(iii) MUSCULAR SYSTEM

 Common property of all muscles type is the ability to contract and develop tension. Muscles produces
various levels of forces based on its size and shape.
 Muscle tissues are categorized based on its function.
 Muscle Types:
o Skeletal Muscle (Striated muscles): Attached to the skeleton, exert force on bones to move &
stabilize them, responsible for voluntary movements, appears striated under a microscope (due to
alternating light and dark bands on muscle tissue).
o Smooth Muscle: Found in wall of hollow organs and vessels (tubes), controls material movement,
lacks striations, and is involuntary; example: Stomach, intestine and blood vessels.
o Cardiac Muscle: Comprises the heart wall, a very specialized tissue, maintains constant heart
pumping, possesses striations, and is involuntary.
(A) Skeletal Muscle Function
 Role in Movement: Skeletal muscles exert force on bones, creating joint movement.
 Tendon: Specialized connective tissue, link muscles (end of belly of skeletal muscle) to bones.
 Muscle contract: tendinous attachments move closer together; Muscle stretch: Tendon attachment points
move further apart.
 Each joint movement incorporates/involves all supporting structure surrounding joint. (Surrounding
structures provide support); Example: Pairing of Agonist and Antagonist muscles (Functional pairing).
 Agonist (Prime Mover): Initiates major movement; Antagonist: Opposes agonist, often stretched during
agonist contraction; generally, lies on opposite side of joint. Examples: Quadriceps (agonist) extend the knee,
while hamstrings (antagonist) are stretched.
 Muscle Shapes and Muscle Fiber Arrangements: Based on functionality
o Longitudinal Muscle: Muscle fibers run parallel to the muscle's long axis; long strap like arrangement;
producing considerable movement; produce relatively weak force (e.g., sartorius).
o Other (Pennate) Muscles: Tendon run entire length of muscle; muscle fibers insert diagonally;
produces less movement and greater force during contraction.
1. Unipennate Muscle: Muscle fibers insert on one side of a tendon (e.g., anterior tibialis).
2. Bipennate Muscle: Muscle fibers insert obliquely on both sides of a tendon (e.g., rectus
femoris).
3. Multipennate Muscle: Complex arrangement with several converging tendons (e.g., deltoid).
Agonist: The muscle directly responsible for observed/specific movement, aka Prime mover.

(B) Muscle Structure:

 Skeletal muscle is composed of individual muscle cells called muscle fibers.
 These fibers are held in place by connective tissue membranes known as fasciae.
 Fascia types include epimysium (encasing the entire muscle), perimysium (bundles of muscle fibers, called
fascicles), and endomysium (wrapping individual muscle fibers).
Epimysium: A layer of connective tissue that enclosed the entire muscle; is continuous with fascia and other connective-tissue
wrapping of muscles, including the endomysium and perimysium.
Perimysium: A sheath of connective tissue that covers the bundle of muscle fibers.
Endomysium: A layer of connective tissue that surrounds individual muscle fibers and contain capillaries, nerves and lymphatics.

Muscle-fiber Microanatomy
  Skeletal muscle fibers exhibit cross-striated patterns with alternating light and dark bands, under a
microscope.
 Each muscle fiber contains multiple myofibrils (protein filaments) running parallel to each other; myofibril
extend lengthwise throughout the cell/fiber.
o Sarcomeres are the basic functional unit of myofibrils, containing the contractile proteins that
generate skeletal muscle movement. It is the functional contracting unit of skeletal muscle. Lies
between two Z lines.
o Contractile proteins are Myosin (thick contractile protein) and Actin (Thin contractile protein)

o Myofibril is a series of sarcomere, where the repeating pattern of the contractile protein gives the
striated appearance to skeletal muscle
 Pattern of contractile protein/sarcomere
o Dark bands (A bands) of myofibril contain myosin protein filaments. (Found in I band, extends to A
band, up to H zone)
o Light bands (I bands) of myofibril contain actin protein filaments.

o Actin filaments extend into the A bands, overlapping with myosin filaments.

o Z lines (crossing center of I band) divide myofibrils into repeating segments called sarcomeres.

