3 DIFFERENTIATION

3.1 Definition of the Derivative

Preliminary Questions
1. Which of the lines in Figure 12 are tangent to the curve?

D
A

B
C

FIGURE 12

SOLUTION Lines B and D are tangent to the curve.

2. What are the two ways of writing the difference quotient?

SOLUTION The difference quotient may be written either as

f (x) − f (a)
x−a
or as
f (a + h) − f (a)
h

f (a + h) − f (a)
3. Find a and h such that is equal to the slope of the secant line between (3, f (3)) and (5, f (5)).
h
f (a + h) − f (a)
SOLUTION With a = 3 and h = 2, is equal to the slope of the secant line between the points (3, f (3))
h
and (5, f (5)) on the graph of f (x).
!π "
tan 4
+ 0.0001 − 1
4. Which derivative is approximated by ?
0.0001
tan( π4 + 0.0001) − 1
SOLUTION is a good approximation to the derivative of the function f (x) = tan x at x = π4 .
0.0001

5. What do the following quantities represent in terms of the graph of f (x) = sin x?

sin 1.3 − sin 0.9

(a) sin 1.3 − sin 0.9 (b) (c) f " (0.9)
0.4
SOLUTION Consider the graph of y = sin x.
(a) The quantity sin 1.3 − sin 0.9 represents the difference in height between the points (0.9, sin 0.9) and (1.3, sin 1.3).
sin 1.3 − sin 0.9
(b) The quantity represents the slope of the secant line between the points (0.9, sin 0.9) and (1.3, sin 1.3)
0.4
on the graph.
(c) The quantity f " (0.9) represents the slope of the tangent line to the graph at x = 0.9.
6. Choose (a) or (b). The derivative at a point is zero if the tangent line at that point is (a) horizontal (b) vertical.

SOLUTION The derivative at a point is zero if the tangent line at that point is (a) horizontal.
7. Choose (a) or (b). The derivative at a point does not exist if the tangent line at that point is (a) horizontal (b) vertical.

SOLUTION The derivative at a point does not exist if the tangent line at that point is (b) vertical.

1
2 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

Exercises
1. Let f (x) = 5x2 . Show that f (3 + h) = 5h2 + 30h + 45. Then show that

f (3 + h) − f (3)
= 5h + 30
h
and compute f " (3) by taking the limit as h → 0.

SOLUTION With f (x) = 5x2 , it follows that

f (3 + h) = 5(3 + h)2 = 5(9 + 6h + h2 ) = 45 + 30h + 5h2

Using this result, we find

f (3 + h) − f (3) 45 + 30h + 5h2 − 5 · 9 45 + 30h + 5h2 − 45 30h + 5h2

= = = = 30 + 5h
h h h h
As h → 0, 30 + 5h → 30, so f " (3) = 30.

In Exercises 3 8, compute f " (a) in two ways, using Eq. (1) and Eq. (2).

3. f (x) = x2 + 9x, a=0

SOLUTION Let f (x) = x2 + 9x. Then

f (0 + h) − f (0) (0 + h)2 + 9(0 + h) − 0 9h + h2

f " (0) = lim = lim = lim = lim(9 + h) = 9
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h→0

Alternately,

f (x) − f (0) x2 + 9x − 0
f " (0) = lim = lim = lim(x + 9) = 9
x→0 x−0 x→0 x x→0

5. f (x) = 3x2 + 4x + 2, a = −1

SOLUTION Let f (x) = 3x2 + 4x + 2. Then

f (−1 + h) − f (−1) 3(−1 + h)2 + 4(−1 + h) + 2 − 1

f " (−1) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
3h2 − 2h
= lim = lim(3h − 2) = −2
h→0 h h→0

Alternately,

f (x) − f (−1) 3x2 + 4x + 2 − 1

f " (−1) = lim = lim
x→−1 x − (−1) x→−1 x+1
(3x + 1)(x + 1)
= lim = lim (3x + 1) = −2
x→−1 x+1 x→−1

7. f (x) = x3 + 2x, a=1

SOLUTION Let f (x) = x3 + 2x. Then

f (1 + h) − f (1) (1 + h)3 + 2(1 + h) − 3

f " (1) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
1 + 3h + 3h2 + h3 + 2 + 2h − 3
= lim = lim(5 + 3h + h2 ) = 5
h→0 h h→0

Alternately,

f (x) − f (1) x3 + 2x − 3
f " (1) = lim = lim
x→1 x−1 x→1 x−1
(x − 1)(x2 + x + 3)
= lim = lim(x2 + x + 3) = 5
x→1 x−1 x→1
 S E C T I O N 3.1 Definition of the Derivative 3

In Exercises 9 12, refer to Figure 13.

y
3.0
2.5 f (x)
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
x
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
FIGURE 13

9. Find the slope of the secant line through (2, f (2)) and (2.5, f (2.5)). Is it larger or smaller than f " (2)? Explain.
SOLUTION From the graph, it appears that f (2.5) = 2.5 and f (2) = 2. Thus, the slope of the secant line through
(2, f (2)) and (2.5, f (2.5)) is
f (2.5) − f (2) 2.5 − 2
= =1
2.5 − 2 2.5 − 2
From the graph, it is also clear that the secant line through (2, f (2)) and (2.5, f (2.5)) has a larger slope than the tangent
line at x = 2. In other words, the slope of the secant line through (2, f (2)) and (2.5, f (2.5)) is larger than f " (2).
11. Estimate f " (1) and f " (2).
SOLUTION From the graph, it appears that the tangent line at x = 1 would be horizontal. Thus, f " (1) ≈ 0. The tangent
line at x = 2 appears to pass through the points (0.5, 0.8) and (2, 2). Thus
2 − 0.8
f " (2) ≈ = 0.8
2 − 0.5

In Exercises 13 16, refer to Figure 14.

