorentz force acting on a charge Q is given by

For electrons:

For holes:

In steady state this force is balanced by the force set up by the Hall voltage, so that there is no net
force on the carriers in the y direction. For electron,

ξy = vxBz

For electrons, the field points in the -y direction, and for holes, it points in the +y direction.

The electron current I is given by I = − qnvxtW. Sub vx into the expression for ξy,

where RHn is the Hall coefficient for electron, and is defined as

Since

Similarly, for holes

From Hall coefficient, we can obtain the carrier mobility as follows:

Similarly,

Here the value of VHp (Hall voltage), t (sample thickness), I (current) and B (magnetic field) can be
measured directly, and the conductivities σn or σp are either known or can be obtained from
measuring the resistivity.

[edit]Field-effect mobility

See also: MOSFET

Not to be confused with Wien effect.

The mobility can also be measured using a field-effect transistor (FET). The result of the
measurement is called the "field-effect mobility" (meaning "mobility inferred from a field-effect
measurement").

The measurement can work in two ways: From saturation-mode measurements, or linear-region
measurements.[14] (See MOSFET for a description of the different modes or regions of operation.)

[edit]Using saturation mode

In this technique,[14] for each fixed gate voltage VGS, the drain-source voltage VDS is increased until the
current ID saturates. Next, the square root of this saturated current is plotted against the gate
voltage, and the slope msat is measured. Then the mobility is:

where L and W are the length and width of the channel and Ci is the gate insulator capacitance per
unit area. This equation comes from the approximate equation for a MOSFET in saturation mode:

where Vth is the threshold voltage. This approximation ignores the Early effect (channel length
modulation), among other things. In practice, this technique may underestimate the true mobility. [15]

[edit]Using the linear region

In this technique,[14] the transistor is operated in the linear region (or "ohmic mode"), where V DS is
small and with slope mlin. Then the mobility is:

This equation comes from the approximate equation for a MOSFET in the linear region:

In practice, this technique may overestimate the true mobility, because if V DS is not small enough and
VG is not large enough, the MOSFET may not stay in the linear region.[15]

[edit]Doping concentration dependence in heavily-doped silicon

The charge carriers in semiconductors are electrons and holes. Their numbers are controlled by the
concentrations of impurity elements, i.e. doping concentration. Thus doping concentration has great
influence on carrier mobility.

While there is considerable scatter in the experimental data, for noncompensated material (no
counter doping) for heavily doped substrates (i.e. 1018cm − 3 and up), the mobility in silicon is often
characterized by the empirical relationship:[16]

where N is the doping concentration (either ND or NA), and Nref and α are fitting parameters. At room
temperature, the above equation becomes:

Majority carriers:[17]

Minority carriers:[18]

These equations apply only to silicon, and only under low field.
[edit]See also

 Speed of electricity

[edit]References

1. ^ a b c d Chapter 2: Semiconductor Fundamentals. Online textbook by B. Van

Zeghbroeck]

2. ^ Electrical properties of silicon, Ioffe Institute Database

3. ^ Harris, J. J.; Foxon, C. T.; Barnham, K. W. J.; Lacklison, D. E.; Hewett, J.; White, C.
(1987). "Two-dimensional electron gas structures with mobilities in excess of 3×106
cm2 V−1 s−1".Journal of Applied Physics 61:
1219. Bibcode1987JAP....61.1219H. doi:10.1063/1.338174.

4. ^ Dürkop, T.; Getty, S. A.; Cobas, Enrique; Fuhrer, M. S. (2004). "Extraordinary

Mobility in Semiconducting Carbon Nanotubes".Nano Letters 4:
35. Bibcode 2004NanoL...4...35D.doi:10.1021/nl034841q.

5. ^ Bolotin, K; Sikes, K; Jiang, Z; Klima, M; Fudenberg, G; Hone, J; Kim, P; Stormer, H

(2008). "Ultrahigh electron mobility in suspended graphene". Solid State
Communications 146:
351.arXiv:0802.2389. Bibcode 2008SSCom.146..351B.doi:10.1016/j.ssc.2008.02.024.

6. ^ a b Vladimir Vasilʹevich Mitin; Vi︠a︡ cheslav Aleksandrovich Kochelap; Michael A.

