160104d

Millwright

Lathe Operations

FIRST PERIOD
Machining
© 2019, Northern Alberta Institute of Technology (NAIT) and Southern Alberta Institute of Technology (SAIT). All
Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system,
transmitted or communicated in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise) without the prior written permission of the publishers, NAIT and SAIT, except as permitted by law. For
permission requests, please contact: [email protected].

NAIT and NAIT’s logos are registered trademarks of NAIT and may not be used without the prior written permission
of NAIT. SAIT and SAIT’s logos are registered trademarks of SAIT and may not be used without the prior written
permission of SAIT. Other logos, trademarks, registered trademarks and tradenames depicted herein are the
property of their respective owners. Use of them does not imply any affiliation with or endorsement by them. All
reasonable efforts have been made to ensure that this publication is accurate, reliable and free from error at the
time of publication; however, there may be instances where information contained herein is not current. To the
fullest extent permissible under applicable law, NAIT and SAIT disclaim any and all warranties and conditions
respecting this publication, whether expressed, implied, statutory, or otherwise.
 Table of Contents
Objective One ............................................................................................................................................... 2
Turning...................................................................................................................................................... 2
Objective Two............................................................................................................................................. 13
Drilling .................................................................................................................................................... 13
Boring ..................................................................................................................................................... 14
Reaming .................................................................................................................................................. 16
Objective Three........................................................................................................................................... 17
Cutting Threads ....................................................................................................................................... 17
Objective Four ............................................................................................................................................ 24
Finishing ................................................................................................................................................. 24
Knurling .................................................................................................................................................. 26
Grinding .................................................................................................................................................. 27
Objective Five ............................................................................................................................................. 28
Cutting Fluids.......................................................................................................................................... 28
Self-Test ...................................................................................................................................................... 32
Self-Test Answers ....................................................................................................................................... 35
 NOTES
Lathe Operations

Rationale
Why is it important for you to learn this skill?
To effectively machine work pieces in a lathe, you must know the various operations and
the proper speeds and feeds. Following these practices greatly improves efficiency and
safety.

Outcome
When you have completed this module, you will be able to:
Demonstrate procedures for operating lathes.

Objectives
1. Demonstrate lathe turning operations.
2. Describe lathe drilling, boring and reaming operations.
3. Describe lathe threading operations.
4. Describe lathe polishing, knurling and grinding operations.
5. Describe applications for cutting fluids.

Introduction
This module addresses the common operations performed in lathes, as well as the
benefits and applications of cutting fluids.

1
160104dp21.0_updated.docx
NOTES
Objective One
When you have completed this objective, you will be able to:
Demonstrate lathe turning operations.

Turning
Although lathes perform many operations, turning is the most common. Turning refers to
rotating a workpiece and reducing its diameter with a cutting tool.

The lathe rotates the workpiece at the rpm set by the operator. The carriage feeds the
cutting tool into the workpiece at a specified rate for each revolution of the spindle.
Factors determining rpm and feed rate include:
• the workpiece material,
• the cutting tool material and
• the operation being performed.

Cutting Speeds
Cutting speed is the speed at which a point on the workpiece moves past the cutting tool
(Figure 1). If the cutting speed is too fast, the tool loses its edge too quickly. If the speed
is too slow, the job takes too long to be economical.

NOTE

Use a centre in the tailstock to set tool to centre height.

Figure 1 - Cutting speed on a lathe.

Cutting speed charts list a cutting speed for combinations of cutting tools and workpiece
materials; however, these speeds are approximations only. Always refer to the cutting
tool supplier’s recommendations for a precise cutting speed. The condition of your
machine and set-up may limit cutting speed.

2
160104dp21.0_updated.docx
Table 1 is a sample metric cutting speed chart. NOTES

Work Material HSS Carbide Coated Carbide Ceramic

Plain Carbon 27-30 75-105 150-220 300-1200
Steel (1012)
Alloy Steel 21-27 72-210 150-285 360-660
(4140)
Tool Steel (01) 12-21 60-150 75-150 150-390
Grey Cast Iron 15-24 75-135 105-150 270-660
Aluminum 150-240 900-1200
Brass 60-75 210-270

Table 1 - Cutting speeds in surface metres per minute.

Table 2 is a sample imperial cutting speed chart.

Work Material HSS Carbide Coated Carbide Ceramic

Plain Carbon 90-100 250-350 500-900 1000-4000
Steel (1012)
Alloy Steel 70-90 240-700 500-950 1200-2200
(4140)
Tool Steel (01) 40-70 200-500 250-500 500-1300
Grey cast iron 50-80 250-450 350-500 900-2200
Aluminum 500-800 3000-4500
Brass 200-250 700-900

Table 2 - Cutting speeds in surface feet per minute.

NOTE

You must take the value from the table and convert it into a spindle
speed in revolutions per minute (rpm).

Metric Formula
The metric formula for spindle speed is as follows.

CS × 320
rpm =
D

Where:
• rpm is revolutions per minute,
• CS is cutting speed in metres per minute and
• D is diameter of the workpiece in millimetres.

3
160104dp21.0_updated.docx
NOTES Example
You need to machine a 50 mm diameter grey cast iron pulley with a brazed carbide
turning tool. Consulting the chart, you find that the recommended cutting speed for
cutting grey cast iron with carbide ranges from 75 to 135 metres per minute. Use 100
metres/min as an average CS for this equation.

Solution
Follow the formula to calculate the spindle speed.

CS × 320
rpm =
D
100  320
=
50
32 000
=
50
= 640

The spindle speed is 640 rpm.

