MODULE - 1

BASIS ACTIVE COMPONENTS PASSIVE COMPONENT

Nature of source Active components deliver power or Passive elements utilizes power or
energy to the circuit. energy from the circuit.

Examples Diodes, Transistors, SCR, Integrated Resistor, Capacitor, Inductor etc.

circuits etc.

Function of the Devices which produce energy in Devices which stores energy in the
component the form of voltage or current. form of voltage or current.

Power Gain They are capable of providing They are incapable of providing
power gain. power gain.

Flow of current Active components can control the Passive components cannot
flow of current. control the flow of the current.

Requirement of They require an external source for They do not require any external
external source the operations. source for the operations.
RESISTOR
A resistor is defined as a two-terminal passive electrical element that provides electrical
resistance to current flow. Resistance is a measure of the opposition to the flow of current in
a resistor.

There are two basic types of resistors as follows:

• Linear resistor
• Non-linear resistor

Linear resistors
The resistors whose values change with change in applied temperature and voltage are
known as linear resistors. There are two types of linear resistors:
Fixed resistors: These resistors have a specific value and these values cannot be changed.
Following are the different types of fixed resistors:

• Carbon composition resistors

• Wire wound resistors
• Thin film resistors
• Thick film resistors
Variable resistors: These resistors do not have a specific value and the values can be
changed with the help of dial, knob, and screw. These resistors find applications in radio
receivers for controlling volume and tone. Following are the different types of variable
resistors:

• Potentiometers
• Rheostats
• Trimmers

Non-linear resistors
The resistor values change according to the temperature and voltage applied and is not
dependent on Ohm’s law. Following are the different types of non-linear resistors:

• Thermisters
• Varisters
• Photo resistors
Following are the applications of resistors:

• Wire wound resistors find applications where balanced current control, high
sensitivity, and accurate measurement are required like in shunt with ampere meter.
• Photoresistors find application in flame detectors, burglar alarms, in photographic
devices, etc.
• Resistors are used for controlling temperature and voltmeter.
• Resistors are used in digital multi-meter, amplifiers, telecommunication, and
oscillators.
• They are also used in modulators, demodulators, and transmitters.
CAPACITOR

• A capacitor is defined as a passive component which is used for storing electrical

energy. A capacitor is made of two conductors that are separated by the dielectric
material. These dielectric materials are in the form of plates which can accumulate
charges.
• One plate is for a positive charge while the other is for a negative charge.
• Capacitance is the effect of the capacitor. Capacitance is defined as the ratio of electric
charge Q to the voltage V and it is expressed as

C = Q/V
• Where,
o Q is the electric charge measured in coulombs
o C is the capacitance measured in farad
o V is the voltage across the plates measured in volts

How Are Capacitors Classified?

According to structure, capacitors are classified as:

• Fixed Capacitors
• Variable Capacitors
• Trimmer Capacitors
•
The capacitors are classified into two types according to polarization:

• Polarized
• Unpolarized
o A polarized capacitor is an important electronic circuit component and is often
termed an electrolytic capacitor. These capacitors are used to achieve high
capacitive density.
o Unpolarized capacitors are preferred over polarized capacitors because it doesn’t
get destroyed by reverse voltage and can be used in pure AC circuits. They also
find applications in DC circuits as they don’t have positive and negative ends. The
frequency of the unpolarized capacitor is high, and the leakage current is low.

Types of Capacitors
. Capacitors are categorized into 2 mechanical groups. Fixed Capacitors consist of fixed
capacitance value and variable capacitance with variable capacitance value. Ceramic Capacitors

• Film Capacitors
• Power Film Capacitors
• Electrolytic Capacitors
• Ceramic capacitors
• Film capacitors
• Paper Capacitors
• Electrolytic capacitors

Ceramic Capacitors
A ceramic capacitor is considered to be one of the most commonly used capacitors. The
material used in this capacitor type is dielectric. Also, ceramic capacitors are non-polar devices
which means that they can be used in any direction in the circuit.

Applications of Ceramic Capacitors

• Ceramic capacitors are used in printed circuit boards that are used in high-density
applications.
• Their non-polarity makes them suitable for general usage.
• They find applications in DC motors as they are used for reducing the RF noise.
• Ceramic capacitors are used in transmitter stations where resonant circuits are used.

Film Capacitors
Film capacitors are also known as a polymer film, plastic film, or film dielectric. The advantage of
film capacitors is that they are inexpensive and come with limitless shelf life. The film capacitor
uses a thin dielectric material with the other side of the capacitor metalized. Depending on the
application, the film capacitor is rolled into thin films. The general voltage range of these
capacitors is from 50 V to 2 kV.

Applications of Film Capacitors

 • These capacitors are used as safety capacitors and in electromagnetic interference.
• Power film capacitors find applications in power electronics.
• These capacitors are used for safeguarding the devices from sudden voltage spikes.
• Film capacitors are used for improving the power factor of the device.

