Th e C ol d F ro n t

Vol. 5 No. 2, 2005

INN THHIISS ISSSSUUEE STRESS CORROSION

• Stress Corrosion Cracking 1-7
CRACKING:
Prevention PRREEVVEENNTTIIO
ONN
• Upcoming Ammonia Classes 2
In the last issue of the Cold Front our feature article,
• Noteworthy 2 STRESS CORROSION CRACKING: Defining and Diagnosing,
• PHAs for Ammonia 8 provided an overview of stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) and
Refrigeration Systems its relation to equipment used in industrial ammonia
refrigeration systems. In that article, we identified a number
• 2006 R & T Forum Dates Set 8 of conditions that tend to promote or enable stress-corrosion
cracking. Recall, two key ingredients are required to create
• Refrigerant Management 8
stress corrosion cracking: stress and a discontinuity (micro-
Webinar Announcement scale or macro-scale) that concentrates the stress and serves
• IRC turns 5! Thank you! 9 as the crack origin. Sources of stress include: equipment
operating pressures, static loads, and residual stresses
(principally attributed to heat-effected zones around welds
IRC Staff that have not been post-weld heat treated). Examples of
stress concentration points include preexisting cracks, pitting
corrosion, and other surface-connected discontinuities. In
Director addition, there are other synergistic factors that tend to
Doug Reindl 608/265-3010 promote SCC including the presence of high pressures, high
or 608/262-6381 temperatures, non-condensable gases, and low water
[email protected] concentration in the ammonia.
Todd Jekel 608/265-3008
[email protected] Additionally, our last article discussed non-destructive
Dan Dettmers 608/262-8221
methods of test to detect SCC in ammonia refrigeration
systems. “External” inspection methods discussed included:
[email protected]
acoustic emission, ultrasonic, and radiographic inspection.
Brandon Lachner 608/262-6940
The most reliable technique used to detect SCC remains the
[email protected] wet fluorescent magnetic particle inspection method.
Unfortunately, wet fluorescent magnetic particle inspection is
Toll-free 1-866-635-4721 an internal inspection method which makes its application
Phone 608/262-8220 problematic for most industrial refrigeration systems due to
FAX 608/262-6209 limited or no internal accessibility.
Mail
1415 Engineering Drive In this issue of the Cold Front, our focus is on techniques
Room 2342 that can be applied to prevent SCC both during the
Madison, WI 53706-1607 construction of equipment (primarily vessels) and during
refrigeration system operation. While our primary emphasis
e-mail [email protected] in this article is on vessels, many of the recommendations
Website www.irc.wisc.edu apply to piping and other refrigeration system components
with susceptibility to SCC.

1
 Vol. 5 No. 2, 2005

Design Considerations to Prevent U

Uppccoom
miinngg AAm
mmmoonniiaa C
Coouurrsseess
SCC
An important pre-requisite to preventing SCC is Design of NH3 Refrigeration Systems for
specifying components with attributes that Peak Performance and Efficiency
tend to minimize the formation and September 12-16, 2005 Madison, WI
propagation of stress-induced cracks. With an
emphasis on vessels, a number of key PHA for Ammonia Refrigeration
requirements should be prescribed in Systems
specifications for the design and manufacture September 28-30, 2005 Madison, WI
of vessels to minimize the probability of stress
corrosion cracking. The recommendations Introduction to Ammonia Refrigeration
listed below summarize the current best October 5-7, 2005 Madison, WI
practices to prevent SCC.
Ammonia Refrigeration Piping
• Specify lower yield strength carbon November 2-4, 2005 Madison, WI
steel – Experience has demonstrated
that lower yield strength carbon steels Intermediate Ammonia Refrigeration
can significantly reduce the tendency to December 7-9, 2005 Madison, WI
crack during fabrication and subsequent
operation. The Compressed Gas Process Safety Management Audits
Association recommends that vessels be January 11-13, 2006 Madison, WI
manufactured using carbon steel with a
minimum yield stress of less then 70 ksi Ammonia Refrigeration: Uncovering
(480 MPa). More stringent guidelines Opportunities for Energy Efficiency
from others suggest specification of even Improvements
lower yield stress material. Finnish February 15-17, 2006 Madison, WI
guidelines [TTK 1993] recommend
limiting the use of carbon steels with Introduction to Ammonia Refrigeration
minimum yield stresses below 65 ksi (448 March 8-10, 2006 Madison, WI
MPa) while British guidelines [HS/G 30
1986] suggest a further reduction in the Ammonia Refrigeration System Safety
yield stress to a maximum of 50 ksi (345 April 10-12, 2006 Madison, WI
MPa). A compromise would be to limit
the material minimum yield stress to no Engineering Calculations for PSM & RMP
more than 55 ksi (379 MPa) in the May 17-19, 2006 Madison, WI
construction of the vessel.
See www.irc.wisc.edu/education/ for more
• Specify high quality materials – To information.
reduce the probability of SCC while