Imperial Formula
The imperial formula for spindle speed is as follows.

CS × 4
rpm =
D

Where:
• rpm is revolutions per minute,
• CS is cutting speed in surface feet per minute (SFPM) and
• D is diameter of the workpiece in inches.

NOTE

When cutting with a single point tool, diameter is considered the

diameter of the workpiece at the point of cutting.

Example
You need to machine a 3 inch diameter plain carbon steel shaft with a high-speed steel
(HSS) turning tool. Consulting the chart, you find that the recommended cutting speed
for cutting plain carbon steel with HSS ranges from 90 to 100 surface feet per minute
(SFPM). Use 100 SFPM as the CS for this equation.

4
160104dp21.0_updated.docx
Solution NOTES
Follow the formula to calculate the spindle speed.

CS × 4
rpm =
D
100  4
=
3
400
=
3
=133

The spindle speed is 133 rpm.

Spindle Speed
The spindle speed given by this formula is only a starting point because it assumes ideal
conditions. You may find that you need to change the speed to suit the particular job.
Remember these key points about cutting speed.
• Do not confuse the spindle speed (rpm) with the cutting speed. The spindle speed
is set to the correct rpm to achieve the proper cutting speed.
• The hardness of the workpiece material and the cutting tool affect the cutting
speed. The harder the workpiece material, the lower the cutting speed. The harder
the cutting tool, the higher the cutting speed.
• The actual cutting speed decreases as the workpiece gets smaller if the rpm
remains constant. Therefore, the spindle speed must be set higher for smaller
work pieces to maintain the correct cutting speed (Figure 2).

Figure 2 - Cutting speed relative to diameter.

• During facing, set the spindle speed according to the outside diameter, even
though the actual cutting speed is too slow toward the middle of the workpiece.
• Use a slower cutting speed for roughing cuts and a higher speed for finishing
cuts.
• The lathe does nott allow selection of a specific speed. You must choose from
available speeds.
• Select a lower speed to start and increase it as the work allows.

5
160104dp21.0_updated.docx
NOTES Feed Rates
The feed rate (Figure 3) is the speed at which the tool is fed into the workpiece. It is
measured in millimetres or inches per revolution.

Figure 3 - Feed rate on a lathe.

It is hard to be specific about feed rates because so much depends on the rigidity of the
cutting tool and workpiece. Table 3 lists a range of feed rates for rough turning with HSS
and carbide tooling.

Work High-Speed Steel Carbide

Material Inches Millimetres Inches Millimetres
Mild Steel 0.010-0.020 0.25-0.5 0.015-0.035 0.4-0.9
Tool Steel 0.010-0.020 0.25-0.5 0.015-0.035 0.25-09
Cast Iron 0.015-0.025 0.4-0.65 0.015-0.030 0.4-0.75
Brass 0.015-0.025 0.4-0.65 0.015-0.030 0.4-0.75
Aluminum 0.015-0.030 0.4-0.75 0.015-0.035 0.4-0.9

Table 3 - Feed per revolution for roughing on a lathe.

Surface finish does not matter when rough turning. The main consideration is removing
metal as efficiently as possible. A high feed rate removes metal quickly, but it also
shortens the life of the tool. The most efficient feed rate balances the metal removal rate
with optimum tool life. The most efficient feed rate falls somewhere between the two
extremes for the work material and tool material listed in Table 3.

6
160104dp21.0_updated.docx
A feed rate between 0.002 and 0.005 inches per revolution (0.05 mm to 0.13 mm) is used NOTES
for finishing. Choose the highest feed rate that still produces an acceptable surface finish.
After determining the appropriate feed rate, set the lathe to the closest available feed rate
by manipulating the levers of the quick-change gearbox.

For example, to set the quick-change gearbox in Figure 4 to a feed rate of 0.008 inch, you
should:
1. set lever 1 to D,
2. set lever 2 to B and
3. set lever 3 to the eighth column.

Figure 4 - Quick-change gearbox.

7
160104dp21.0_updated.docx
NOTES Turning Tools
Turning tools (Figure 5) are used for cutting diameters. The cutting edge is on the side of
the tool, and the tool is fed parallel to the axis of the workpiece.

Figure 5 - Turning tools.

A right-hand turning tool (the most common) cuts from the tailstock to the headstock,
while a left-hand turning tool cuts from the headstock to the tailstock. Most cuts are
toward the chuck. The tool should push the work into the chuck rather than pull it out.

Setting Cut Depth

The cross-feed dial is just behind the cross-feed hand wheel. It sets the depth of cut. To
use the cross-feed dial correctly, you must know what the graduations mean and how to
take out the backlash (Figure 6).

Figure 6 - Graduated dial.

Cross-Feed Graduations
A cross-feed dial is graduated in one of two ways, depending on the lathe manufacturer.

Direct Reading Dial

On most lathes, each line on the dial represents 0.001 inch (0.01 mm on a metric lathe) on
the diameter of the workpiece. This means that, when the dial is turned through one
increment (such as 0.001 inch), the diameter of the workpiece changes by 0.001 inch.
This type of dial is called a direct reading dial (Figure 7).

8
160104dp21.0_updated.docx
Indirect Reading Dial NOTES
On other lathes, each line represents 0.001 inch on the radius, meaning that, when the
dial is turned through one increment (such as 0.001 inch) the diameter of the workpiece is
reduced by 0.002 inch (twice the radius). This type of dial is called an indirect reading
dial (Figure 7).

Figure 7 - Use a dial indicator to see if the dial is direct or indirect.