Electrolytic Capacitors
In an electrolytic capacitor metallic anode coated with an oxidized layer used as a dielectric.
These capacitors are polarized. Electrolytic capacitors are categorized based on their dielectric.

• Aluminum electrolytic capacitors – aluminum oxide (dielectric).

• Tantalum electrolytic capacitors – tantalum pentoxide (dielectric).
• Niobium electrolytic capacitors – niobium pentoxide (dielectric).

Applications of Electrolytic Capacitors

• Electrolytic capacitors are used when there is a requirement for large capacitance.
• They are used as filtering devices that lower the ripple voltage.
• They are used in audio amplifiers to reduce the electrical noise that is induced by the
main supply.
• Electrolytic capacitors are used in smoothing the input and output signals in a DC signal
that has a weak AC component.

Paper Capacitor
Paper capacitor is also known as a fixed capacitor in which paper is used as the dielectric
material. The amount of electric charge stored by the paper capacitor is fixed. It consists of two
metallic plates, and paper, which is used as a dielectric material, is placed between these plates.

Applications of Paper Capacitor

• These capacitors are used in noise filtering, coupling, and decoupling systems.
• They are also used for blocking the DC signals so that AC signals are passed through.
• Sensors such as humidity sensors, fuel level sensors, etc used paper capacitors.
• Paper capacitors are used in audio systems of cars as they provide extra power to the
amplifiers.

What Are Common Capacitors?

Capacitors are mainly divided into two mechanical groups:

• Fixed capacitors
• Variable capacitors
• Polarised
INDUCTOR
An inductor is a passive component that is used in most power electronic circuits to store energy
in the form of magnetic energy when electricity is applied to it. One of the key properties of an
inductor is that it impedes or opposes any change in the amount of current flowing through it.
Whenever the current across the inductor changes it either acquires charge or loses the charge in
order to equalize the current passing through it. The inductor is also called a choke, reactor or just
coil.

An inductor is described by its distinctive nature of inductance, which is defined as the ratio of
the voltage to the rate of change of current. Inductance is a result of the induced magnetic field
on the coil. It is also determined by several factors such as;

• The shape of the coil.

• The number of turns and layers of the wire.
• The space that is given between the turns.
• Permeability of the core material.
• The size of the core.
The S.I. unit of inductance is henry (H) and when we measure magnetic circuits it is equivalent to
weber/ampere. It is denoted by the symbol L.
, an inductor is totally different from a capacitor. In the case of a capacitor, it stores energy as
electrical energy but as mentioned above, an inductor stores energy in the form of magnetic
energy. One key feature of the inductor is that it also changes its polarity while discharging. In
this way polarity during discharging can be made opposite to the polarity during charging. The
polarity of the induced voltage is well explained by Lenz law.
Depending on the type of material used inductors can be classified as follows:

1. Iron Core Inductor

2. Air Core Inductor
3. Iron Powder Inductor
4. Ferrite Core Inductor which is divided into,

• Soft Ferrite
• Hard Ferrite

Iron Core Inductor

As the name suggests the core of this type of inductor is made of iron. These inductors are low
space inductors that have high power and high inductance value. However, they are limited in
high-frequency capacity. These inductors are used in audio equipment.

Air Core Inductor

These inductors are used when the amount of inductance required is low. Since there is no core,
it does not have a core loss. But the number of turns the inductor must have is more for this type
when compared to the inductors with the core. This results in a high-Quality factor. Usually,
ceramic inductors are often referred to as air-core inductors.

Iron Powder Inductor

In this type of inductor, the core is Iron Oxide. They are formed by very fine and insulating
particles of pure iron powder. High magnetic flux can be stored in it due to the air gap. The
permeability of the core of this type of inductor is very less. They are usually below 100. They are
mainly used in switching power supplies.

Ferrite Core Inductor

In this type of Inductor, ferrite materials are used as core. The general composition of ferrites is
XFe2O4. Where X represents transition material. Ferrites can be classified into two types. Soft
ferrites and hard ferrites.

• Soft Ferrite: Materials that have the ability to reverse their polarity without any external
energy.
• Hard Ferrite: These are permanent magnets. That is their polarity will not change even
when the magnetic field is removed.

Choke
A choke is a type of inductor that is used mainly for blocking high-frequency alternating current
(AC) in an electrical circuit. On the other hand, it will allow DC or low-frequency signals to pass.
As the function of this inductor is to restrict the changes in current it is called a choke. This
inductor consists of a coil of insulated wire wound on a magnetic core. The main difference
between chokes and other inductors is that in their cases they do not require high Q factor
construction techniques meant to reduce the resistance in inductors found in tuned circuits.

Functions of an Inductor
Inductors can be used for two primary functions.