Stroscio (1999). Quantum heterostructures: microelectronics and optoelectronics.
Cambridge University Press. pp. 307–9.ISBN 9780521636353. Retrieved 2 March
2011.

7. ^ a b Singh. Electronic Devices And Integrated Circuits. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd..
pp. 77–. ISBN 9788120331921. Retrieved 1 March 2011.

8. ^ a b c d e f g h Ferry, David K. Semiconductor transport. London: Taylor & Francis,

2000. ISBN 0-7484-0865-7 (hbk.),ISBN 0-7484-0866-5 (pbk.)

9. ^ a b c d Ibach, Harald. ; Luth, Hans. Solid-state physics : an introduction to principles

of materials science / Harald Ibach, Hans Luth. New York: Springer, 2009. -(Advanced
texts in physics) ISBN 978-3-540-93803-3

10. ^ a b A. Bulusu, D.G. Walker. Review of electronic transport models for

thermoelectric materials, Superlattices and Microstructures, Volume 44, Issue 1, July
2008, Pages 1-36, ISSN 0749-6036, DOI: 10.1016/j.spmi.2008.02.008.

11. ^ a b c Bhattacharya, Pallab. Semiconductor optoelectronic devices / Pallab

Bhattacharya. Upper Saddle River (NJ): Prentice-Hall, 1997. ISBN 0-13-495656-
7 (nid.)
 12. ^ Peter Y. Yu; Manuel Cardona (30 May 2010). Fundamentals of Semiconductors:
Physics and Materials Properties. Springer. pp. 205–. ISBN 9783642007095.
Retrieved 1 March 2011.

13. ^ Antonio Luque; Steven Hegedus (9 June 2003). Handbook of photovoltaic science
and engineering. John Wiley and Sons. p. 79, eq. 3.58. ISBN 9780471491965.
Retrieved 2 March 2011. weblink (subscription only)

14. ^ a b c Constance Rost-Bietsch (August 2005). Ambipolar and Light-Emitting Organic

Field-Effect Transistors. Cuvillier Verlag. pp. 17–. ISBN 9783865375353. Retrieved 1
March 2011.. This reference mistakenly leaves out a factor of 1/VDS in eqn (2.11).
The correct version of that equation can be found, e.g., in Stassen, A. F.; De Boer, R.
W. I.; Iosad, N. N.; Morpurgo, A. F. (2004). "Influence of the gate dielectric on the
mobility of rubrene single-crystal field-effect transistors". Applied Physics Letters 85:
3899. arXiv:cond-mat/0407293. Bibcode2004ApPhL..85.3899S. doi:10.1063/1.18123
68.

15. ^ a b Constance Rost-Bietsch (August 2005). Ambipolar and Light-Emitting Organic

Field-Effect Transistors. Cuvillier Verlag. pp. 19–. ISBN 9783865375353. Retrieved 20
April 2011. "Extracting the field-effect mobility directly from the linear region of the
output characteristic may yield larger values for the field-effect mobility than the
actual one, since the drain current is linear only for very small VDS and large VG. In
contrast, extracting the field-effect mobility from the saturated region might yield
rather conservative values for the field-effect mobility, since the drain-current
dependence from the gate-voltage becomes sub-quadratic for large VG as well as for
small VDS."

16. ^ B. L. Anderson and R. L. Anderson, "Fundamentals of Semiconductor Devices, " Mc

Graw Hill, 2005

17. ^ Caughey, D.M.; Thomas, R.E. (1967). "Carrier mobilities in silicon empirically
related to doping and field". Proceedings of the IEEE 55:
2192. doi:10.1109/PROC.1967.6123.

18. ^ Del Alamo, J (1985). "Measuring and modeling minority carrier transport in heavily
doped silicon". Solid-State Electronics 28:
47. Bibcode 1985SSEle..28...47D.doi:10.1016/0038-1101(85)90209-6.

[edit]External links

 The minority Carrier Lifetime in silicon wafer

 semiconductor glossary entry for electron mobility

 Resistivity and Mobility Calculator from the BYU Cleanroom

 Online lecture- Mobility from an atomistic point of view

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