If you wish to remove 0.100 inch from the diameter of the workpiece and the dial is a
direct reading dial, turn the dial from the zero setting to the 0.100 inch setting and make
your cut (Figure 8).

Figure 8 - Depth of cut.

If the dial is an indirect reading dial, turn the dial from the zero setting to the 0.050 inch
setting for a 0.100 inch diameter removal. Be aware of tool pushback. Depending on
variables like depth of cut, tool material, workpiece material, feed rate and the rigidity of
machine, the tool removes slightly less material than indicated. You need to measure the
workpiece to verify how much was removed. Pushback decreases when you reduce cut
depth.

9
160104dp21.0_updated.docx
NOTES Removing Backlash
Always consider backlash when using the cross-feed dial. Backlash is the play between
the cross-feed screw and nut; it is unavoidable in a conventional machine.

Always set a cut depth by turning the dial clockwise (or counter-clockwise when boring).
If you overshoot the correct setting, back the hand wheel out one full turn to take out the
backlash and then approach the correct setting once again by turning the hand wheel
clockwise.

Roughing Cuts
A roughing cut removes as much metal as possible without regard to surface finish or
accuracy (Figure 9).

Figure 9 - Roughing and finishing cuts.

The following considerations apply to roughing cuts.
• The feed rate for a roughing cut should be as high as the cutting tool and machine
can handle, usually between 0.015 and 0.030 inch per revolution. The high feed
rate results in a very poor surface finish, but at this stage, the surface finish does
not matter.
• Always use the fewest roughing cuts as possible to save time. As a general rule,
increasing the depth of cut is easier on the cutting tool than increasing either the
cutting speed or the feed rate.
• When setting the depth of cut, leave approximately 0.030 inch for finishing.
• If more than one roughing cut is needed, try to use the same depth of cut each
time. For example, when turning a 1.000 inch diameter shaft from 1.250 inch
diameter stock, take two roughing cuts of 0.110 inch each and leave 0.030 inch
for finishing.

10
160104dp21.0_updated.docx
Finishing Cuts NOTES
A finish cut gives a workpiece a smooth surface finish and an accurate size (Figure 9).
The amount of time to make the cut is not as important as the finish. Use the following
technique for a finishing cut.
1. Rough the workpiece to within 0.030 inch of the finished size.
2. Set the spindle speed to the maximum cutting speed for the material you are
cutting.
3. Use the highest feed rate that still provides an acceptable surface finish.
4. Use the cross-feed dial to set a depth of cut of 0.015 inch and machine a diameter
about 1/4 inch long.
5. Measure the diameter with a micrometer.
6. Calculate how much material must be removed to produce the finished diameter
and set the final cut depth accordingly.

Facing
Facing is a variation of turning where the cut is made at right angles to the axis of the
workpiece. (Figure 10) Facing is usually done from the outside to the centre. Because of
the lateral force applied to the workpiece, facing must be done as close as possible to the
chuck. There are many variables to consider such as depth of cut. A general rule is to stay
within two to three diameters of the workpiece from the chuck. Use a steady rest if you
need to face at a greater distance.

Figure 10 - Facing.

NOTE

Set the spindle rpm for the outside diameter of your workpiece.

11
160104dp21.0_updated.docx
NOTES Parting Off
Parting off cuts a workpiece from a piece of stock. It is like grooving, except that in
parting off, the groove is very deep in relation to its width.

Most parting tools that industry uses consist of a carbide insert and holder, although HSS
parting tools are still used occasionally. A thin parting tool is less likely to chatter
(vibrate), but it lacks the strength of a wider tool.

Parting must be done as close to the chuck as possible because of the high side pressure
on the workpiece. Set the parting tool in the toolpost with as little overhang as possible
(Figure 11). Set the spindle speed to about half of what you would use for turning. If the
tool chatters, reduce the spindle speed.

NOTE

When parting a hollow workpiece (pipe) the inside diameter (ID) must
be bored true or the tool will break at the end of the cut.

Figure 11 - Setting up a parting tool.

Power feeding when parting produces a continuous, tightly curled chip. Proper chip
formation is important because if the chip jams in the narrow groove it will break the
parting tool. Cutting fluid helps lubricate the sides of the groove making chip jams less
likely.

NOTE

Never attempt to part between centres.

12
160104dp21.0_updated.docx
 NOTES
Objective Two
When you have completed this objective, you will be able to:
Describe lathe drilling, boring and reaming operations.

Drilling
Drilling is a common lathe operation. The workpiece rotates instead of the drill, but the
result is the same. You calculate the rpm using the cutting speed of the workpiece and the
drill diameter. Most drill bits are made of HSS, so coolant is recommended (Figure 12).

Figure 12 - Drilling in a lathe.

For greater accuracy, centre-drill the workpiece before drilling the desired diameter
(Figure 13).

Figure 13 - Depth of a centre-drilled hole.

Use the appearance of the chips and the feel of the hand wheel to estimate the feed rate.
When drilling mild steel, the chips should come out of the hole as continuous spirals.
Clear the chips from the hole by withdrawing the drill from time to time.

Direct a stream of coolant at the point where the drill enters the workpiece (Figure 14).
On a very deep hole, the coolant might not flow all the way to the cutting edge, so
remove the drill more often and pump in coolant.

Figure 14 - Using coolant while drilling.

13
160104dp21.0_updated.docx
NOTES Boring
You must sometimes machine the inside of a workpiece. When a single point tool is used
to machine an internal feature, it is called boring. Boring is the same as parallel turning,
but the cutting tool is held at the end of a boring bar clamped to the toolpost (Figure 15).
A boring bar enlarges an existing hole, but cannot start a new one. Drill the hole first
using a drill slightly smaller than the bore.