1. To control signals.
2. To store energy.

Controlling Signals
Coils in an inductor can be used to store energy. The function of the inductor depends upon the
frequency of the current passing through it. That is for higher frequency signals will be passed
less easily and vice versa. This function tells that it blocks AC Current and passes DC Current.
Hence, it can be used to block AC signals.
Inductors can be used along with capacitors to form LC filters.

Storing Energy
Inductor stores energy in the form of magnetic energy. Coils can store electrical energy in a form
of magnetic energy using the property that an electric current flowing through a coil produces a
magnetic field, which in turn produces an electric current. In other words, coils offer a means of
storing energy on the basis of inductivity
IC
The conventional method of making circuits was to select components like R, C, L, diode and
semiconductors. There are so many factors stopping to build off big circuits like:
1. Bulky in size.
2. Not entirely shockproof
3. Reliability
4. More power consumption
5. Less durability
The concept of fabricating an entire circuit on a single small block (or chip) of a semiconductor
has revolutionised electronics technology. Such a circuit is known as Integrated Circuit (IC).

Before the discovery of ICs, the basic method of making circuits was to select the
components like diodes, transistors, resistors, inductors and capacitors and connect them by
shouldering. But due to size and power consumption issues, it was necessary to develop a
small size circuit with less power consumption, reliability and shockproof.
After the invention of the semiconductors and transistors, things were quite simplified to a
particular extent, but the development of integrated circuits changed electronics technology’s
face. Jack Kilby from Texas Instruments and Bob Noyce from Intel are the official creators of
integrated circuits, and they did it independently.

• Electric Circuits
• Resistors
• Transistors
• Diodes
• Capacitors

Definition of Integrated Chip

Integrated circuits are made up of several components such as R, C, L, diodes and transistors.
They are built on a small single block or chip of a semiconductor known as an integrated circuit
(IC). All of them work together to perform a particular task. The IC is easily breakable, so to be
attached to a circuit board, it is often housed in a plastic package with metal pins.
Integrated circuits can function as an oscillator, amplifiers, microprocessors or even as
computer memory.

Integrated Circuit Design

An integrated circuit is created using certain logic methods and circuit layouts. The two
categories of IC design are as follows:

• Analog Design
• Digital Design
• Mixed Design

Digital Design
The digital design approach is used to create integrated circuits (ICs), which are utilised as
computer memories (such as RAM and ROM) and microprocessors. With this approach to
design, the circuit density and overall efficiency are both maximised. The ICs created with this
technique operate with binary input data like 0 and 1. The process for designing digital integrated
circuits is depicted in the diagram below.

Analog Design
IC chip is created by using the analog design process when:

• ICs are utilised as regulators, filters and oscillators.

• Optimal power dissipation, gain and resistance are required.

Mixed Design
The analog and digital design ideas are used in mixed designs. The mixed ICs perform either
Analog to Digital or Digital to Analog conversions.

Integrated Circuit Construction

A complicated stacking of semiconductors, copper, and other related elements to create
resistors, transistors, and other components is an integrated circuit. A die is a combination of
these wafers that have been sliced and moulded.
The ICs’ semiconductor wafers are delicate, and the connections between the layers are
extremely complex. The ICs are packaged because an IC die is too small to solder and connect
to. The delicate and tiny die is transformed into the familiar black chip by the IC packaging.
The connections between the layers are exceedingly complicated, and the semiconductor wafers
used to make the ICs are delicate. Because an IC die is too small to solder, the ICs are packed.
All integrated circuits (ICs) are polarised, and each pin has a specific location and functionality.
As seen in the illustration below, integrated chips employ a notch or a dot to denote the first pin.
The subsequent PINs rise consecutively in a counterclockwise way around the chip after the first
pin is identified.

Integrated Circuit Features

Construction & Packaging
ICs are built with semiconducting components such as silicon. Because of the small size and
delicate nature of IC, a series of tiny gold and aluminium wires are joined together and moulded
into a flat block of plastic or ceramic. Metal pins on the block’s exterior link to cables inside. The
solid block stops the chip from overheating and keeps it cool.

Size of an IC
The size of the integrated chip varies between 1 square mm to more than 200 mm.

Integration of an IC
Because they combine various devices on one chip, integrated chips get their name. A
microcontroller is an integrated circuit (IC) that combines a microprocessor, memory, and
interface into a single unit.
Commonly Used ICs
Logic Gate ICs
The combinational circuit generates logical outputs based on a variety of input signals. It may
only have two to three inputs but one output.

Timer ICs
A Timer IC is produced with accurate timing cycles with a 100 % or 50 % duty cycle.

Operational Amplifiers
An OpAmp or an Operational Amplifier is a high gain voltage amplifier with a differential input
and a single-ended output.

Voltage Regulators
A voltage regulator IC provides a constant DC output irrespective of the changes in DC input.