5
4
3
2
1
x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
FIGURE 14 Graph of f .

13. Determine f " (a) for a = 1, 2, 4, 7.

SOLUTION Remember that the value of the derivative of f at x = a can be interpreted as the slope of the line tangent
to the graph of y = f (x) at x = a. From Figure 14, we see that the graph of y = f (x) is a horizontal line (that is, a line
with zero slope) on the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 3. Accordingly, f " (1) = f " (2) = 0. On the interval 3 ≤ x ≤ 5, the graph of
y = f (x) is a line of slope 12 ; thus, f " (4) = 12 . Finally, the line tangent to the graph of y = f (x) at x = 7 is horizontal,
so f " (7) = 0.
15. Which is larger, f " (5.5) or f " (6.5)?
SOLUTION The line tangent to the graph of y = f (x) at x = 5.5 has a larger slope than the line tangent to the graph of
y = f (x) at x = 6.5. Therefore, f " (5.5) is larger than f " (6.5).

In Exercises 17 20, use the limit definition to calculate the derivative of the linear function.

17. f (x) = 7x − 9
SOLUTION

f (a + h) − f (a) 7(a + h) − 9 − (7a − 9)

lim = lim = lim 7 = 7
h→0 h h→0 h h→0

19. g(t) = 8 − 3t
SOLUTION

g(a + h) − g(a) 8 − 3(a + h) − (8 − 3a) −3h

lim = lim = lim = lim(−3) = −3
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h→0
4 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

21. Find an equation of the tangent line at x = 3, assuming that f (3) = 5 and f " (3) = 2.
SOLUTION By definition, the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) at x = 3 is y = f (3) + f " (3)(x − 3) =
5 + 2(x − 3) = 2x − 1.
23. Describe the tangent line at an arbitrary point on the graph of y = 2x + 8.
SOLUTION Since y = 2x + 8 represents a straight line, the tangent line at any point is the line itself, y = 2x + 8.
1 1 1 1
25. Let f (x) = . Does f (−2 + h) equal or + ? Compute the difference quotient at a = −2 with h = 0.5.
x −2 + h −2 h
SOLUTION Let f (x) = 1x . Then

1
f (−2 + h) =
−2 + h
With a = −2 and h = 0.5, the difference quotient is

f (a + h) − f (a) f (−1.5) − f (−2)

1 1
−1.5
− −2 1
= = =−
h 0.5 0.5 3
√
27. Let f (x) = 1/ x. Compute f " (5) by showing that
f (5 + h) − f (5) 1
=−√ √ √ √
h 5 5 + h( 5 + h + 5)
√
SOLUTION Let f (x) = 1/ x. Then

√1 √1
√ √
f (5 + h) − f (5) 5+h
− 5− 5+h
5
= = √ √
h h h 5 5+h
√ √ √ √ 
5 − 5 + h  5 + 5 + h 
= √ √  √ √ 
h 5 5+h 5+ 5+h
5 − (5 + h) 1
= √ √ √ √ =−√ √ √ √
h 5 5 + h( 5 + h + 5) 5 5 + h( 5 + h + 5)
Thus,
f (5 + h) − f (5) 1
f " (5) = lim = lim − √ √ √ √
h→0 h h→0 5 5 + h( 5 + h + 5)
1 1
=−√ √ √ √ =− √
5 5( 5 + 5) 10 5

In Exercises 29 46, use the limit definition to compute f " (a) and find an equation of the tangent line.
29. f (x) = 2x2 + 10x, a=3
SOLUTION Let f (x) = 3x2 + 2x. Then

f (2 + h) − f (2) 3(2 + h)2 + 2(2 + h) − 16

f " (2) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
12 + 12h + 3h2 + 4 + 2h − 16
= lim = lim(14 + 3h) = 14
h→0 h h→0

At a = 2, the tangent line is

y = f " (2)(x − 2) + f (2) = 14(x − 2) + 16 = 14x − 12.

31. f (t) = t − 2t2 , a = 3

SOLUTION Let f (t) = t − 2t2 . Then

f (3 + h) − f (3) (3 + h) − 2(3 + h)2 − (−15)

f " (3) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
3 + h − 18 − 12h − 2h2 + 15
= lim
h→0 h
= lim(−11 − 2h) = −11
h→0

At a = 3, the tangent line is

y = f " (3)(t − 3) + f (3) = −11(t − 3) − 15 = −11t + 18

 S E C T I O N 3.1 Definition of the Derivative 5

33. f (x) = x3 + x, a=0

SOLUTION Let f (x) = x3 + x. Then

f (h) − f (0) h3 + h − 0
f " (0) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= lim(h2 + 1) = 1
h→0

At a = 0, the tangent line is

y = f " (0)(x − 0) + f (0) = x

35. f (x) = x−1 , a=8

SOLUTION Let f (x) = x−1 . Then
) *
1 1 8−8−h
f (8 + h) − f (8) − −h 1
f (8) = lim
" 8+h 8 8(8+h)
= lim = lim = lim =−
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h→0 (64 + 8h)h 64