Noteworthy
• Congratulations to Schoep’s Ice Cream for completion of a new facility in
Madison, WI.
• Congratulations to Doug Reindl for his promotion from Associate Professor to
Professor!
• Send items of note for next newsletter to Todd Jekel, [email protected].

2
 Vol. 5 No. 2, 2005

maintaining suitable mechanical stamped for operation at 105 psi [0.35 ·

characteristics for vessels, consider 300 psi] (724 kPa) at a -60°F (-51°C)
specifying the materials in Table 1 for a MDMT. If vessel operation is expected at
vessel and its connected piping. temperatures below -20°F (-29°C), have the
initial vessel design rated all the way down
In low temperature applications, specifying to -60°F (-51°C).
materials rated for low temperature service
is essential. Work with the vessel In addition, all vessels, regardless of their
manufacturer to insure that the proposed normal operating pressure in a system,
material selections are fit for the lowest should be rated to at least a maximum
intended operating service temperature for allowable working pressure (MAWP) of 250
the vessel. For vessels expected to psig (1,724 kPa) with that MAWP rising to
operate at temperatures above -20°F 300 psig (2,068 kPa) for locations in
(-29°C), consider specifying dual stamping. warmer southern climates.
Dual stamping involves certifying and
stamping an alternate condition to • Specify hot formed heads – Because
supplement the vessel’s designed cold-forming vessel heads leaves significant
maximum allowable working pressure residual stress in the material following the
(MAWP) and coincident minimum design forming operation, the use of hot formed
metal temperature (MDMT). Base the heads should be prescribed in specifying a
alternate stamped condition on 35% of the vessel for ammonia refrigeration service.
normal MAWP at -60°F (-51°C) unless The use of hot formed heads will result in
expected future vessel operation dictates significantly lower residual stresses;
the need for a higher rated pressure or thereby, minimizing the likelihood of SCC.
lower temperature. For example, a vessel If hot formed heads are not an option, it is
specified with a 300 psi (2,068 kPa) MAWP essential to stress relieve the entire vessel
at a -20°F (-29°C) MDMT would be dual after manufacture.

Application Material1 Comment

Min. yield strength=38 ksi [262 MPa],

Vessel, shell SA-516 Grade 70
Tensile strength = 70-90 ksi [483-621 MPa]

Min. yield strength=38 ksi [262 MPa],

Vessel, head SA-516 Grade 70
Tensile strength = 70-90 ksi [483-621 MPa]

SA-53 Grade B
seamless
For temperatures above -20°F (-29°C)
Connections SA-106 Grade B
(piping) seamless

SA-333 Grade 6
For temperatures below -20°F (-29°C)
seamless

1
Designates an American Society of Testing Materials Specification.

Table 1: Recommendations for piping materials to prevent SCC.

3
 Vol. 5 No. 2, 2005

• Provide stress relief to the vessel – impurities from the vessel (and system)
After fabrication but prior to operation, it is during both initial start-up and
recommended that all vessels continuously during operation. Apart from
manufactured for use in an ammonia diminishing the efficiency of a refrigeration
refrigeration system receive stress relief system, the presence of non-condensable
annealing. This “post weld heat gases (specifically, oxygen) with ammonia
treatment” involves heating and holding creates a synergy that enhances SCC. On
the entire vessel at 1,150°F (621°C) for a initial system start-up, follow the practices
specified period of time. Stress relief outlined in IIAR Bulletin 110 [Section 5.5]
annealing significantly reduces residual to both properly remove air from all
stresses due to welding and other forming components and break the vacuum with
operations in vessel fabrication. vapor-phase ammonia. During normal
operation, utilize an autopurger to
• Post fabrication inspection – It is scavenge and remove non-condensable
important that the vessel manufacturer gases from the system. During
inspect the vessel for any welding or maintenance work, allow additional time
fabrication defects that could lead to SCC for technicians to properly evacuate the
or other forms of vessel failure. This portion of the system opened to
inspection is not always a standard part of atmosphere prior to being placed back into
vessel fabrication, so be certain post- service in order to minimize the incursion
construction inspection is included within of non-condensable gases.
the scope/specification for your vessels.
Usually, the post-fabrication inspection • Maintain 0.2% water in the ammonia
involves the use of non-destructive – The typical “refrigerant grade”
techniques such as radiography to verify anhydrous ammonia is recommended to
the integrity of the vessel’s welds. Also, have a maximum water concentration limit
obtain all of the vessel manufacturing, of 33 ppm [IIAR Bulletin 110]. In
inspection, and materials of construction commercially available refrigerant grade
reports for review and file. anhydrous ammonia, water concentration
levels of 35-75 ppm are typical.
For further information or background on design Unfortunately, lower water concentrations
considerations to prevent SCC, consult the in ammonia increase the tendency for
references listed at the end of this article. stress corrosion cracking of carbon steels.