What is 555 Timer IC?

555 Timer is a digital monolithic integrated circuit (IC) which may be used as a
clock generator. In other words, 555 Timer is a circuit which may be connected
as a stable or monostable multivibrator. In more simple words, 555 Timer is
a monolithic timing circuit, which can produce accurate timing pulses with 50% or
100% duty cycle.
555 Timer is a versatile and most usable device in the electronics circuits and designs
which work for both stable and monostable states. It may provide time delay from
microseconds up to many hours.
555 timer is a very cheap IC which works for wide range of potential
difference (typically, from 4.5 to 15V DC) and the different provided input voltages do
not affect the timer output.
555 Timer is a linear device and it can be directly connected to the CMOS or TTL
(Transistor – Transistor Logic) digital circuits due to its compatibility but, interfacing is
must to use 555 timer with other digital circuits.
Being an integral part of electronics project, 555 Timer IC is very often used in simple
to complex electronics projects. The standard 555 timer IC is made of 2 diodes, 25
transistors, 15 resistors installed in an 8 pin dual in-line package.
RELAY
What is a Relay?
A switch is a component that opens (turn off) & close (turn on) an electrical circuit.
whereas, a relay is an electrical switch that control (switch on & off) a high voltage
circuit using a low voltage source. A relay completely isolates the low voltage circuit
from the high voltage circuit

.
LDR
What is a Light Dependent Resistor?

An LDR or light dependent resistor is also known as photo resistor, photocell,

photoconductor. It is a one type of resistor whose resistance varies depending on the
amount of light falling on its surface. When the light falls on the resistor, then the
resistance changes. These resistors are often used in many circuits where it is
required to sense the presence of light. These resistors have a variety of functions and
resistance. For instance, when the LDR is in darkness, then it can be used to turn ON
a light or to turn OFF a light when it is in the light. A typical light dependent resistor
has a resistance in the darkness of 1MOhm, and in the brightness a resistance of a
couple of KOhm
What is a Multimeter?
A Multimeter is an electronic instrument, every electronic technician and
engineer’s widely used piece of test equipment. A multimeter is mainly used
to measure the three basic electrical characteristics of voltage, current, and
resistance. It can also be used to test continuity between two points in an
electrical circuit.

The multimeter has multi functionalities like, acts like ammeter, voltmeter,
and ohmmeter. It is a handheld device with positive and negative indicator
needles over a numeric LCD digital display. Multimeters can be used for
testing batteries, household wiring, electric motors, and power supplies.
The essential parts of the multimeter mainly include a display, power
source, probes, and controls.

How to use a Multimeter?

The function and operation of a multimeter are similar for both analog and
digital types. This instrument includes two leads or probes namely red and
black & three ports. The black color lead is used to plug into the common
port, whereas the red color leads plug into other ports based on the
requirement.

Once the leads are plugged in, the knob can be switched ON in the center
of the instrument so that the appropriate function can be done for the
specific component test. For instance, once the knob is situated to 20V DC,
then the multimeter will notice DC voltage up to 20V. To calculate low
voltages, then set the knob in the multimeter to the 2V/200mV range.

Functions of Multimeters
These instruments are capable of different readings based on the model.
So basic types of multimeter are mainly used to measure amperage,
resistance, voltage, checks continuity and a complete circuit can be tested
like the following.

• Resistance in Ohms
• Capacity in Farads
• The temperature in Fahrenheit/ Celsius
• AC Voltage & Amperage
• Inductance Henrys
• DC Voltage & Amperage
• Frequency in Hz
• Conductance in Siemens
• Decibels
• Duty Cycle
To some types of multimeters, special sensors or accessories can be
attached for extra readings like acidity, light level, alkalinity, wind speed &
relative humidity.

Types of Multimeter

There are different types of multimeters like Analog, Digital, and Fluke
multimeters.

Analog Multimeter
The Analog Multimeter or VOM (Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter) is constructed
using a moving coil meter and a pointer to indicate the reading on the scale.
The moving coil meter consists of a coil wound around a drum placed
between two permanent magnets.

As current passes through the coil, the magnetic field is induced in the coil
which reacts with the magnetic field of the permanent magnets and the
resultant force causes the pointer attached to the drum to deflect on the
scale, indicating the current reading. It also consists of springs attached to
the drum which provides an opposing force to the motion of the drum to
control the deflection of the pointer.
 Analog Multimeter

For the measurement of DC, the D Arsonval movement described above

can be directly used. However, the current to be measured should be lesser
than the full-scale deflection current of the meter. For higher currents, the
current divider rule is applied. Using different values of shunt resistors, the
meter can also be used for multi-range current measurements. For current
measurement, the instrument is to be connected in series with the unknown
current source.

