Chapter 2

Network Protocols and Communications

2.1 Rules of Communication
2.2 Network Protocols and Standards (OSI & TCP/IP)
2.3 Moving Data in the Network

2.1 Rules of Communication

WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?
The process of sending and receiving data/information b/n sender and receiver

All communication methods have five elements in common.

1. Source or sender
2. Message sources are people, or electronic devices,
3. Destination or receiver
4. A COMCHA consists of the media that provides the pathway over which the message travels from source to
destination.
5. Protocols  Rules that Govern Communications

Human Communication Computer Communication

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ESTABLISHING THE RULES
Once there is an agreed upon method of communicating (face-to-face, telephone, letter etc), the protocols (rules of
communication) put in place must account for the following requirements:

 An identified sender and receiver

 Common language and grammar
 Speed and timing of delivery
 Confirmation or acknowledgement requirements

While there are many protocols that must interact, common computer protocols include:

I. Message Encoding
One of the first steps to sending a message is encoding it. Encoding is the process of converting information into
another, acceptable form, for transmission. Decoding reverses this process in order to interpret the information.

Example: assume face to face communication

To communicate the message, the sender must first convert, or encode, their thoughts and perceptions/observation
about the location into words. The words are spoken into the telephone using the sounds and inflections of spoken
language that convey the message. On the other end of the telephone line, the person listening to the description,
receives and decodes the sounds in order to visualize the image of the sunset described by the sender.

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In computer communication

Encoding between hosts must be in an appropriate form for the medium. Messages sent across the network are first
converted into bits by the sending host. Each bit is encoded into a pattern of sounds, light waves, or electrical impulses
depending on the network media over which the bits are transmitted. The destination host receives and decodes the
signals in order to interpret the message.

II. Message Formatting and Encapsulation

Letter writing is one of the most common forms of written human communication. For centuries, the agreed
format for personal letters has not changed. In many cultures, a personal letter contains the following elements:

 An identifier of the recipient

 A salutation or greeting
 The message content
 A closing phrase
 An identifier of the sender

The process of placing one message format (the letter) inside another message format (the envelope) is called
encapsulation. De-encapsulation occurs when the process is reversed by the recipient and the letter is removed from the
envelope.

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Just as a letter is encapsulated in an envelope for delivery, so too are computer messages encapsulated. Each
computer message is encapsulated in a specific format, called a frame, before it is sent over the network. A
frame acts like an envelope; it provides the address of the intended destination and the address of the source
host, as shown in the figure below.

The format and contents of a frame are determined by the type of message being sent and the channel over
which it is communicated. Messages that are not correctly formatted are not successfully delivered to or
processed by the destination host.

III. Message Size

When people communicate with each other, the messages that they send are usually broken into smaller parts or
sentences.

The size restrictions of frames require the source host to break a long message into individual pieces that meet
both the minimum and maximum size requirements. This is known as segmenting. Each segment is
encapsulated in a separate frame with the address information, and is sent over the network. At the receiving
host, the messages are de-encapsulated and put back together to be processed and interpreted

IV. Message Timing

Another factor that affects how well a message is received and understood is timing. People use timing to
determine when to speak, how fast or slow to talk, and how long to wait for a response. These are the rules of
engagement.

Access Method

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Flow Control

In network communication, a sending host can transmit messages at a faster rate than the destination host can receive
and process. Source and destination hosts use flow control to negotiate correct timing for successful communication.

Response Timeout

If a person asks a question and does not hear a response within an acceptable amount of time, the person
assumes that no answer is coming and reacts accordingly. The person may repeat the question, or may go on
with the conversation. Hosts on the network also have rules that specify how long to wait for responses and
what action to take if a response timeout occurs.

V. Message Delivery Options

There are three types of message delivery options

I. one-to-one delivery unicast

II. one-to-many  multicast
III. one-to-all delivery broadcast

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 2.2 Network Protocols and Standards (OSI & TCP/IP)
Just like in human communication, the various network and computer protocols must be able to interact and work
together for network communication to be successful. Data networks are systems of end devices, intermediary
devices, and the media connecting the devices. For communication to occur, these devices must know how to
communicate. A group of inter-related protocols necessary to perform a communication function is called a protocol
suite. Protocol suites are implemented by end devices, intermediary devices in software, hardware or both.

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WHAT IS THE USE OF STANDARD IN A MULTIVENDOR NETWORK?
In the late 1970’s, incredible increases of Network devices supply was observed. Vendors/manufacturers of different
network products include HP, IBM, D-LINK,COMPAQ etc.