Operational Considerations to Prevent To help inhibit the occurrence of SCC,

consider allowing a minimum water
SCC
content in the ammonia of at least 0.2%
Although the proper design and construction of
(2,000 ppm or 0.002 mass fraction).
vessels to prevent SCC is a necessary condition,
Observations have shown that a small
it alone is not sufficient. Providing and
concentration of water in anhydrous
maintaining a suitable operational environment
ammonia can significantly decrease the
is crucial for the continued safe function of
probability of SCC occurring. It is
vessels. In this section, we summarize a
theorized that the water acts as an oxygen
number of operational considerations to reduce
scavenger, keeping the oxygen content
the probability of SCC. These recommendations
below 10 ppm.
are based on research and past operational
experience for vessels in anhydrous ammonia
Since the majority of industrial
service.
refrigeration systems do not have any
means of water removal, there is a
• Purge air from ammonia – Care should
tendency for those systems to accumulate
be taken to remove air and other
water over time. Water can infiltrate the
4
 Vol. 5 No. 2, 2005

system from a number of sources that of water in many industrial refrigeration

could include: the ambient environment, systems that have been in operation for
following hydrostatic testing of vessels and extended periods of time is the inhibition
heat exchangers, and improper of SCC.
preparation following construction and tie-
ins. An unintended benefit of Since the addition of water to ammonia
accumulating some nominal concentration will alter its pressure-temperature

100
P=180.0 psia

75
P=140.0 psia
Saturation Temperature [F]

50

25
P=40.0 psia

-25
200 P=10.0 psia

-50
175 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05

Water Concentration [mass fraction]

150
Saturation Temperature [F]

125

100 P=180.0 psia

75
P=140.0 psia
50

25 P=40.0 psia

-25 P=10.0 psia

-50
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50

Water Concentration [mass fraction]

Figure 1: Effect of water on anhydrous ammonia saturation properties.

5
 Vol. 5 No. 2, 2005

relationship, it is natural to ask: Will this concentration of water significantly alter the pressure-
temperature relationship and impact my ability to meet process temperature requirements?
Fundamentally, the saturation temperature of ammonia increases with increasing water
concentration. The variation in saturation temperature with increasing water concentrations at
a given pressure is shown in Figure 1 (ammonia-water properties are from Ibrahim and Klein
1993).

The inset in Figure 1 reveals that low water concentrations (below about 5% by mass) slightly
increase the saturation temperature of ammonia. For example at a pressure of 10 psia (9.6 in
Hg vacuum or 69 kPa), the saturation temperature for dry ammonia is -41.6°F (-40.9°C) while
a water concentration of 1% increases the saturation temperature by 0.3°F (0.2 K) to -41.3°F
(-40.7°C).

Because of its ability to inhibit SCC and its negligible impact on ammonia’s saturation
temperature, we recommend maintaining a background level concentration of water at 0.2%
on the low-side of the system. To realize the full benefit of inhibiting SCC, the water content
of the ammonia must be maintained at this level from the time of initial charge. Therefore,
consider initial charging of new systems with ammonia with 0.2% water content anhydrous
ammonia. The above minimum water content recommendation can be relaxed to expansions
of systems that add refrigerant to an existing charge.

• Avoid rapid temperature changes – Rapid changes in the temperature of carbon steel
causes corresponding dimensional changes. These dimensional changes can result in high
local stresses which have the potential to support crack propagation. To avoid thermal shock-
induced SCC, it is important to properly charge new systems and limit the rate of temperature
change. In charging new systems, follow charging instructions outlined in IIAR Bulletin 110 –
specifically, breaking vacuum with vapor-phase ammonia. During operation, some have
suggested limiting the rate of temperature change to 1.8°F (1°C) per hour to minimize strains
that lead to thermal stresses (Nyborg et al. 1996).