Figure 15 - Boring compared to turning.

Although boring is difficult and time-consuming, it offers advantages over drilling or
reaming.
• A bored hole runs true with the axis of the workpiece, while a drilled or reamed
hole can wander from the true axis.
• Bored holes can be of any diameter, while drills and reamers cut only nominal
sizes.

14
160104dp21.0_updated.docx
Chatter is often a problem when using a boring bar. The following techniques reduce it. NOTES
• Make the set-up as rigid as possible by choosing a boring bar that fits the hole.
• Mount the boring bar with the minimum overhang (Figure 16).
• If chatter occurs, reduce the spindle speed and increase the feed rate until the
chatter ceases.
• Dampen the chatter by holding a piece of wood against the boring bar.
• Use a boring bar made of carbide. Carbide boring bars are more costly, but they
chatter less.

Figure 16 - Mounting a boring bar.

Chip clearance is limited when using a boring bar. A continuous chip is a problem
because it wraps around the boring bar, jamming in the bore and ruining the surface
finish of the workpiece. Try adjusting the feed rate or modifying the chip breaker to
produce a broken chip.

It is hard to know when to disengage the feed because the tip of the tool is hidden inside
the bore. The following techniques are helpful.
• Clamp a stop to the ways of the lathe.
• Make a small mark on the boring bar to signify the end of its travel, using a black
felt marker or a pencil.
• Position a dial indicator on the ways of the lathe so that the dial reads zero when
the carriage feed must be disengaged.

15
160104dp21.0_updated.docx
NOTES Reaming
A reamer provides a quick way of making an accurate hole with a good surface finish
(Figure 17).

Figure 17 - Reaming in a lathe.

When preparing to ream a hole on a lathe, ensure the tailstock is properly aligned. If it is
not, the reamer acts like a boring bar and produces an oversized hole (Figure 18).

Figure 18 - A misaligned reamer cuts oversize.

For the reamer to enter a workpiece, there must be an existing hole. For reamed holes
smaller than 1/2 inch (13 mm), use a drill that is 1/64 inch (0.5 mm) undersize. For reamed
holes 1/2 inch (13 mm) and larger, use a drill that is 1/32 inch (1 mm) undersize. Set the
spindle speed to half the speed you would use for drilling and twice the feed of drilling.
Withdraw it from time to time to clear the chips. Always use cutting fluid.

CAUTION

Withdraw the reamer completely before stopping the spindle. Never

reverse the spindle when the reamer is still in the hole or you will
damage the reamer.

16
160104dp21.0_updated.docx
 NOTES
Objective Three
When you have completed this objective, you will be able to:
Describe lathe threading operations.

Cutting Threads
Thread cutting with a single point tool produces a thread with a precise form and pitch. It
is a skill that takes time and practice. Thread cutting requires a carbide threading insert, a
centre gauge, a feed rate and a depth of cut information.

A threading tool is a form tool, so the top surface of the tool must precisely match the
form of the thread. Set the tip of the threading tool at centre height, using the tailstock
centre as a guide (Figure 19). If using a hand-ground tool blank, set it in a carbide
toolholder or clamp it directly in the toolpost with a flat spacer beneath it. Always choose
the most rigid set-up possible.

Figure 19 - Setting the threading tool to centre height.

Use a thread gauge to set the axis of the threading tool at a right angle to the axis of the
workpiece (Figure 20). If the workpiece is tapered or otherwise inaccessible, place the
thread gauge against the tailstock spindle.

Figure 20 - Aligning the threading tool with a thread centre gauge.

17
160104dp21.0_updated.docx
NOTES Quick-Change Gearboxes
All modern lathes are equipped with a quick-change gearbox that allows the lathe to cut a
wide range of pitches (Figure 21). Some gearboxes have a larger range than others, but
most cut the standard pitches common in industry.

Figure 21 - Quick-change gearbox.

Each quick-change gearbox has a settings chart on the front of the gearbox or someplace
nearby. These charts differ from one manufacturer to another, so take some time to study
the chart to make sure you understand it.

Consider the following points when setting a lathe to cut a particular pitch.
• Check if the back gears are correct for the pitch being cut. If not, change the
gears.
• Set the quick-change gearbox to cut the correct pitch by positioning the levers as
indicated on the chart.
• Set the feed direction lever to produce either a right-hand or a left-hand thread, as
required.
• Set the feed change lever on the apron to neutral to permit thread cutting.
• Engage the lead screw clutch (if the lathe has one) so that the lead screw turns
when the spindle is started.
• Always make sure the pitch is correct by taking a trial cut and checking the
thread with a thread pitch gauge (Figure 22).

Figure 22 - Checking the pitch with a thread pitch gauge.

18
160104dp21.0_updated.docx
Cut Depth NOTES
A thread is produced by making a series of cuts. These cuts are heavy at first and lighter
as you get closer to the finished size. The depth of each cut varies with:
• the pitch of the thread,
• the material being cut,
• the type of cutting tool and
• the rigidity of the set-up.

The two ways of calculating the final depth of cut when cutting threads on the lathe are
the straight depth and the slant depth. If you are feeding with the cross-slide, use the
straight depth calculation. The formula for calculating the straight depth of cut is as
follows.

Straight depth of cut = 0.6134 (constant)× pitch

Cutting a thread with the compound set at 29° to the cross-slide was common when HSS
tools were used. Off-setting the compound rest allowed the tool to cut on one side only.
This greatly reduced pressure on the tool. This method increased the infeed depth. The
formula can be found in a machinist reference book.