The tangent at a = 8 is

1 1 1 1
y = f " (8)(x − 8) + f (8) = − (x − 8) + = − x +
64 8 64 4

1
37. f (x) = , a = −2
x+3
SOLUTION Let f (x) = 1
x+3
. Then

f (−2 + h) − f (−2) −h
1 1
−1 −1 −1
f " (−2) = lim = lim −2+h+3
= lim 1+h
= lim = lim = −1
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h(1 + h) h→0 1 + h

The tangent line at a = −2 is

y = f " (−2)(x + 2) + f (−2) = −1(x + 2) + 1 = −x − 1

√
39. f (x) = x + 4, a=1
√
SOLUTION Let f (x) = x + 4. Then
√ √ √ √ √ √
f (1 + h) − f (1) h+5− 5 h+5− 5 h+5+ 5
f " (1) = lim = lim = lim · √ √
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h+5+ 5
h 1 1
= lim √ √ = lim √ √ = √
h→0 h( h + 5 + 5) h→0 h + 5 + 5 2 5

The tangent line at a = 1 is

1 √ 1 9
y = f " (1)(x − 1) + f (1) = √ (x − 1) + 5 = √ x + √
2 5 2 5 2 5
1
41. f (x) = √ , a=4
x
1
SOLUTION Let f (x) = √ . Then
x
√ √
1 1 2−√ 4+h 2+ √4+h √ 4−4−h
f (4 + h) − f (4) √ − 2
·
f " (4) = lim
4+h 2 4+h 2+ 4+h 4 4+h+2(4+h)
= lim = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
−1 1
= lim √ =−
h→0 4 4 + h + 2(4 + h) 16

At a = 4 the tangent line is

1 1 1 3
y = f " (4)(x − 4) + f (4) = − (x − 4) + = − x +
16 2 16 4
8 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

In Exercises 57 62, each limit represents a derivative f " (a). Find f (x) and a.
(5 + h)3 − 125
57. lim
h→0 h
(5 + h)3 − 125 f (a + h) − f (a)
SOLUTION The difference quotient has the form where f (x) = x3 and a = 5.
h h
!π "
sin 6
+ h − 0.5
59. lim
h→0 h
sin( π6 + h) − 0.5 f (a + h) − f (a)
SOLUTION The difference quotient has the form where f (x) = sin x and a = π6 .
h h
52+h − 25
61. lim
h→0 h
5(2+h) − 25 f (a + h) − f (a)
SOLUTION The difference quotient
has the form where f (x) = 5 x and a = 2.
h h
) *
63. Apply the method of Example 6 to f (x) = sin x to determine f " π4 accurately to four decimal places.
SOLUTION We know that
√
f (π/4 + h) − f (π/4) sin(π/4 + h) − 2/2
f " (π/4) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
Creating a table of values with h close to zero:

h −0.001 −0.0001 −0.00001 0.00001 0.0001 0.001

√
sin( π4 + h) − ( 2/2)
0.7074602 0.7071421 0.7071103 0.7071033 0.7070714 0.7067531
h

Accurate up to four decimal places, f " ( π4 ) ≈ 0.7071.

65. For each graph in Figure 17, determine whether f " (1) is larger or smaller than the slope of the secant line
between x = 1 and x = 1 + h for h > 0. Explain.
y y

y = f(x)
y = f(x)

x x
1 1
(A) (B)
FIGURE 17

SOLUTION

• On curve (A), f " (1) is larger than

f (1 + h) − f (1)
h
the curve is bending downwards, so that the secant line to the right is at a lower angle than the tangent line. We say
such a curve is concave down, and that its derivative is decreasing.
• On curve (B), f " (1) is smaller than
f (1 + h) − f (1)
h
the curve is bending upwards, so that the secant line to the right is at a steeper angle than the tangent line. We say
such a curve is concave up, and that its derivative is increasing.

67. Sketch the graph of f (x) = x5/2 on [0, 6].

(a) Use the sketch to justify the inequalities for h > 0:
f (4) − f (4 − h) f (4 + h) − f (4)
≤ f " (4) ≤
h h
 S E C T I O N 3.2 The Derivative as a Function 13

3.2 The Derivative as a Function

Preliminary Questions
1. What is the slope of the tangent line through the point (2, f (2)) if f " (x) = x3 ?
SOLUTION The slope of the tangent line through the point (2, f (2)) is given by f " (2). Since f " (x) = x3 , it follows that
f (2) = 2 = 8.
" 3

2. Evaluate ( f − g)" (1) and (3 f + 2g)" (1), assuming that f " (1) = 3 and g" (1) = 5.
SOLUTION ( f − g)" (1) = f " (1) − g" (1) = 3 − 5 = −2 and (3 f + 2g)" (1) = 3 f " (1) + 2g" (1) = 3(3) + 2(5) = 19.
3. To which of the following does the Power Rule apply?
(a) f (x) = x2 (b) f (x) = 2e
(c) f (x) = x e
(d) f (x) = e x
(e) f (x) = x x (f) f (x) = x−4/5
SOLUTION
(a) Yes. x2 is a power function, so the Power Rule can be applied.
(b) Yes. 2e is a constant function, so the Power Rule can be applied.
(c) Yes. xe is a power function, so the Power Rule can be applied.
(d) No. e x is an exponential function (the base is constant while the exponent is a variable), so the Power Rule does not
apply.
(e) No. x x is not a power function because both the base and the exponent are variable, so the Power Rule does not apply.
(f) Yes. x−4/5 is a power function, so the Power Rule can be applied.