o Sarcomeres contain an H zone (lighter area/less dense) in the center because: H zone contains only
myosin filaments (Myosin gets thin in middle & actin doesn’t extend into this area).
o M line, a thin, darker line, crosses the center (vertically) of the H zone.

o Actin filaments attach to Z lines, and myosin filaments have tiny projections (AKA cross-bridges)
reaches out at an angle toward actin filaments.
Contraction/Sliding Filament Model
 Muscle contraction relies on energy from adenosine triphosphate (ATP) within the cell.
 Contraction starts with the release of acetylcholine (neurotransmitter) at the neuromuscular junction,
initiated by motor neurons (on direction of brain and spinal cord).
 On detection of acetylcholine, calcium is released into the surrounding area (of fiber), exposing binding sites
on actin filaments (for myosin filament to bind.) *
 With sufficient ATP, myosin filaments bind with receptor sites on actin filaments, forming cross-bridges.
 Myosin pulls actin toward the center, shortening the sarcomere (closer Z lines) from both sides, known as
“power stroke”.
 Simultaneous shortening of all sarcomeres results in overall muscle fiber shortening.
 Contraction occurs when multiple muscle fibers are stimulated to contract together, leading to entire muscle
contraction.
* Note: Tropomyosin is a protein that blocks crossbridge binding sites on actin. When calcium is releases, it binds
with Tropomyosin to stop its function, i.e., displace tropomyosin.
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP): A high-energy phosphate molecule required to provide energy for cellular function. Produced
both aerobically and anaerobically and stored in the body.
Neurotransmitter: A chemical substance (dopamine or acetylcholine) that transmits nerve impulses across synapses.
Acetylcholine: A white crystalline neurotransmitter and derivative of choline, that is released at the end of nerve fibers in somatic
and parasympathetic nervous system and in involved in the transmission of nerve impulses in the body.

(C) Muscle-Fiber Types:

 Divided in 2 categories based on how quickly muscle fiber contracts.
 Slow-Twitch Muscle Fibers (Type I/Slow-oxidative): (all in comparison to Fast-twitch)
o Rich in mitochondria.

o Surrounded by more capillaries.

o High myoglobin content (a compound similar to hemoglobin, adds in the storage & transport of O2 in
muscle cell)
Therefore:
i. Resistant to fatigue.
ii. Suitable for sustained aerobic (metabolism) activities.
o Slow contraction speed.

o Lower force output but higher efficiency.

 Fast-Twitch Muscle Fibers (Type II): (in comparison to slow-twitch fibers)

o Type IIa and Type IIx (Traditionally known as Type llb) subtypes.

o Fewer mitochondria.

o Limited aerobic capacity.

o Fatigue more easily

o High glycolytic enzyme content. Therefore, considerable anaerobic capacity (Suitable for anaerobic
activities).
o Fast contraction speed.

o Higher force output but lower efficiency.

o Type II Muscle Fiber Subtypes:

1. Type IIx (Fast-Glycolytic) Fibers:

 Limited aerobic capacity (cannot sustain efforts for more than few seconds)
 Fatigue quickly.
 High anaerobic capacity.
 Largest and fastest; capable of producing more force of all skeletal muscle fibers.
2. Type IIa (Intermediate/fast oxidative glycolytic) Fibers:
 Speed, fatigue resistance, and force production between slow-twitch and Type IIx
fibers.
 Used for strength and power activities. Sustain efforts longer than Type llx fibers (up
to 3 minutes in highly trained athletes)
 Unique: Highly adaptable to endurance (increase oxidative capacity similar to slow
twitch levels) or strength training (become more like Type llx)
 Muscle Fiber Composition:
o Most muscles have a mix of fast- and slow-twitch fibers; although some are known to be made up of
primarily fast-twitch (e.g., Soleus) or slow twitch (e.g., gastrocnemius) fibers.
o Composition influenced by genetics, hormones, and activity/exercise habits.

o Fiber composition affects sport and exercise performance.

1. Power athletes have more fast-twitch fibers.

 2. Endurance athletes have more slow-twitch fibers.
3. However other variables also impact overall performance.
Glycolysis: The breakdown of glucose or of its storage from glycogen
Enzyme: A protein that speeds up a specific chemical reaction.
Hormones: A chemical substance produced and released by an endocrine gland; transported through blood to target organ.