Example
Calculate the straight depth of cut of a 38 16 unified coarse (UNC) thread.

The straight depth of cut = 0.6134 × pitch

= 0.6134 × 0.0625
= 0.0383
= 0.038 inch

The straight depth of cut is 0.038 inch.

19
160104dp21.0_updated.docx
NOTES Thread-Chasing Dial
The thread-chasing dial (Figure 23) tells you when to close the split nut. On top of the
unit is a numbered dial that rotates slowly past a pointer when the split nut is not
engaged. When you engage the split nut, the carriage moves and the dial stops rotating.
Wait for the correct number to line up with the pointer before engaging the split nut.

Figure 23 - Thread-chasing dial.

Figure 24 illustrates how a split nut closes on a lead screw.

Figure 24 - Split nut closing on a lead screw.

20
160104dp21.0_updated.docx
Not all lathes are the same; therefore, the split nut on an imperial lathe can be closed NOTES
according to the chart in Table 4.

Threads Per Inch When to Engage the Split Nut

Even Number Any graduation.
Odd Number Any main graduation.
½ Threads (for example 1½) Graduations 1 and 3 or 2 and 4.
Fractional Number (other than ½) Same graduation every time.
Multiples of the Number in the Lead Engage whenever the split nut meshes.
Screw The dial is not necessary.
Metric Pitches Do not disengage the split nut.
Table 4 - Using the thread chasing dial on an imperial lathe.
For example, when cutting a screw with eight threads per inch, the split nut can be closed
on any graduation. However, when cutting a screw with seven threads per inch, the split
nut can be closed only at a main graduation (a graduation that is numbered).

When cutting a metric thread on an imperial lathe, you must not disengage the split nut. If
you do, you stand only one chance in 127 (one gear tooth out of 127) to find the same
gear position again or you will destroy the thread. To cut a metric thread on an imperial
lathe, follow these steps.
1. Leave the split nut engaged.
2. Back your tool away from the workpiece (to avoid breaking it).
3. Stop the lathe and reverse the lathe spindle to get back to your starting position
for the next cut.
4. Repeat the process at the end of every cut.

21
160104dp21.0_updated.docx
NOTES Figure 25 shows a thread dial and engagement chart from a metric lathe. To read this
chart, find the pitch of the thread you are cutting in one of the left-most columns. Read
across to find when to engage the split nut. For example, to cut a thread with a pitch of
1.25 mm, you may engage the split nut on the first, third, fifth and seventh divisions.
To cut a thread with a pitch of 1.5 mm, you may engage on any division.

A thread engagement chart can be found on the thread chasing dial, apron or headstock of
most lathes.

Figure 25 - A thread chasing dial and engagement chart from a metric lathe.

22
160104dp21.0_updated.docx
Thread Cutting Process NOTES
Cutting a thread (Figure 26) on a lathe requires more of your skill and concentration than
any other operation. To cut a thread on a lathe, follow these steps.
1. Start the spindle of the lathe turning and then touch the tip of the cutting tool to
the surface of the workpiece so that the tool leaves a very small scratch.
2. Set both the cross-feed and compound rest dials to zero, ensuring that no
backlash exists.
3. Move the carriage toward the tailstock until the cutting tool clears the workpiece.
4. Set the depth of cut with the cross-feed dial.
5. Engage the half nut lever, using the thread-chasing dial to judge the correct
moment.
6. When the cutting tool reaches the end of the thread, withdraw the cutting tool as
quickly as possible using the cross-feed hand wheel and then disengage the half
nut. If you disengage the half nut before withdrawing the tool, you risk breaking
the tool.
7. Return the cutting tool to the beginning of the cut. Use the cross-feed hand wheel
to turn the cutting tool back in to the appropriate depth.
8. Repeat steps 4 through 7 until the thread is cut to its full depth.
9. When you approach full depth, check the fit of the thread. Do not go too deep.
10. Use a lathe file to remove the burr at the top of the thread.
11. Start the spindle at a low speed and place the corner of the file between two
threads, allowing the file to ride along the length of the thread.

Figure 26 - Cutting a thread.

23
160104dp21.0_updated.docx
NOTES
Objective Four
When you have completed this objective, you will be able to:
Describe lathe polishing, knurling and grinding operations.

Finishing
The purpose of finishing is to improve the surface finish and appearance of a workpiece.
It is the last step and is performed with a lathe file and emery cloth. It is also the most
dangerous operation on the lathe because your hands are close to the moving workpiece
instead of on the hand wheels and levers.

DANGER

Emery cloths and files are less predictable than a toolbit with
controlled feed. Long angle lathe files tend to pull to the left (toward
the chuck) as they cut and emery cloths tend to pull your hand under
the workpiece. Be careful when using these tools.

Files
A mill file or a long angle lathe file is used to remove burrs or to make sharp corners
round. A long angle lathe file has a safe edge (a side without teeth), so it can be used
against a shoulder without damaging it. A useful length for a lathe file is 12 or 14 inches.

When filing, you must get your hands and arms close to the workpiece and chuck, which
can lead to injury if you are not careful. Practice the following safety techniques.
• Hold the handle of the file with your left hand. This keeps your arms and sleeves
away from the spinning chuck.
• Never use a file without a handle. The end of the file can catch on a chuck jaw,
driving the file backward. Without a handle, the tang can pierce your hand.
• Never use a file on seal fits and bearing fits. It scratches and ruins them.