4. State whether each claim is true or false. If false, give an example demonstrating that it is false.
(a) If f is continuous at a, then f is differentiable at a.
(b) If f is differentiable at a, then f is continuous at a.
SOLUTION
(a) This statement is false. For example, the function f (x) = |x| is continuous at x = 0 but is not differentiable at x = 0.
(b) This statement is true.

Exercises
In Exercises 1 6, compute f " (x) using the limit definition.

1. f (x) = 3x − 7
SOLUTION Let f (x) = 3x − 7. Then,

f (x + h) − f (x) 3(x + h) − 7 − (3x − 7) 3h

f " (x) = lim = lim = lim =3
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h

3. f (x) = x3
SOLUTION Let f (x) = x3 . Then,

f (x + h) − f (x) (x + h)3 − x3 x3 + 3x2 h + 3xh2 + h3 − x3

f " (x) = lim = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
3x2 h + 3xh2 + h3
= lim = lim(3x2 + 3xh + h2 ) = 3x2
h→0 h h→0

√
5. f (x) = x − x
√
SOLUTION Let f (x) = x − x. Then,
√ √ √ √ √ √ 
f ( x + h) − f (x) x+h− x + h − (x − x) x+h− x  x + h + x 
f " (x) = lim = lim = 1 − lim ·  √ √ 
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h x+h+ x
(x + h) − x 1 1
= 1 − lim √ √ = 1 − lim √ √ =1− √
h→0 h( x + h + x) h→0 x+h+ x 2 x
14 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

In Exercises 7 14, use the Power Rule to compute the derivative.

!+
d 4 !!++
7. x !!++
dx x=−2
+!
d ) 4* d 4 +!!+
SOLUTION x = 4x3 so x +!!+ = 4(−2)3 = −32
dx dx x=−2
+!
d 2/3 +!!+
9. t +!!+
dt tt=8
+!!+
d ) 2/3 * 2 −1/3 d 2 1
SOLUTION t = t so t2/3 +!!!++ = (8)−1/3 =
dt 3 dt t=8 3 3
d 0.35
11. x
dx
d ) 0.35 *
SOLUTION x = 0.35(x0.35−1 ) = 0.35x−0.65
dx
d √17
13. t
dt
d ! √17 " √ √17−1
SOLUTION t = 17t
dt
In Exercises 15 18, compute f " (x) and find an equation of the tangent line to the graph at x = a.

15. f (x) = x4 , a=2

SOLUTION Let f (x) = x4 . Then, by the Power Rule, f " (x) = 4x3 . The equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x)
at x = 2 is

y = f " (2)(x − 2) + f (2) = 32(x − 2) + 16 = 32x − 48

√
17. f (x) = 5x − 32 x, a=4
SOLUTION Let f (x) = 5x − 32x1/2 . Then f " (x) = 5 − 16x−1/2 . In particular, f " (4) = −3. The tangent line at x = 4 is

y = f " (4)(x − 4) + f (4) = −3(x − 4) − 44 = −3x − 32

19. Calculate:
d d d t−3
(a) 12e x (b) (25t − 8et ) (c) e
dx dt dt
Hint for (c): Write et−3 as e−3 et .
SOLUTION
d x d
(a) 9e = 9 e x = 9ex
dx dx
d d d
(b) (3t − 4et ) = 3 t − 4 et = 3 − 4et
dt dt dt
d t−3 d
(c) e = e−3 et = e−3 · et = et−3 .
dt dt

In Exercises 21 32, calculate the derivative.

21. f (x) = 2x3 − 3x2 + 5

d ) 3 *
SOLUTION 2x − 3x2 + 5 = 6x2 − 6x
dx
23. f (x) = 4x5/3 − 3x−2 − 12
d ) 5/3 * 20
SOLUTION 4x − 3x−2 − 12 = x2/3 + 6x−3
dx 3
25. g(z) = 7z−5/14 + z−5 + 9
d ) −5/14 * 5
SOLUTION 7z + z−5 + 9 = − z−19/14 − 5z−6
dz 2
√ √
27. f (s) = 4 s + 3 s
√4 √3
SOLUTION f (s) = s + s = s1/4 + s1/3 . In this form, we can apply the Sum and Power Rules.

d ) 1/4 * 1 1 1 1
s + s1/3 = (s(1/4)−1 ) + (s(1/3)−1 ) = s−3/4 + s−2/3
ds 4 3 4 3
 S E C T I O N 3.2 The Derivative as a Function 15

29. g(x) = e2
d 2
SOLUTION Because e2 is a constant, e = 0.
dx
31. h(t) = 5et−3
d t−3 d
SOLUTION 5e = 5e−3 et = 5e−3 et = 5et−3
dt dt

In Exercises 33 38, calculate the derivative by expanding or simplifying the function.