• Pay particular attention transfer vessels and high pressure receivers – One
refrigeration system component that presents the greatest risk for SCC is a transfer drum(s)
associated with gas-driven liquid transfer systems. Since gas-driven transfer drums cycle in
both temperature and pressure, the cyclic loading, coupled with the potential for presence of
non-condensable gases, provides an environment that enables SCC. Because of their
increased risk, transfer vessels should be more frequently inspected and tested to insure their
on-going mechanical integrity.

In addition to transfer vessels, high pressure receivers should also receive increased
mechanical integrity scrutiny. The risks to SCC in this vessel result form the presence of high
pressure, potential high concentration of non-condensable gas, and the lowest concentration
of water. Anecdotal evidence indicates that the first year of operation is the period of time
most likely that the vessel will exhibit SCC. As with transfer vessels, increased surveillance
and inspections are required to maintain mechanical integrity.

• Inspect – IIAR Bulletin 110 calls for routine inspection, annual visual inspection and
independent inspections every 5 years. These guidelines should be adhered to, especially if
the vessel has not received post-weld heat treatment. If the vessel in question is a high
pressure receiver or a lower pressure vessel that cycles in temperature, an independent

6
 Vol. 5 No. 2, 2005

inspection within the first year of operation would be a best practice recommendation.
Acoustic emission non-destructive testing (NDT), although not the gold standard (i.e. wet
magnetic particle testing) for identifying SCC, has been successfully used to identify cracks
propagating inside vessels when internal inspections are impossible. Work with an
experienced NDT contractor to insure a suitable method for detecting SCC is utilized.

Summary
It is important to recognize that there are a number of steps required to inhibit SCC for vessels in
ammonia service. The steps taken encompass both proper fabrication of new vessels and
adherence to operating conditions that continue to inhibit SCC in future operation. For further
information on SCC, contact Dan Dettmers or Doug Reindl at the IRC: 866-635-4721:
www.irc.wisc.edu or browse the following literature.

References:
Bansch, R., “Mechanical Integrity of Pressure Vessels”, proceedings of the IRC Research and
Technology Forum, Industrial Refrigeration Consortium, University of Wisconsin-Madison,
(2005).
Brozda, J. “Stress Corrosion in Ammonia Storage Vessels and its Prevention”, Welding International,
Vol. 9, No. 5, pp. 2-8, (1995).
Hehemann, R.F., “Stress Corrosion Cracking of Stainless Steels”, Metall. Trans. A, Vol. 16A, pp.
1909-1923, Nov (1985).
Hogan, H. L., “Stress Corrosion Cracking in Low Carbon Steel”, Physical Metallurgy of Stress
Corrosion Fractures, Vol. 4, AIME Metallurgical Society Conferences, pp. 295-310, (1959)
HS/G 30, “Storage of Anhydrous Ammonia Under Pressure in the United Kingdom – Spherical and
Cylindrical Vessels”, Health and Safety Booklet HS/G 30, Her Majesty’s Stationary Office,
London, (1986).
Ibrahim, O.M., Klein, S.A., "Thermodynamic Properties of Ammonia-Water Mixtures," ASHRAE
Transactions, Symposia, 21, 2, 1495 (1993).
IIAR, “Guidelines for: Start-Up, Inspection and Maintenance of Ammonia Mechanical Refrigerating
Systems”, Bulletin 110, International Institute of Ammonia Refrigeration, Arlington, VA,
(1993).
Loginow, A.W., “Stress-Corrosion Cracking of Steel in Ammonia Service”, Materials Performance,
Vol. 25, No.12, pp.18-22, (1986)
Nyborg, Rolf and Lunde, Liv R., “Measures for Reducing SCC in Anhydrous Ammonia Storage
Tanks”, Process Safety Progress, Vol. 15, No. 1 , pp. 32-41, (1996).
Nyborg, R., Lunde, L., and Drønen, P., “Control of Stress Corrosion Cracking in Liquid Ammonia
Storage Tanks”, The Fertiliser Society - London, (1996).
S.W. Stafford and W.H. Mueller, “Failure Analysis of Stress-Corrosion Cracking”, Chapter 18, Stress-
Corrosion Cracking: Materials Performance and Evaluation, ASM International, pp. 417-436,
(1992).
TTK, “Prevention of Stress Corrosion Cracking in Pressure Vessels Containing Anhydrous Ammonia”,
TTK Directive P2-93, Technical Inspection Center, Finland (1993).
Towers, O.L., “SCC in Welded Ammonia Vessels”, Metal Construction, Vol. 16, No. 8, pp. 479-485,
(1984).
Van der Voot, George, F., “Embrittlement of Steels: Stress Corrosion Cracking”, ASM International
Handbook. Online at www.asminternational.org (2002).