24
160104dp21.0_updated.docx
Emery Cloth NOTES
Emery cloth is used to remove a small amount of metal to produce a smooth finish. Leads
and radii on shafts, hubs and piston rods must be smooth to avoid damaging seals or
developing stress cracks.

Finishing a surface means replacing deep, coarse scratches and ridges with shallow, fine
scratches and ridges. It also means changing the pattern of those scratches and ridges to
one that serves your purpose, usually a fine cross-hatch pattern. To remove large
scratches, use the next finer grade of emery cloth. Each finer grade of cloth removes less
and less material and leaves finer and finer scratches. Begin with a coarse grit (either 120
or 180) to remove any cutting tool feed marks from the surface. Leave enough material to
use 240 grit next, followed by 400 grit.

Finishing Procedure
The procedure for finishing with an emery cloth is as follows.
1. Tear a strip of emery cloth between 2 cm and 5 cm (1 inch and 2 inches) wide
and 60 cm (24 inches) long from the sheet. Set the spindle to high speed.
2. Hold the ends of the strip with your left hand under and your right hand over
(which keeps your body away from the chuck) and pull the strip along the surface
to be finished.
3. Your left hand tends to be pulled into the workpiece. Resist this tension.
4. Keep any toolbits, rags or drills off the machine while you are finishing. One slip
can cause an injury.
5. Do not let the emery cloth sit in one position on the shaft or it will cause a groove
at that point. Keep it moving back and forth to create a cross-hatch finish.
6. Always be alert. The strip of emery cloth can wrap around on itself and pull your
hands in. Do not wrap the cloth around your fingers.
7. Cool the workpiece before measuring.

NOTE

Measure twice and finish once.

CAUTION

Filings left over from these finishing processes wear the ways of the
lathe, so it is a good idea to cover the ways with a piece of wood or
cardboard. Do not use a rag.

25
160104dp21.0_updated.docx
NOTES Knurling
The knurling process involves pushing a form tool against a workpiece to form raised
ridges. The process increases the diameter of the workpiece. Knurling a worn piston is an
example of increasing diameter to make a part suitable for re-use. Changing the finish
appearance of a workpiece and providing a gripping surface are other uses for knurling.

There are two types of knurls.

1. A diamond knurl consists of a pattern of small pyramids. A diamond knurl can be
fine, medium or coarse, depending on the size of the pyramids.
2. A straight knurl consists of a series of small ridges that run parallel to the axis of
the workpiece. Sometimes a straight knurl is used to raise a bearing surface when
a temporary repair is required.

A knurling tool consists of a holder with two rollers. Some holders carry the rollers close
together and exert considerable side pressure on the workpiece. Other holders carry the
rollers at the end of a pair of arms. The arms are adjusted into the workpiece from above
and below.

Knurling should be done at a low spindle speed and a high feed rate. As a rule, use a
0.010 inch feed rate for a fine knurl, 0.020 inch for a medium knurl and 0.030 inch for a
coarse knurl. Prepare the workpiece for knurling by turning a smooth surface where the
knurl is to be. The knurling process forces some of the metal up, increasing the diameter
of the workpiece by as much as 0.030 inch; therefore, turn the diameter somewhat
smaller than that specified for the knurl.

Mount the knurling tool in the toolpost and drive the rollers into the workpiece so they
leave an impression. Engage the power feed and start the spindle. Do not allow the rollers
to track in the same spot or the knurl will not form properly. Flood the area with coolant
to flush away any fine shavings, as they will mar the surface.

When the knurling tool works its way to the other end of the knurled section, stop the
spindle, reverse the direction of feed, drive the rollers further into the work and start the
spindle again. Continue this process until the pyramids are sufficiently formed. If the
knurl does not track correctly, start it again in a different place.

26
160104dp21.0_updated.docx
 NOTES
Grinding
Grinding is not a very common operation on a lathe, although it produces accurate sizes
and fine finishes. The toolpost grinder (Figure 27) is installed in place of the tool post.
The cross-feed is used to adjust it toward the workpiece. You must adjust the stone to the
centre height of the workpiece like any other cutting tool. The process requires the
workpiece and the grinding wheel to rotate in the same direction, making them opposite
where they contact each other. The carriage traverses the grinder along the workpiece.
Fine dust from grinding is very damaging to your lathe. Protect the ways with plywood or
cardboard (not rags). Many shops dedicate one lathe to grinding operations.

Figure 27 - Toolpost grinder.

27
160104dp21.0_updated.docx
NOTES
Objective Five
When you have completed this objective, you will be able to:
Describe applications for cutting fluids.

Cutting Fluids
Cutting fluids appear in many forms. They may be liquid, paste, gel, mist or gas. Oils and
emulsions (oil and water) are most common. Chemicals are added to achieve specific
qualities. Most of the power used to cut metal is transformed into heat. This occurs
primarily through deformation of the metal, but also from the friction of the chip sliding
over the face of the tool. Therefore, the primary purposes of cutting fluids are to reduce
heat and provide lubrication to reduce friction.

The benefits of using a cutting fluid are as follows.

• It reduces heat by carrying it away from the cutting tool and workpiece.
• It lubricates the face of the cutting tool, which reduces the friction between the
chip and the tool and reduces heat.
• It reduces cutting tool costs. Tooling is expensive; it can be made to last much
longer if it is kept cool.
• It increases the speed of production. Machines can be set to run faster if coolant
is used to dissipate the resulting heat.
• It reduces power costs. Less friction means less power is required to drive the
tool through the metal.
• It controls the flow of the chip. Ideally, a chip should flow smoothly over the
face of the cutting tool.
• It improves the surface finish of the work. Friction causes pieces of metal to weld
to the cutting edge.