33. P(s) = (4s − 3)2

SOLUTION P(s) = (4s − 3)2 = 16s2 − 24s + 9. Thus,

dP
= 32s − 24
ds

35. f (x) = (2 − x)(2 + x)

SOLUTION f (x) = (2 − x)(2 + x) = 4 − x2 . Thus,

df
= −2x
dx

x2 + 4x1/2
37. g(x) =
x2
x2 + 4x1/2
SOLUTION g(x) = = 1 + 4x−3/2 . Thus,
x2

dg
= −6x−5/2
dx

In Exercises 39 44, calculate the derivative indicated.

dT +++
39. + , T = 3C 2/3
dC C=8
dT
SOLUTION With T (C) = 3C 2/3 , we have = 2C −1/3 . Therefore,
dC
+
dT ++
+ = 2(8)−1/3 = 1
dC +C=8

ds +++
41. + , s = 4z − 16z2
dz z=2
ds
SOLUTION With s = 4z − 16z2 , we have = 4 − 32z. Therefore,
dz
+
ds ++
++ = 4 − 32(2) = −60
dz z=2

+
dr ++
43. ++ , r = t − et
dt t=4
dr
SOLUTION With r = t − et , we have = 1 − et . Therefore,
dt
+
dr ++
++ = 1 − e4
dt t=4
 S E C T I O N 3.3 Product and Quotient Rules 23

95. Infinitely Rapid Oscillations Define

 1

 x sin x x!0



h(x) = 



0 x=0

Show that h is continuous at x = 0 but h" (0) does not exist (see Figure 8).
 ) *
 x sin x if x ! 0

 1
SOLUTION Let h(x) =  . As x → 0,
0
 if x = 0
+++ 0 1
1 +++ +++ 0 1 1+++
|h(x) − h(0)| = ++ x sin − 0++ = |x| ++sin ++ → 0
+ x + + x +
since the values of the sine lie between −1 and 1. Hence, by the Squeeze Theorem, lim h(x) = h(0) and thus h is contin-
x→0
uous at x = 0.
As x → 0, the difference quotient at x = 0,
) * 0 1
h(x) − h(0) x sin 1x − 0 1
= = sin
x−0 x−0 x
does not converge to a limit since it oscillates infinitely through every value between −1 and 1. Accordingly, h" (0) does
not exist.
f (c + h) − f (c) f (c + h) − f (c)
97. If lim− h
and lim+ h
exist but are not equal, then f is not differentiable at c, and the graph of f has
h→0 h→0
a corner at c. Prove that f is continuous at c.
SOLUTION The function f is continuous at x = c if lim f (x) = f (c), or equivalently if lim( f (c + h) − f (c)) = 0. Note
x→c h→0
that
0 1
f (c + h) − f (c) f (c + h) − f (c)
lim− ( f (c + h) − f (c)) = lim− h = lim− h · lim−
h→0 h→0 h h→0 h→0 h
f (c+h)− f (c)
Now lim− h = 0, and by assumption lim− h
exists. It follows that lim− ( f (c + h) − f (c)) = 0. Similarly, lim+ ( f (c +
h→0 h→0 h→0 h→0
h) − f (c)) = 0. Because the two one-sided limits exist and are equal to 0,

lim( f (c + h) − f (c)) = 0
h→0

therefore, f is continuous at x = c.

3.3 Product and Quotient Rules

Preliminary Questions
1. Are the following statements true or false? If false, state the correct version.
(a) f g denotes the function whose value at x is f (g(x)).
(b) f /g denotes the function whose value at x is f (x)/g(x).
(c) The derivative
++ of the product is the product of the derivatives.
d +
(d) ( f g)++ = f (4)g" (4) − g(4) f " (4)
dx ++ x=4
d
(e) ( f g)+++ = f " (0)g(0) + f (0)g" (0)
dx x=0

SOLUTION
(a) False. The notation f g denotes the function whose value at x is f (x)g(x).
(b) True.
(c) False. The derivative
++ of a product f g is f " (x)g(x) + f (x)g" (x).
d +
(d) False. ( f g)++ = f " (4)g(4) + f (4)g" (4).
dx x=4

(e) True.
2. Find ( f /g)" (1) if f (1) = f " (1) = g(1) = 2 and g" (1) = 4.
d +
SOLUTION ( f /g)++ x=1 = [g(1) f " (1) − f (1)g" (1)]/g(1)2 = [2(2) − 2(4)]/22 = −1.
dx
3. Find g(1) if f (1) = 0, f " (1) = 2, and ( f g)" (1) = 10.
SOLUTION ( f g)" (1) = f (1)g" (1) + f " (1)g(1), so 10 = 0 · g" (1) + 2g(1) and g(1) = 5.
24 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

Exercises
In Exercises 1 6, use the Product Rule to calculate the derivative.