Problems observed

 private or proprietary networking technologies

 Products for network technology (Like NIC, Modem, hub, bridge, communication software/protocols etc) from
different vendors become incompatible.
 things were quite messy

Hence we need Open Standards

• Open Standards are guidelines that vendors adhere/stick on in order to make their products compatible
with products from other vendors.
• Standards organizations ànon-profit organizations are established to develop and promote the concept
of open standards
• Standards organizations are usually vendor-neutral
• Guarantee that no single company’s product can monopolize the market

A good example of this is when purchasing a wireless router for the home. There are many different choices available
from a variety of vendors, all of which incorporate standard protocols such as IPv4, DHCP, 802.3 (Ethernet), and 802.11
(Wireless LAN). These open standards also allow a client running Apple’s OS X operating system to download a web page
from a web server running the Linux operating system. This is because both operating systems implement the open
standard protocols, such as those in the TCP/IP suite.

ISO (The International Organization for Standardization) takes the responsibility of creating open standards

ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, is the world’s largest developer of international standards for a
wide variety of products and services. ISO is not an acronym for the organization’s name; rather the ISO term is based
on the Greek word “isos”, meaning equal. The International Organization for Standardization chose the ISO term to
affirm its position as being equal to all countries.

In networking, ISO is best known for its Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model. ISO published the OSI
reference model in 1984 to develop a layered framework for networking protocols. The original objective of this project
was not only to create a reference model but also to serve as a foundation for a suite of protocols to be used for the
Internet. This was known as the OSI protocol suite. However, due to the rising popularity of the TCP/IP suite, developed

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by Robert Kahn, Vinton Cerf, and others, the OSI protocol suite was not chosen as the protocol suite for the Internet.
Instead, the TCP/IP protocol suite was selected. The OSI protocol suite was implemented on telecommunications
equipment and can still be found in legacy telecommunication networks.

In short

• ISO is the world’s largest developer of international standards for a wide variety of products and services

• In networking, ISO is best known for its Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model à project name

• Initially the OSI model was designed by the ISO to provide a framework on which to build a suite of open
systems protocols to develop an international network that would not be dependent on proprietary systems.

• Ultimately, the speed at which the TCP/IP-based Internet was adopted, and caused the development and
acceptance of the OSI protocol suite to lag behind.

• TCP/IP is developed by American DoD (Department of Defense)

Note:

A protocol suite may be specified by a standards organization or developed by a vendor then will standardized by RFCs

 The TCP/IP protocol suite is an open standard (freely available to the public)
 the TCP/IP and OSI models are the primary models used when discussing network functionality
 The IP suite is a suite of protocols required for transmitting and receiving information using the Internet
 It is commonly known as TCP/IP because the first two networking protocols defined for this standard were TCP
and IP

Comparing the OSI and TCP/IP Models

TCP/IP protocol suite

The Benefits of Using a Layered Model

 Easier to learn
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  Help visualize the interaction between various protocols

 Depicts /shows the operation of the protocols occurring within each layer

 Shows the interaction of protocols with the layers above and below each layer. etc

 Easier to develop protocols i.e. assists in protocol design, because protocols that operate at a specific layer
have defined information that they act upon and a defined interface to the layers above and below.
 Fosters competition because products from different vendors can work together.
 Prevents technology or capability changes in one layer from affecting other layers above and below.
 Provides a common language to describe networking functions and capabilities.
 Multivendor interoperability etc
Note:

There are two basic types of networking models:

 Protocol model - This model closely matches the structure of a particular protocol suite. The
hierarchical set of related protocols in a suite typically represents all the functionality required to
interface the human network with the data network. The TCP/IP model is a protocol model, because it
describes the functions that occur at each layer of protocols within the TCP/IP suite.

 Reference model - This model provides consistency within all types of network protocols and services
by describing what has to be done at a particular layer, but not prescribing how it should be
accomplished. A reference model is not intended to be an implementation specification or to provide a
sufficient level of detail to define precisely the services of the network architecture. The primary
purpose of a reference model is to aid in clearer understanding of the functions and processes involved.

Other Standards Organizations working on internet and other standardization

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IEEE
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE, pronounced “I-triple-E”) is a professional organization for
those in the electrical engineering and electronics fields who are dedicated to advancing technological innovation and
creating standards. As of 2012, IEEE consists of 38 societies, publishes 130 journals, and sponsors more than 1,300
conferences each year worldwide. The IEEE has over 1,300 standards and projects currently under development.