Characteristics of Good Cutting Fluids

Good cutting fluids have many key characteristics.
• They must cool the workpiece and cutting tool. Water-based cutting fluids are
best for cooling.
• They must lubricate. Oil-based cutting fluids are best for lubrication.
• They must resist corrosion. Cutting fluids, especially water-based ones, tend to
rust the ways of a machine.
• They must remain stable. All cutting fluids are subject to extremes of heat and
pressure.
• They must resist rancidity. Bacteria grow in some cutting fluids. Eventually the
smell becomes so bad the fluid has to be changed.
• They must be non-toxic. Even if the cutting fluid does not touch the skin
directly, when hot cutting fluid vaporizes it can be inhaled.
• They should be transparent. An opaque cutting fluid makes it difficult to
monitor the cutting action of the tool.
• They should have a relatively low viscosity. Coolants are pumped directly onto
the cutting tool and workpiece.
• They must be non-flammable. Temperatures at the cutting edge of a tool can be
extremely high.

28
160104dp21.0_updated.docx
Cutting Fluid Types NOTES
The main categories of cutting fluids are:
1. cutting oils,
2. emulsifiable oils and
3. chemical cutting fluids.

Cutting Oils
Cutting oil is generally a mixture of mineral oil with additives like animal oils, sulphur,
chlorine and phosphorus to improve its wetting and lubricating qualities. Cutting oils do
not cool as well as other cutting fluids, so they are used on low cutting speed applications
like tapping, reaming or broaching. Their excellent lubricating qualities produce good
surface finishes.

Extreme Pressure Additives

Sulphur, chlorine and phosphorous are considered extreme pressure (EP) additives. They
improve the surface of the cutting tool under heavy cutting conditions by chemically
reacting with the cutting tool material where pressures are highest. EP additives may also
react with brass and bronze resulting in discoloration or corrosion, so avoid them when
working on these materials. Be careful when handling cutting fluids containing these
additives, as there are significant health and environmental concerns associated with
them.

Emulsifiable Oils
Emulsifiable (soluble) oils are manufactured by blending oil with an emulsifying agent
like soap. The oil can then be mixed with water to form an emulsion. Emulsifiable oils
combine the excellent cooling capability of water with the lubricating and corrosion
resisting qualities of oil. Soluble oil coolants consist of 90 to 98 percent water. Soluble
oil is used for high-speed applications such as lathe operations (Figure 28) and milling
machine work.

Figure 28 - Applying coolant on a lathe.

29
160104dp21.0_updated.docx
NOTES To make a good soluble oil emulsion, use the appropriate mixing ratio.
• Place the required volume of water in a clean tank or drum.
• Calculate the correct volume of soluble oil concentrate needed. Consult the oil
manufacturer for the proper ratio of oil to water.
• Always add the soluble oil concentrate to the water, not vice versa. Instability in
the solution occurs if the solution is mixed incorrectly. An unstable solution can
cause separation of the oil and water and result in premature tool failure, rust on
the machine or both.

Chemical Cutting Fluids

Chemical (synthetic) cutting fluids are mixtures of inorganic chemicals and water. They
have the cooling capacity of emulsifiable oil, but without its rancidity. Chemical coolants
often contain extreme-pressure (EP) lubricants, which enable severe machining
operations to be carried out successfully on nickel alloys and stainless steels. Extreme-
pressure lubricant additives include phosphorus, sulphur and chlorine for improved
chemical lubrication. Chemical cutting fluids are often used on grinding machines.

Choosing Cutting Fluids

Different materials and machining operations require different cutting fluids (Table 5).

Operation
Material
Tapping Drilling Turning Milling
Sulphur-based
Machine Steel Soluble oil Soluble oil Soluble oil
cutting oil
Alloy Steel Mineral oil Soluble oil Soluble oil Soluble oil
Soluble oil or
Aluminum Mineral oil Soluble oil Soluble oil
mineral oil
Dry or
Brass or Bronze Mineral oil Soluble oil Soluble oil
soluble oil
Cast Iron Dry Dry Dry Dry

Table 5 - Cutting fluid chart.

30
160104dp21.0_updated.docx
Potential Health Hazards NOTES
Cutting fluids are chemicals and they are found everywhere in a machine shop. Although
cutting fluid manufacturers make every effort to minimize exposure to the potentially
harmful effects of cutting fluids, no substance is entirely free of adverse effects.

Cutting fluids are generally safe if used properly. However, some health problems can
occur through direct contact with the cutting fluid and contamination of the coolant
supply. Their main risks are:
• dermatitis (irritation of the skin),
• irritation of the throat due to mist inhalation and
• irritation caused by bacteria growing in the coolant.

Foreign matter entering the coolant supply is a major contributor to contamination

problems. Contamination can be in the form of fine metallic chips, grinding wheel
particles or any other matter introduced to the cutting fluid.

NOTE

Any specific health concerns are best addressed by consulting the

product's Worksite Hazardous Materials Information System
(WHMIS) information. All machine shops must keep information
sheets detailing the likely health hazards of each product and the
measures that can be taken to minimize these risks.

Avoiding Contact
The first step in minimizing health risks is to avoid direct contact with the cutting fluids.
• Use splash guards on machines to contain the coolant.
• Make sure the flow of coolant is not excessive.
• Wear protective clothing and make sure the clothing is clean.
• Always wear safety glasses.
• Use barrier creams on your hands and exposed skin. Manufacturers suggest
specific products to resist their cutting fluids.
• Make sure there is good ventilation, preferably in the form of a fume hood.