1. f (x) = x3 (2x2 + 1)
SOLUTION Let f (x) = x3 (2x2 + 1). Then
0 1
d 3 d
f " (x) = x (2x2 + 1) + x3 (2x2 + 1) = (3x2 )(2x2 + 1) + x3 (4x) = 10x4 + 3x2
dx dx

3. f (x) = x2 e x
SOLUTION Let f (x) = x2 e x . Then
0 1
d 2 x d
f " (x) = x e + x2 e x = 2xe x + x2 e x = e x (x2 + 2x)
dx dx

+
dh ++
5. + , h(s) = (s−1/2 + 2s)(7 − s−1 )
ds + s=4
SOLUTION Let h(s) = (s−1/2 + 2s)(7 − s−1 ). Then
0 1
dh d −1/2 ) * d
= (s + 2s) (7 − s−1 ) + s−1/2 + 2s (7 − s−1 )
ds ds ds
0 1
1 7 3
= − s−3/2 + 2 (7 − s−1 ) + (s−1/2 + 2s)(s−2 ) = − s−3/2 + s−5/2 + 14
2 2 2

Therefore,
+
dh ++ 7 3 871
++ = − (4)−3/2 + (4)−5/2 + 14 =
ds s=4 2 2 64

In Exercises 7 12, use the Quotient Rule to calculate the derivative.

x
7. f (x) =
x−2
SOLUTION Let f (x) = x
x−2
. Then
d
(x − 2) dx x − x dx
d
(x − 2) (x − 2) − x −2
f " (x) = = =
(x − 2) 2 (x − 2)2 (x − 2)2

+
dg ++ t2 + 1
9. + , g(t) =
dt +t=−2 t2 − 1
t2 + 1
SOLUTION Let g(t) = . Then
t2 − 1
d d
dg (t2 − 1) dt (t2 + 1) − (t2 + 1) dt (t2 − 1) (t2 − 1)(2t) − (t2 + 1)(2t) 4t
= = =− 2
dt (t − 1)
2 2 (t2 − 1)2 (t − 1)2
Therefore,
+
dg ++ 4(−2) 8
+ =− =
dt +t=−2 ((−2)2 − 1)2 9

1
11. g(x) =
1 + ex
1
SOLUTION Let g(x) = . Then
1 + ex

dg (1 + e x ) dx 1 − 1 dx (1 + e x ) (1 + e x )(0) − e x
d d
ex
= = =−
dx (1 + e x )2 (1 + e x )2 (1 + e x )2
 S E C T I O N 3.3 Product and Quotient Rules 25

In Exercises 13 18, calculate the derivative in two ways. First use the Product or Quotient Rule; then rewrite the function
algebraically and directly calculate the derivative.
13. f (x) = x3 x−3
SOLUTION Let f (x) = x3 x−3 . By the Product Rule,

f " (x) = (x3 )" x−3 + x3 (x−3 )" = 3x2 x−3 + x3 (−3x−4 ) = 3x−1 − 3x−1 = 0

Alternatively, simplifying first, we find f (x) = 1, so f " (x) = 0.

15. f (t) = (2t + 1)(t2 − 2)
SOLUTION Let f (t) = (2t + 1)(t2 − 2). Using the Product Rule,

f " (t) = (2t + 1)" (t2 − 2) + (2t + 1)(t2 − 2)" = 2(t2 − 2) + (2t + 1)(2t) = 6t2 + 2t − 4

Alternatively, multiplying out first, we find f (t) = 2t3 + t2 − 4t − 2. Therefore, f " (t) = 6t2 + 2t − 4.
t2 − 1
17. h(t) =
t−1
SOLUTION Let h(t) = t2 −1
t−1
. Using the Quotient Rule,

(t − 1)(t2 − 1)" − (t2 − 1)(t − 1)" (t − 1)(2t) − (t2 − 1)(1) t2 − 2t + 1

h" (t) = = = =1
(t − 1) 2 (t − 1)2 (t − 1)2
for t ! 1. Alternatively, simplifying first, we find for t ! 1,
(t − 1)(t + 1)
h(t) = =t+1
(t − 1)
Hence h" (t) = 1 for t ! 1.

In Exercises 19 40, calculate the derivative.

19. f (x) = (x3 + 5)(x3 + x + 1)
SOLUTION Let f (x) = (x3 + 5)(x3 + x + 1). Using the Product Rule,

f " (x) = (3x2 )(x3 + x + 1) + (x3 + 5)(3x2 + 1) = 6x5 + 4x3 + 18x2 + 5

+
dy ++ 1
21. ++ , y=
dx x=3 x + 10
SOLUTION Let y = x+10
1
. Using the Quotient Rule,
dy (x + 10)(0) − 1(1) 1
= =−
dx (x + 10)2 (x + 10)2
Therefore,
+
dy ++ 1 1
+ =− =−
dx + x=3 (3 + 10)2 169
√ √
23. f (x) = ( x + 1)( x − 1)
√ √
SOLUTION Let f (x) = ( x + 1)( x − 1). Multiplying through first yields f (x) = x − 1 for x ≥ 0. Therefore, f " (x) = 1
for x ≥ 0. If we carry out the Product Rule on f (x) = (x1/2 + 1)(x1/2 − 1), we find
0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
f " (x) = x−1/2 (x1/2 − 1) + (x1/2 + 1) (x−1/2 ) = − x−1/2 + + x−1/2 = 1
2 2 2 2 2 2
+
dy ++ x4 − 4
25. + , y=
dx + x=2 x2 − 5
x4 − 4
SOLUTION Let y = 2 . Using the Quotient Rule,
x −5
) *) * ) *
dy x2 − 5 4 x3 − x4 − 4 (2x) 2x5 − 20x3 + 8x
= ! 2 " = ! 2 "
dx x −5 2 x −5 2
Therefore,
+
dy ++ 2(2)5 − 20(2)3 + 8(2)
++ = = −80
dx x=2 (22 − 5)2
26 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