For measurement of DC voltage, a resistor is connected in series with the

meter, and the meter resistance is taken into account such that the current
passing through the resistor is the same as the current passing through the
meter and the whole reading indicates the voltage reading. For voltage
measurement, the instrument is to be connected in parallel with the unknown
voltage source. For multirange measurement, different resistors of different
values can be used, which are connected in series with the meter.

For measurement of resistance, the unknown resistance is connected in

series with the meter and across a battery, such that the current passing
through the meter is directly proportional to the unknown resistance. For AC
voltage or current measurement, the same principle is applied, except for the
fact that the AC parameter to be measured is first rectified and filtered to get
the DC parameter and the meter indicates the RMS value of the AC signal.
Advantages of an Analog Multimeter are that it is inexpensive, doesn’t
require a battery, can measure fluctuations in the readings. The two main
factors affecting the measurement are sensitivity and accuracy. Sensitivity
refers to the reciprocal of the full-scale deflection current and is measured in
ohms per volt.

Digital Multimeters
We mostly used a multimeter is a digital multimeter (DMM). The DMM
performs all functions from AC to DC other than analog. It has two probes
positive and negative indicated with black and red color is shown in the
figure. The black probe connected to COM JACK and the red probe
connected by user requirement to measure ohm, volt, or amperes.

The jack marked VΩ and the COM jack on the right of the picture are used
for measuring voltages, resistance, and for testing a diode. The two jacks
are utilized when an LCD shows what is being measured (volts, ohms, amps,
etc.). Overload protection prevents damage to the meter and the circuit and
protects the user.

Digital Multimeter

The Digital Multimeter consists of an LCD, a knob to select various ranges

of the three electrical characteristics, an internal circuitry consisting of a
signal conditioning circuitry, an analog to digital converter. The PCB consists
of concentric rings that are connected or disconnected based on the position
of the knob. Thus as the required parameter and the range are selected, the
section of the PCB is activated to perform the corresponding measurement.

To measure the resistance, current flows from a constant current source

through the unknown resistor, and the voltage across the resistor are
amplified and fed to an Analog to Digital Converter and the resultant output
in form of resistance is displayed on the digital display. To measure an
unknown AC voltage, the voltage is first attenuated to get the suitable range
and then rectified to DC signal and the analog DC signal is fed to an A/D
converter to get the display, which indicates the RMS value of the AC signal.

Similarly to measure an AC or DC, the unknown input is first converted to a

voltage signal and then fed to an analog to digital converter to get the desired
output(with rectification in case of AC signal). Advantages of a Digital
Multimeter are its output display which directly shows the measured
value, high accuracy, ability to read both positive and negative values.

Types of Digital Multimeter

Digital types of multimeter are available in three types.

Fluke Multimeter
The fluke digital multimeter can be designed with various collaboration
functions. Generally, it includes a large display and this instrument is used
to measure the voltage as well as electrical resistance. Some kinds of
devices are available with advanced features to measure humidity, duty
cycle, pressure, frequency temperature, etc. The fluke multimeter is one of
the most frequently and famous instruments.
This kind of multimeter is mainly used for calibration efforts and used to
calibrate currents, volts & other electrical units.

Fluke Multimeter

The fluke multimeters are protected against the transient voltage. It is a

small portable device used to measure voltage, current, and test diodes.
The multimeter has multi selectors to select the desired function. The fluke
MM automatically ranges to select most measurements. This means the
magnitude of the signal does not have to be known or determined to take
an accurate reading, it directly moved to the appropriate port for the desired
measurement. The fuse is protected to prevent damage if connected to the
wrong port.
Clamp Digital Multimeter
The clamp digital multimeter is used to measure the electricity flow. As the
name suggests, this multimeter includes the feature namely clamp which
measures the amps whenever the probes measure the volts. The
adjustment of power utilization otherwise watts can be done through
multiplying the reading of voltage with the amps. This multimeter also
includes an additional feature that is different kinds of settings. The
appropriate feature is used while measuring.

Clamp Type

This kind of multimeter includes fixed tools for measuring the current flow.
This device extremely changes from the fluke type because, in the fluke
multimeter, it utilizes a clamp to measure the flow of current. So, this
instrument is usually recommended for professionals only.

Autoranging Multimeter
The auto-ranging multimeter is a simple multimeter to utilize even though it
is similarly the most costly of all kinds of digital multimeters. This multimeter
includes a knob in the center and has less position. So it doesn’t switch
automatically to measure. This instrument is applicable in simple projects.
For beginners as well as electricians at home, this instrument is highly
recommended. Generally, it measures a single component at a time.
 Autoranging Type

Types of Multimeter Probes

A multimeter includes different test probes and the main function of these
probes is to connect to the circuit under test. The most common types of
probes are retractable hook clips, pointed probes & crocodile clips.