DANGER

If cutting fluid contacts your skin, clean your skin with proper hand
cleaner. Never clean your hands in solvent, as it is unsafe.

31
160104dp21.0_updated.docx
NOTES
Self-Test
1. The most common lathe operation is:
a) reaming.
b) turning.
c) grinding.
d) boring.

2. Cutting speed refers to:

a) the speed the carriage traverses parallel to the ways (and workpiece).
b) the lathe's horsepower for metal removal.
c) how fast the workpiece travels past the tool.
d) how many pieces can be produced per hour.

3. Turning is usually done:

a) with a right-hand tool.
b) with a left-hand tool.
c) with a form tool.
d) with a carbide threading insert.

4. An infeed of 0.050 on a direct reading cross-slide results in a diameter reduction of:

a) 0.050.
b) 0.100.
c) 0.250.
d) 0.350.

5. You are machining a 4.5 inch diameter steel shaft with a carbide tool. To machine it
at 290 surface feet per minute, what should the approximate rpm of the spindle be?
a) 65 rpm
b) 255 rpm
c) 475 rpm
d) 1160 rpm

6. What does the spindle rpm need to be for drilling a 1.25 inch hole in a 3 inch
diameter steel shaft with a cutting speed of 100 SFPM?
a) 160
b) 240
c) 320
d) 500

7. The boring operation on a lathe:

a) produces a hole in a workpiece.
b) reduces the outside diameter (OD) of a workpiece.
c) reduces the diameter of a hole in a workpiece.
d) increases the diameter of a hole in a workpiece.

32
160104dp21.0_updated.docx
8. A reamer is used to: NOTES
a) measure the bore of a hole.
b) produce a gripping surface.
c) rapidly remove material.
d) produce smooth accurate holes.

9. How does the speed and feed of a reamer compare to a drill?

a) They are the same (because they are both made of HSS).
b) Rpm is faster and feed is equal.
c) Rpm is faster and feed is faster.
d) Rpm is slower and feed is faster.

10. What is the correct spindle speed when drilling a 3 inch diameter piece of aluminum
with a ½ inch HSS drill and a cutting speed of 600 SFPM?
a) 4800 rpm
b) 2400 rpm
c) 1200 rpm
d) 800 rpm

11. The pitch of a thread cut on a lathe is controlled by:

a) the spindle speed.
b) the feed rod.
c) the lead screw.
d) the compound rest angle.

12. The finish on a thread can be enhanced by using:

a) a pitch gauge.
b) cutting oil.
c) coolant.
d) a threading tool set above centre.

13. The thread-chasing dial:

a) engages the lead screw.
b) engages the feed rod.
c) tells you when to engage the split nut.
d) monitors the thread depth so you have the correct amount of infeed.

14. When finishing with an emery cloth, the end held in your left hand passes under the
workpiece and the end coming over the top is held in your right hand.
a) true
b) false

15. The result of knurling is:

a) a workpiece with a very smooth finish.
b) a workpiece slightly larger in diameter.
c) a workpiece slightly smaller in diameter.
d) a workpiece with a true and smooth bore.

33
160104dp21.0_updated.docx
NOTES 16. To achieve a good knurl, you should:
a) not apply oil or coolant.
b) flood the workpiece with coolant.
c) decrease the feed rate for the final pass.
d) increase the feed rate with each pass.

17. When grinding a workpiece between centres, you feed:

a) with the cross-feed.
b) with the compound rest.
c) with the carriage feed.
d) by hand.

18. What is a negative result of using a tool post grinder on a lathe?

a) The dust can destroy the ways.
b) The surface finish is very rough.
c) Coolant cannot be applied.
d) You cannot use a four-jaw chuck.

19. Cutting fluids are used mainly for:

a) allowing slower machining speeds.
b) increasing heat and friction.
c) decreasing heat and friction.
d) flushing away chips.

34
160104dp21.0_updated.docx
 NOTES
Self-Test Answers
1. b) turning.
2. c) how fast the workpiece tool travels past the tool.
3. a) with a right-hand tool.
4. a) 0.050.
5. b) 255 rpm
6. c) 320
7. d) increases the diameter of a hole in a workpiece.
8. d) produce smooth accurate holes.
9. d) Rpm is slower and feed is faster.
10. a) 4800 rpm
11. c) the lead screw.
12. b) cutting oil.
13. c) tells you when to engage the split nut.
14. a) true
15. b) a workpiece slightly larger in diameter.
16. b) flood the workpiece with coolant.
17. c) with the carriage feed.
18. a) The dust can destroy the ways.
19. c) decreasing heat and friction.

35
160104dp21.0_updated.docx
NOTES

36
160104dp21.0_updated.docx
 NOTES

37
160104dp21.0_updated.docx
NOTES

38
160104dp21.0_updated.docx
This learning material is the result of a collaborative effort between the Northern
Alberta Institute of Technology, the Southern Alberta Institute of Technology, and the
following Alberta apprenticeship training providers:

Grande Prairie Regional College | Keyano College | Lakeland College

Lethbridge College | Medicine Hat College | Northern Lakes College
Olds College | Portage College | Red Deer College
The Individual Learning Modules Initiative is committed to continuous
updating and is interested in your comments regarding technical accuracy
and clarity of presentation. Please visit our website to register your
comments. To view the ongoing discussion, go to the Bulletin Board:
http://ilm.nait.ca
The Individual Learning Modules Initiative would like to thank the many
individuals and companies for their contribution and gratefully
acknowledges their valuable input.

160104d | Version 21