"
dz "" 1
27. " , z =4
dx " x=( 1x x3 + 1
SOLUTION Let z = 1
x3 +1
. Using the Quotient Rule,

dz (x3 + 1)(0) − 1(3x2 ) 3x2

= =− 3
dx (x + 1)
3 2 (x + 1)2

Therefore,
"
dz "" 3(1)2 3
" =− 3 =−
dx x=1
" (1 + 1)2 4

t
29. h(t) =
(t
) + 1)(t 2 + 1)

t t
SOLUTION Let h(t) = = . Using the Quotient Rule,
(t + 1)(t2 + 1) t3 + t2 + t + 1
# $ # $
t3 + t2 + t + 1 (1) − t 3t2 + 2t + 1 −2t3 − t2 + 1
h (t) =
"
%3 2 !2 = % !
t +t +t+1 t + t2 + t + 1 2
3

31. f (x) = x2 e2 % !
SOLUTION Let f (x) = x e . Then f " (x) = 2e2 x.
2 2

33. f (x) = (x + 3)(x − 1)(x − 5)

(
SOLUTION Let f (x) = (x + 3)(x − 1)(x − 5). Using the Product Rule inside the Product Rule with a first factor of
(x + 3) and a second factor of (x − 1)(x − 5), we find

f " (x) = (1)(x − 1)(x − 5) + (x + 3) ((1)(x − 5) + (x − 1)(1)) = 3x2 − 6x − 13

Alternatively,
# $
f (x) = (x + 3) x2 − 6x + 5 = x3 − 3x2 − 13x + 15

Therefore, f " (x) = 3x2 − 6x − 13.

ex
35. f (x)f =x
x+1
ex
SOLUTION Let f (x) = . Using the Quotient Rule,
x+1
(x + 1)e x − e x (1) e x (x + 1 − 1) xe x
f " (x) = = =
(x + 1) 2 (x + 1) 2 (x + 1)2

& 2 '& '

z − 4 z2 − 1
37. g(z) =
( ) Hint: Simplify first.
z−1 z+2
SOLUTION Let
& '& ' & '
z2 − 4 z2 − 1 (z + 2)(z − 2) (z + 1)(z − 1)
g(z) = = = (z − 2)(z + 1)
z−1 z+2 z−1 z+2

for z ! −2 and z ! 1. Then,

g" (z) = (z + 1)(1) + (z − 2)(1) = 2z − 1

& '
d xt − 4
39. (x constant)
dt t2 − x b) 2
d
SOLUTION Let f (t) = txt2 −4
−x
. Using the Quotient Rule,

(t2 − x)(x) − (xt − 4)(2t) xt2 − x2 − 2xt2 + 8t −xt2 + 8t − x2

f " (t) = = =
(t2 − x)2 (t2 − x)2 (t2 − x)2
 S E C T I O N 3.3 Product and Quotient Rules 27

In Exercises 41 44, calculate f " (x) in terms of P(x), Q(x), and R(x), assuming that P" (x) = Q(x), Q" (x) = −R(x), and
R" (x) = P(x).
41. f (x) = xR(x) + Q(x)
SOLUTION Let f (x) = xR(x) + Q(x). Using the Product Rule on the first term, we find

f " (x) = (1)R(x) + xR" (x) + Q" (x) = R(x) + xP(x) − R(x) = xP(x)

P(x)
43. f (x) = Q(x)
−x
= )
P(x)
SOLUTION Let f (x) = Q(x)
− x. Using the Quotient Rule on the first term, we find

Q(x)P" (x) − P(x)Q" (x) Q(x)Q(x) + P(x)R(x) P(x)R(x)

f " (x) = −1= −1=
(Q(x))2 (Q(x))2 (Q(x))2

In Exercises 45 48, calculate the derivative using the values:

f (4) f " (4) g(4) g" (4)

10 −2 5 −1

45. ( f g)" (4) and ( f /g)" (4)

g f " − f g"
SOLUTION Let h = f g and H = f /g. Then h" = f " g + f g" and H " = g2
. Finally,

h" (4) = f " (4)g(4) + f (4)g" (4) = (−2)(5) + (10)(−1) = −20

and
g(4) f " (4) − f (4)g" (4) (5)(−2) − (10)(−1)
H " (4) = = =0
(g(4))2 (5)2

47. G" (4)," where G(x) = (g(x))

2
2

SOLUTION Let G(x) = g(x)2 = g(x)g(x). Then G" (x) = g" (x)g(x) + g(x)g" (x) = 2g(x)g" (x), and

G" (4) = 2g(4)g" (4) = 2(5)(−1) = −10

In Exercises 49 and 50, a rectangle’s length L(t) and width W(t) (measured in inches) are varying in time (t, in minutes).
Determine A" (t) in each case. g( ) area increasing or decreasing at that time?
Is the
49. At t = 3, we have L(3) = 4, W(3) = 6, L" (3) = −4, and W " (3) = 5.
SOLUTION Because A(t) = L(t)W(t), it follows that A" (t) = L" (t)W(t) + L(t)W " (t). Then

A" (3) = L" (3)W(3) + L(3)W " (3) = (−4)(6) + 4(5) = −4 inches2 /minute

Because A" (3) is negative, the area is decreasing at t = 3.