Generally, a multimeter includes two-color wires like black and red, known
as leads or probes. One end of the probe is called a banana jack that is
plugged into a multimeter, whereas the remaining end is known as the
probe tip, used to test the circuit. The red probe is used for +ve whereas
the black probe is used for –Ve.

These probes include a probe tip on one end whereas the other end
includes banana plugs. Most of the multimeters include fuses to guard
them against the extremely high current. When too much current supplies
through the multimeter, this fuse will restrict the flow of current to prevent
the damage. Some kinds of multimeters include fuses based on the
measurement of low current or high current and they determine where you
have to place the probes.

Working
Types of multimeter include two probes like red and black & two or three
ports. From them, one of the ports is labeled.COM for common which is
used for black probe whereas the remaining ports are labeled A used for
amps and mA/µA (milliamps/microamps). The final port is labeled VΩ used
for ohms & volts. Sometimes, this port is integrated into the 3rd one, which
is next labeled mAVΩ.
If the multimeter includes four ports, then the red probe can be plugged into
the VΩ port for measuring resistance as well as voltage. When the red
probe is inserted into the mA port then the current can be calculated &
plugged into the A port then the current can be measured in amps. For
instance, the port used to test a diode using a multimeter is the VΩ port
and this port can also be used to test a transistor.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Digital Multimeters

The advantages of a digital multimeter include the following.

• It gives an automatic o/p display.

• The measurement results of the meter can record and store in
memory and synchronizes through a PC
• It includes auto polarity functions
• The meter reading accuracy cannot depend on the charging of the
battery
• It ensures accuracy
• Resistance toward mechanical damage.
• Multifunctionality
• Zero adjustments cannot be required
• Measurement accuracy is high
• Measuring ranges can be selected through manual or
automatically
The disadvantages of digital multimeter include the following

• As compared to analog, it is expensive

• This multimeter does not work properly through measurement
fluctuations. It can be tricky to discover one for your exact needs.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Analog Multimeter
The advantages of an analog multimeter include the following.

• Possibility of achieving measurements at below-30 ° С

temperature
• Power utilization is not required from the fixed power supply while
measuring current and voltage
• When high precision is not necessary, then quick operation
through a large amount of measurement can be done.
• By using this instrument, all measurements can be done simply.
• The signal level can be observed
The disadvantages of analog multimeter include the following
 • These meters are large
• These are expensive
• Voltage polarity cannot be recognized
• They are susceptible to vibration or shock.
• The movement of the pointer is slow and it cannot be utilized to
measure voltages through frequencies above 50 HZ.
• Incorrect because of the earth’s magnetic field effect.
• An unexpected change in the signal can notice through an analog
multimeter more quickly as compared with a digital multimeter.
• These are sensitive to vibration, mechanical damage.
• Input resistance is less, thus a high error while measuring less
voltage
POWER SUPPLY
Definition: A power supply is an electronic circuit designed to provide various ac
and dc voltages for equipment operation.
Proper operation of electronic equipment requires a number of source voltages. Low
dc voltages are needed to operate ICs and transistors. High voltages are needed to
operate CRTs and other devices. Batteries can provide all of these voltages.
However, electricity for electrical and electronic devices are commonly supplied by the
local power company. This power comes out of an outlet at 115-volt ac, with a
frequency of 60 Hertz. Different voltages are needed to operate some equipment.
Power Supply Functions
The complete power supply circuit can perform these functions:
1. Step voltages up or step voltages down, by transformer action, to the required
ac line voltage.
2. Provide some method of voltage division to meet equipment needs.
3. Change ac voltage to pulsating dc voltage by either half-wave or full-wave
rectification.
4. Filter pulsating dc voltage to a pure dc steady voltage for equipment use.
5. Regulate power supply output in proportion to the applied load.
Power Supply Components
A block diagram illustrating these functions is shown in Figure 1. Note that certain
functions are not found in every power supply. See Figure 2 for a typical commercial
power supply components.
 Figure 1. Block diagram for power supply components. Input is 117 volts ac.
Processes used in a typical power supply are shown below the blocks. The output of
the power supply can be dc or ac. The output of this supply is five volts dc.

Figure 2. Regulated dc power supply. (Knight Electronics)

Power Transformers Diodes
The first device in a power supply is the transformer. Its purpose is to step up or step
down alternating source voltage to values needed for radio, TV, computer, or other
electronic circuit use.
Most transformers do not have any electrical connection between the secondary and
primary windings. See Figure 3. This means that the transformer isolates the circuit
connected to the primary from the circuit connected in the secondary.
Isolation is a term that means there are no electrical connections between the
primary and secondary on the transformer.

Figure 3. Isolation in a transformer.