The bottom two layers of the OSI reference model pertain to hardware:

• the NIC and

• the network cabling.

802 PROJECT (802 stands for February 1980)

To further refine the requirements for hardware that operate within these layers, the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has developed enhancements specific to different NICs and cabling.

The IEEE 802.x Standard

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The 7 layers of the OSI reference model and their functions
NOn elementary level
Application Layer - Layer 7
Communicate with network aware applications (APPs).
Network Aware Applications (APPs) software programs used to communicate over the network.
Examples:
 Email Client
 File ACCESS CLIENT
 Web Browser
 Instant Messaging Clients
 Database Access Client
 Network MANAGEMENT AND MONITORING CLIENT
 IP Television
 IP Radio
 IP TELEPHONY OR Voice OVER IP etc

Application layer protocols provides network access to network aware APPs

Application Layer protocols - programs that interface with the network and prepare the data for transfer.
Examples

 DNS, SNMP, DHCP, TFTP, VoIP, TELNET, SSH, FTP, HTTP, HTTPS, IPTV,SMTP etc

NOTE: Application layer doesn’t include network aware APPs

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Presentation Layer - Layer 6
• Genrify data (accept data from session layer and convert it appropriately. if it is word genrify to word
– i.e. Coding and conversion of application layer data
• Data compression and decompression,
• Data Encryption and Decryption
Example of encryption and decryption technique
4. Communication (Network) controls.
Encryption. Scrambling the message may protect
data being communicated over communication
lines.

Session Layer - Layer 5

• Defines how two computers
 establish/creates session
 maintain session
 end a session (dialogs or a connection)
• Example: suppose you are running two Apps.
 Telnet session
 web browsing session
• this layer maintains each session

Transport Layer - Layer 4

• segmentation of data as shown in the figure below

In theory, a single communication, such as a music video or an email message, could be sent across a network
from a source to a destination as one massive, uninterrupted stream of bits-à network monopoly à hence we
need segmentation

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 • sequencing
• Assembly in the receiving side
• uses two protocols
• TCP for reliable transmission
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP) for unreliable trans.
• It can detect segments that are damaged during transmission and automatically generates a retransmission
request
Network Layer - Layer 3
 Packet construction
 IP /logical addressing
 IPV4 or IPV6
 Routing
 finds best path
Data Link Layer - Layer 2
 Frame construction
 MAC addressing
 Error checking

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Physical Layer - Layer 1
Actual data transfer happens (in bit streams….)

This layer is often referred to as the "hardware layer." Although the above layers can be implemented as firmware
(chip-level functions on the NIC), rather than actual software

NOTE: What is Protocol Data Units (PDUs)?

As application data is passed down the protocol stack on its way to be transmitted across the network media,
various protocols add information to it at each level. This is commonly known as the encapsulation process.

The form that a piece of data takes at any layer is called a protocol data unit (PDU). During encapsulation, each
succeeding layer encapsulates the PDU that it receives from the layer above in accordance with the protocol
being used. At each stage of the process, a PDU has a different name to reflect its new functions. Although
there is no universal naming convention for PDUs, in this course, the PDUs are named according to the
protocols of the TCP/IP suite, as shown in the figure below

 Data - The general term for the PDU used at the application layer
 Segment - Transport layer PDU
 Packet - Internet layer PDU
 Frame - Network access layer PDU
 Bits - A PDU used when physically transmitting data over the medium

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Question:

What is the function of each layer in TCP/IP model?

2.3 Moving Data in the Network

Data Encapsulation process

In theory, a single communication, such as a music video or an email message, could be sent across a network
from a source to a destination as one massive, uninterrupted stream of bits. If messages were actually
transmitted in this manner, it would mean that no other device would be able to send or receive messages on the
same network while this data transfer was in progress. These large streams of data would result in significant
delays. Further, if a link in the interconnected network infrastructure failed during the transmission, the
complete message would be lost and have to be retransmitted in full.

A better approach is to divide the data into smaller, more manageable pieces to send over the network. This
division of the data stream into smaller pieces is called segmentation. Segmenting messages has two primary
benefits:

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  By sending smaller individual pieces from source to destination, many different conversations can be
interleaved on the network. The process used to interleave the pieces of separate conversations together
on the network is called multiplexing.