7
 Vol. 5 No. 2, 2005

Process Hazard Analyses (PHAs) for Ammonia

Refrigeration Systems
PART OF THE PSM BEST PRACTICES SERIES
SEPTEMBER 28-30, 2005
MADISON, WI
Background
This new course is your opportunity to learn how you can achieve high quality process hazard analysis for
ammonia refrigeration systems. In this course, we will focus on best practices relevant to conducting Process
Hazard Analysis (PHA) on industrial refrigeration systems that utilize anhydrous ammonia as a refrigerant.
Attend this course and learn why the process hazard analysis (PHA) is one of the most important aspects of
achieving successful and safe designs that lead to safe and cost-effective ammonia refrigeration system
operations. A sound PHA process will allow you to identify weaknesses in both the design and operation that,
potentially, could lead to accidental releases that can adversely impact businesses that rely on reliable ammonia
refrigeration systems.

Who Should Attend

This course will benefit:

• Owners: Including operations staff, operations supervisors, engineering staff, PSM coordinators, and
environmental staff involved with regulatory compliance.
• Contractors: Owners are increasingly looking to their contractors as partners in making systems and
plants safer. Attend this course to better understand and engage your clients during the PHA process.
You will benefit by improving your ability to deliver safe and effective refrigeration system designs.
• Consulting Engineers: If you do consulting work on ammonia refrigeration systems and do not know
PHA principles and practices, this course is for you.
• Manufacturers: Use the principles of the PHA process to better engineer your products for the
industrial refrigeration marketplace.

Others that have an interest or need to better understand the PHA process will benefit by attending. For more
information on this course, browse the IRC website or contact Doug Reindl at [email protected].

Mark your Calendars! Upcoming Webinar!

The 6th Research &

annual IRC members only.
Technology Forum has been
scheduled for January 19-20, Refrigerant Inventory Management
2006 in Madison, WI. Watch Brownbag Webinar
our website for more details! August 18, 2005, 9-11 am Central.

Click here for a brochure.

8
 Vol. 5 No. 2, 2005

Thank You!
Recently, we held a staff retreat and reflected that five years ago a seed called the “IRC” was planted. We felt that
this milestone warranted our sharing of retrospect and gratitude. On May 22, 2000, forty two industry stakeholders
gathered in Madison to consider the face of industrial refrigeration in the 21st century. What grew out of that
meeting was a core group that worked to create the strategic plan founding the IRC. On behalf of the staff at the
IRC, I would like to extend a sincere thank you to all that have made these past five years both productive and
successful.

First and foremost, thanks go out to our IRC Members. Over the past five years, the shared mission and vision we
initially established has not changed – it is only our vision that has become clearer. Together, we have worked on
all aspects of refrigeration bounded neither by breadth nor depth. The synergy we have together is indescribable
and the successes we have realized together immeasurable. Your trust in us, your commitment to excellence, and
your continued collaborative support are a model for this industry.

In addition to our members, we would also like to thank other industry organizations that have cooperated with us
during the past five years. A number of equipment manufacturers, contractors, and engineers in this industry have
unselfishly shared their knowledge by speaking in our educational programs, reviewing key publications for
accuracy and completeness, and filling our frequent requests for information as we seek to get it right the first time.
We hope our continued efforts will make us both stronger.

For those organizations that don’t know us, I urge you to contact me to find out how you can be a part of this truly
unique organization with a passion for refrigeration. Find out how we can help you grow the intellectual capital of
refrigeration knowledge within your organization. We welcome your future involvement so we can accelerate the
completion of activities that will enhance our members and improve the industry. We are committed to the pursuit of
knowledge that enables the improvement of safety, reliability, efficiency, & productivity of industrial

refrigeration systems.

In Vol. 5 No. 3 of the Cold Front, look for a summary of our key accomplishments during the past five years.
Although the list of accomplishments is noteworthy, the best is yet to come. For the IRC and its members, the future
is bright!

In the Spirit of Service,

Dr. Douglas T. Reindl, P.E.

Director
[email protected]