An isolation transformer is a transformer that has the specific purpose of isolating the
primary circuit from the secondary circuit.
Using an isolation transformer is a safety feature because it helps prevent shocks in
the secondary. Our body or hands must be joined across both leads of the secondary
connections in order to receive a shock.
The safety condition described above does not hold true in the primary with
commercial ac provided by the power company. One connection is hot, which means
that the connection is electrically energized. The other is grounded, or neutral.
Standing on the ground while touching the hot connection will result in a shock.
Touching the ground connection alone will not result in a shock.
Secondary windings can be tapped to provide different voltages. A tap placed midway
between the two ends of a secondary winding is called a center tap.
Many power supplies use a center tap secondary transformer winding. The tapped
voltages, Figure 4, are 180 degrees out of phase with respect to the center tap.
A variety of transformers can be found in nearly all electronic devices. You should
understand the basic theory and purpose of the transformer. Review Chapter 12 if
necessary.
A Lesson in Safety
Transformers produce high voltages that can be very dangerous. Proper respect and
extreme caution must be used at all times when working with, or measuring, high
voltages.
 Figure 4. A center tap transformer.
Half-Wave and Full-Wave Rectification
After a voltage has gone through a power supply’s transformer, the next step is
rectification.
The process of changing an alternating current to a pulsating direct current is
called rectification.
When changing an ac signal to dc, there are two types of rectification: half-wave
rectification and full-wave rectification.
With the half-wave rectifier, only half of the input signal passes on through the rectifier.
With the full-wave rectifier, the entire input wave is passed through.
Half-Wave Rectification
In Figure 5, the output of a transformer is connected to a diode and a load resistor
that are in series. The input voltage to the transformer appears as a sine wave.
The polarity of the wave reverses at the frequency of the applied voltage. The output
voltage of the transformer secondary also appears as a sine wave. The magnitude of
the wave depends on the turns ratio of the transformer. The output is 180 degrees out
of phase with the primary.
The top of the transformer (point A) is joined to the diode anode. Note that the B side
of the transformer is connected to ground.
During the first half cycle, point A is positive. The diode conducts, producing a
voltage drop across resistor R equal to IR. During the second half cycle, point A is
negative. The diode anode is also negative. No conduction takes place, and no IR
drop appears across R.
 Figure 5. Basic diode rectifier schematic.
An oscilloscope connected across R produces the waveform shown to the right
in Figure 6. The output of this circuit consists of pulses of current flowing in only one
direction and is at the same frequency as the input voltage. The output is a pulsating
direct current.

Figure 6. Input and output waveforms of a diode rectifier.

Only one half of the ac input wave is used to produce the output voltage. This type of
rectifier is called a half-wave rectifier.
Look at the polarity of the output voltage in Figure 6. One end of the resistor R is
connected to ground. The current flows from the ground to the cathode. This
connection makes the end of R connected to the cathode positive as shown in Figure
5.
A negative rectifier can be made by reversing the diode in the circuit, Figure 7. The
diode conducts when the cathode becomes negative causing the anode to become
positive.
The current through R would be from the anode to ground making the anode end of R
negative and the ground end of R more positive.
Voltages taken from across R, the output, would be negative with respect to ground.
This circuit is called an inverted diode. It is used when a negative supply voltage is
required.
 Figure 7. An inverted diode produces a negative voltage.
It is possible to have a power supply that provides half-wave rectification without the
use of a transformer. This circuit is not isolated. There is no step up or step down
of current voltages. This circuit is a simpler, less costly design, and since there is no
transformer, it can be used in smaller spaces, Figure 8.

Figure 8. Half-wave rectification without a transformer.

Full-Wave Rectification
The pulsating direct voltage output of a half-wave rectifier can be filtered to a pure dc
voltage. However, the half-wave rectifier uses only one half of the input ac wave.
A better filtering action can be obtained by using two diodes. With this setup, both half
cycles of the input wave can be used.
Both half cycles at the output have the same polarity in this full-wave rectifier. Figure
9 follows the first half cycle. Figure 10 follows the second half cycle.
 Figure 9. Arrows show current in full-wave rectifier during the first half cycle.

Figure 10. The direction of current during the second half cycle.
To produce this full-wave rectification, a center tap is made on the secondary winding.
This tap is attached to the ground.
In Figure 9, point A is positive and diode anode D1 is positive. Electron flow is shown
by the arrows. During the second half of the input cycle, point B is positive, diode
anode D2 is positive, and current flows as shown in Figure 10.
No matter which diode is conducting, the current through load resistor R is always in
the same direction. Both positive and negative half cycles of the input voltage cause
the current through R in the same direction.
The output voltage of this full-wave rectifier is taken from across R. It consists of
direct current pulses at twice the frequency of input voltage, Figure 11. To produce
this full-wave rectification in this circuit, the secondary voltage was cut in half by the
center tap.
 Figure 11. The waveforms of input and output of full-wave diode rectifier.
The diodes, D1 and D2, used in Figures 9 and 10, are packaged both individually and
in pairs. Figure 12 shows a two rectifier package. The center lead is used as the
connection for the cathodes. The cathodes are wired together.