 Segmentation can increase the reliability of network communications. The separate pieces of each
message need not travel the same pathway across the network from source to destination. If a particular
path becomes congested with data traffic or fails, individual pieces of the message can still be directed to
the destination using alternate pathways. If part of the message fails to make it to the destination, only
the missing parts need to be retransmitted.

 Data encapsulation is the process that adds additional protocol header information to the data before
transmission. In most forms of data communications, the original data is encapsulated or wrapped in
several protocols before being transmitted.
 When sending messages on a network, the protocol stack on a host operates from top to bottom. In the
web server example, we can use the TCP/IP model to illustrate the process of sending an HTML web
page to a client.
 The application layer protocol, HTTP, begins the process by delivering the HTML formatted web page
data to the transport layer. There the application data is broken into TCP segments. Each TCP segment
is given a label, called a header, containing information about which process running on the destination
computer should receive the message. It also contains the information that enables the destination
process to reassemble the data back to its original format.
 The transport layer encapsulates the web page HTML data within the segment and sends it to the
internet layer, where the IP protocol is implemented. Here the entire TCP segment is encapsulated
within an IP packet, which adds another label, called the IP header. The IP header contains source and
destination host IP addresses, as well as information necessary to deliver the packet to its corresponding
destination process.
 Next, the IP packet is sent to the network access layer where it is encapsulated within a frame header
and trailer. Each frame header contains a source and destination physical address. The physical address
uniquely identifies the devices on the local network. The trailer contains error checking information.
Finally the bits are encoded onto the media by the server network interface card (NIC

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De-encapsulation process
This process is reversed at the receiving host, and is known as de-encapsulation. De-encapsulation is the process used by
a receiving device to remove one or more of the protocol headers. The data is de-encapsulated as it moves up the stack
toward the end-user application.

Communicating with a Device on the Same Network

OSI model describes the processes of encoding, formatting, segmenting, and encapsulating data for
transmission over the network. The network layer and data link layer are responsible for delivering the data
from the source device or sender, to the destination device or receiver. Protocols at both layers contain source
and destination addresses, but their addresses have different purposes.

Network Address

The network layer, or Layer 3, logical address contains information required to deliver the IP packet from the
source device to the destination device. A Layer 3 IP address has two parts, the network prefix and the host part.
The network prefix is used by routers to forward the packet to the proper network. The host part is used by the
last router in the path to deliver the packet to the destination device.

An IP packet contains two IP addresses:

 Source IP address - The IP address of the sending device.

 Destination IP address - The IP address of the receiving device. The destination IP address is used by
routers to forward a packet to its destination.

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Data Link Address

The data link, or Layer 2, physical address has a different role. The purpose of the data link address is to deliver
the data link frame from one network interface to another network interface on the same network. Before an IP
packet can be sent over a wired or wireless network it must be encapsulated in a data link frame so it can be
transmitted over the physical medium, the actual network. Ethernet LANs and wireless LANs are two examples
of networks that have different physical media each with its own type of data link protocol.

The IP packet is encapsulated into a data link frame to be delivered to the destination network. The source and
destination data link addresses are added, as shown in the figure:

 Source data link address - The physical address of the device that is sending the packet. Initially this is
the NIC that is the source of the IP packet.

 Destination data link address - The physical address of the network interface of either the next hop
router or the network interface of the destination device.

To understand how communication is successful in the network, it is important to understand the roles of both
the network layer addresses and the data link addresses when a device is communicating with another device on
the same network. In this example we have a client computer, PC1, communicating with a file server, FTP
server, on the same IP network.

Network Addresses

The network layer addresses, or IP addresses, indicate the network and host address of the source and
destination. The network portion of the address will be the same; only the host or device portion of the address
will be different.

 Source IP address - The IP address of the sending device, the client computer PC1: 192.168.1.110.

 Destination IP address - The IP address of the receiving device, FTP server: 192.168.1.9.

Data Link Addresses

When the sender and receiver of the IP packet are on the same network, the data link frame is sent directly to
the receiving device. On an Ethernet network, the data link addresses are known as Ethernet MAC addresses.
MAC addresses are 48-bit addresses that are physically embedded on the Ethernet NIC. A MAC address is also
known as the physical address or burned-in address (BIA).

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  Source MAC address - This is the data link address, or the Ethernet MAC address, of the device that
sends the IP packet, PC1. The MAC address of the Ethernet NIC of PC1 is AA-AA-AA-AA-AA-AA.