Figure 12. Dual diodes with a center tap.

Bridge Rectifiers
It is not always necessary to use a center-tapped transformer for full-wave rectification.
Full secondary voltage can be rectified by using four diodes in a circuit called a bridge
rectifier, Figure 13 and 14. Two circuits are shown so that the current can be
observed in each half cycle.
Figure 13. Current in bridge rectifier during the first half cycle.
 Figure 14. Current in bridge rectifier during the second half cycle.
In Figure 13, point A of the transformer secondary is positive. Current flows in the
direction of the arrows. When point B is positive, current flows as in Figure 14.
Again, notice that the current through R is always in one direction. Both halves of the
input voltage are rectified and the full voltage of the transformer is used.
Bridge rectifiers can be used in circuits without transformers. Without transformers,
the voltage or current will not be stepped up or down. There will be no isolation. These
circuits are also called line-operated bridge circuits, Figure 15.

Caution
Connecting an oscilloscope directly to a line-operated bridge rectifier will result in a
dead ground when the oscilloscope ground is connected to the line voltage bridge. An
isolation transformer with a 1 to 1 ratio must be used to prevent the ground lead on
the scope from being connected to the hot conductor.
 Figure 15. Line-operated bridge rectifier circuit.
The output of either the half-wave or full-wave rectifier is a pulsating voltage. Before it
can be applied to other circuits, the pulsations must be reduced. A steadier dc is
needed. It can be obtained using a filter network.
In Figure 16, the line, Eavg, shows the average voltage of the pulsating dc wave. It is
equal to 0.637 × peak voltage. The shaded portion of the wave above the average line
is equal in area to the shaded portion below the line.

Movement above and below the average voltage is called the ac ripple. It is this
ripple that requires filtering.
The percentage of ripple as compared to the output voltage must be kept to a small
value. The ripple percentage can be found using the formula:
Percentage Ripple=Erms of Ripple VoltageEavg of Total Output Voltage×100P
ercentage Ripple=Erms of Ripple VoltageEavg of Total Output Voltage×
100

Figure 16. Average value of full-wave rectifier output.

Capacitor Filters
A capacitor connected across the rectifier output provides some filtering action, Figure
17. The capacitor is able to store electrons.
When the diode or rectifier is conducting, the capacitor charges rapidly to near the
peak voltage of the wave. It is limited only by the resistance of the rectifier and the
reactance of the transformer windings.
Between the pulsations in the wave, voltage from the rectifier drops. The capacitor
then discharges through the resistance of the load.
The capacitor, in effect, is a storage chamber for electrons. It stores electrons at peak
voltage and then supplies electrons to the load when rectifier output is low. See Figure
18.

Figure 17. Filtering action of a capacitor.

Figure 18. Input and output of the capacitor filter showing the change in the
waveform.
Capacitors used for this purpose are electrolytic types because large capacitances
are needed in a limited space. Common values for the capacitors range from 4 to 2000
microfarads. Working voltages of capacitors should be in excess of the peak voltage
from the rectifier.
LC Filters
The filtering action can be improved by adding a choke in series with the load. This LC
filter circuit appears in Figure 19. The filter choke consists of many turns of wire wound
on a laminated iron core.
 Figure 19. Further filtering is produced by the choke in series with the load.
Recall that inductance was that property of a circuit that resisted a change in current.
A rise in current induced a counter emf that opposed the rise. A decrease in current
induced a counter emf that opposed the decrease. As a result, the choke constantly
opposes any change in current. Yet, it offers very little opposition to a direct current.
Chokes used in radios have values from 8 to 30 henrys. Current ratings range from 50
to 200 milliamperes.

Larger chokes can be used in transmitters and other electronic devices. Filtering action
as a result of the filter choke is shown in Figure 20.

Figure 20. Waveforms show the filtering action of the capacitor and choke together.
A second capacitor can be used in the filter section after the choke, to provide more
filter action. See Figure 21. The action of this capacitor is similar to the first capacitor.
The circuit configuration appears as the Greek letter π. The filter is called a pi (π)
section filter.
 Figure 21. Pi (π) section filter.
When the first filtering component is a capacitor, the circuit is called a capacitor input
filter. When the choke is the first filtering component, it is called a choke input
filter, Figure 22. The choke input filter looks like an inverted L, so it is also called an L
section filter. Several of these filter sections can be used in series to provide added
filtering.

Figure 22. Choke input L filter

In the capacitor input filter, the capacitor charges to the peak voltage of the rectified
wave. In the choke input, the charging current for the capacitor is limited by the
choke. The capacitor does not charge to the peak voltage. As a result, the output
voltage of the power supply using the capacitor input filter is higher than one using the
choke input filter.