 Destination MAC address - When the receiving device is on the same network as the sending device,
this is the data link address of the receiving device. In this example, the destination MAC address is the
MAC address of the FTP server: CC-CC-CC-CC-CC-CC.

The source and destination addresses are added to the Ethernet frame. The frame with the encapsulated IP
packet can now be transmitted from PC1 directly to the FTP server.

It should now be clear that to send data to another host on the same LAN the source host must know both the
physical and logical addresses of the destination host. Once this is known, it can create a frame and send it out
on the network media. The source host can learn the destination IP address in a number of ways. For example, it
may learn the IP address through the use of the Domain Name System (DNS), or it may know the destination IP
address because the address is entered in the application manually, such as when a user specifies the IP address
of a destination FTP server. But how does a host determine the Ethernet MAC address of another device?

Most network applications rely on the logical IP address of the destination to identify the location of the
communicating hosts. The data link MAC address is required to deliver the encapsulated IP packet inside the
Ethernet frame across the network to the destination.

The sending host uses a protocol called Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) to discover the MAC address of
any host on the same local network. The sending host sends an ARP Request message to the entire LAN. The
ARP Request is a broadcast message. The ARP Request contains the IP address of the destination device. Every
device on the LAN examines the ARP Request to see if it contains its own IP address. Only the device with the
IP address contained in the ARP Request responds with an ARP Reply. The ARP Reply includes the MAC
address associated with the IP address in the ARP Request.

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Communicating with a Device on a Remote Network

 The method that a host uses to send messages to a destination on a remote network differs from the way
a host sends messages to a destination on the same local network. When a host needs to send a message
to another ho st located on the same network, it will forward the message directly. A host will use ARP
to discover the MAC address of the destination host. It includes the destination IP address within the
packet header and encapsulates the packet into a frame containing the MAC address of the destination
and forwards it.
 When a host needs to send a message to a remote network, it must use the router, also known as the
default gateway. The default gateway is the IP address of an interface on a router on the same network
as the sending host.
 It is important that the address of the default gateway be configured on each host on the local network. If
no default gateway address is configured in the host TCP/IP settings, or if the wrong default gateway is
specified, messages addressed to hosts on remote networks cannot be delivered.
 In the figure, the hosts on the LAN are using R1 as the default gateway with its 192.168.1.1 address
configured in their TCP/IP settings. If the destination of a PDU is on a different IP network, the hosts
send the PDUs to the default gateway on the router for further transmission.

But what are the roles of the network layer address and the data link layer address when a device is
communicating with a device on a remote network? In this example we have a client computer, PC1,
communicating with a server, named Web Server, on a different IP network.

Network Addresses

IP addresses indicate the network and device addresses of the source and destination. When the sender of the
packet is on a different network from the receiver, the source and destination IP addresses will represent hosts
on different networks. This will be indicated by the network portion of the IP address of the destination host.

 Source IP address - The IP address of the sending device, the client computer PC1: 192.168.1.110.

 Destination IP address - The IP address of the receiving device, the server, Web Server: 172.16.1.99.

Data Link Addresses

When the sender and receiver of the IP packet are on different networks, the Ethernet data link frame cannot be
sent directly to the destination host because the host is not directly reachable in the network of the sender. The
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Ethernet frame must be sent to another device known as the router or default gateway. In our example, the
default gateway is R1. R1 has an interface and an IP address that is on the same network as PC1. This allows
PC1 to reach the router directly.

 Source MAC address - The Ethernet MAC address of the sending device, PC1. The MAC address of
the Ethernet interface of PC1 is AA-AA-AA-AA-AA-AA.

Destination MAC address - When the receiving device is on a different network from the sending device, this
is the Ethernet MAC address of the default gateway or router. In this example, the destination MAC address is
the MAC address of the R1 Ethernet interface that is attached to the PC1 network, which is 11-11-11-11-11-11.

The Ethernet frame with the encapsulated IP packet can now be transmitted to R1. R1 forwards the packet to the
destination, Web Server. This may mean that R1 forwards the packet to another router or directly to Web Server
if the destination is on a network connected to R1.

How does the sending device determine the MAC address of the router?

Each device knows the IP address of the router through the default gateway address configured in its TCP/IP
settings. The default gateway address is the address of the router interface connected to the same local network
as the source device. All devices on the local network use the default gateway address to send messages to the
router. After the host knows the default gateway IP address, it can use ARP to determine the MAC address of
that default gateway. The MAC address of the default gateway is then placed in the frame.

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