51. Calculate F " (0), where
x9 + x8 + 4x5 − 7x
F(x) =
x4 − 3x2 + 2x + 1
Hint: Do not calculate F " (x). Instead, write F(x) = f (x)/g(x) and express F " (0) directly in terms of f (0), f " (0), g(0), g" (0).
SOLUTION Taking the hint, let

f (x) = x9 + x8 + 4x5 − 7x

and let

g(x) = x4 − 3x2 + 2x + 1
f (x)
Then F(x) = g(x)
. Now,

f " (x) = 9x8 + 8x7 + 20 x4 − 7 and g" (x) = 4x3 − 6x + 2

Moreover, f (0) = 0, f " (0) = −7, g(0) = 1, and g" (0) = 2.

Using the Quotient Rule,
g(0) f " (0) − f (0)g" (0) −7 − 0
F " (0) = = = −7
(g(0))2 1
28 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

d 2x
53. Use the Product Rule to calculate e .
dx
SOLUTION Note that e2x = e x · e x . Therefore% !

d 2x d x x
e = (e · e ) = e x · e x + e x · e x = 2e2x
dx dx

55. Plot f (x) = x/(x2 − 1) (in a suitably bounded viewing box). Use the plot to determine whether f " (x) is posi-
tive or negative on its domain {x : x ! ±1}. Then compute f " (x) and confirm your conclusion algebraically.
x
SOLUTION Let f (x) = 2 . The graph of f (x) is shown below. From this plot, we see that f (x) is decreasing on its
x −1
domain {x : x ! ±1}. Consequently, f " (x) must be negative. Using the quotient rule, we find

(x2 − 1)(1) − x(2x) x2 + 1

f " (x) = =− 2
(x2 − 1)2 (x − 1)2
which is negative for all x ! ±1.
y

x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−5

57. Find a > 0 such that the tangent line to the graph of

f (x) = x2 e−x at x = a

passes through the origin (Figure 5).

y

f (x) = x 2e−x

x
a

FIGURE 5

SOLUTION Let f (x) = x2 e−x . Then f (a) = a2 e−a ,

f " (x) = 2 xe−x + x2 (−e−x ) = (2x − x2 )e−x

f " (a) = (2a − a2 )e−a , and the equation of the tangent line to f at x = a is

y = f " (a)(x − a) + f (a) = (2a − a2 )e−a (x − a) + a2 e−a

For this line to pass through the origin, we must have

# $
0 = (2a − a2 )e−a (−a) + a2 e−a = e−a a2 − 2a2 + a3 = a2 e−a (a − 1)

Thus, a = 0 or a = 1. The only value a > 0 such that the tangent line to f (x) = x2 e−x passes through the origin is
therefore a = 1.
59. The revenue per month earned by the Couture clothing chain at time t is R(t) = N(t)S (t), where N(t) is the number of
’
stores and S (t) is average
"" revenue per store per month. Couture embarks on a two-part campaign: (A) to build new stores
at a rate
(a) of "
Cafive stores per
"" month, and (B) to use advertising to increase average revenue per store at a rate of $10,000 per
month. Assume that N(0) ""R=6 = 50 and S (0) = $150,000.
(a) Sho
(b) w "" if will
C that total revenue I is increase at thevrate
alue
"
dR
= 5S (t) + 10,000N(t)
dt
Note that the two terms in the Product Rule correspond to the separate effects of increasing the number of stores on the
one hand and the average revenue per store on the other.
 S E C T I O N 3.3 Product and Quotient Rules 29
"
dR ""
(b) Calculate "" .
dt t=0
(c) If Couture can implement only one leg (A or B) of its expansion at t = 0, which choice will grow revenue most
rapidly?
SOLUTION
(a) Given R(t) = N(t)S (t), it follows that
dR
= N " (t)S (t) + N(t)S " (t)
dt
We are told that N " (t) = 5 stores per month and S " (t) = 10,000 dollars per month. Therefore,
dR
= 5S (t) + 10,000N(t)
dt
(b) Using part (a) and the given values of N(0) and S (0), we find
"
dR ""
"" = 5(150,000) + 10,000(50) = 1,250,000
dt t=0
(c) From part (b), we see that of the two terms contributing to total revenue growth, the term 5S (0) is larger than the
term 10,000N(0). Thus, if only one leg of the campaign can be implemented, it should be part A: increase the number of
stores by 5 per month.

61. The curve y = 1/(x2 + 1) is called the witch of Agnesi (Figure 6) after the Italian mathematician Maria Agnesi (1718–
T
1799). This strange name is the result of a mistranslation of the Italian word la versiera, meaning “that which turns.”
f h wi (E
Find equations of the tangent lines at x = ±1.
e h R 2 / )C l dR
y
1

x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
FIGURE 6 The witch of Agnesi.

1 (x2 + 1)(0) − 1(2x) 2x

SOLUTION Let f (x) = . Then f "
(x) = = −% ! .
x2 + 1 (x2 + 1)2 x +1 2
2

• At x = −1, the tangent line is

1 1 1
y = f " (−1)(x + 1) + f (−1) = (x + 1) + = x + 1
2 2 2
• At x = 1, the tangent line is
1 1 1
y = f " (1)(x − 1) + f (1) = − (x − 1) + = − x + 1
2 2 2

63. Use the Product Rule to show that ( f 2 )" = 2 f f " .

# $"
SOLUTION Let g = f 2 = f f . Then g = f = ( f f )" = f " f + f f " = 2 f f " .
" 2

that ( f ) = and
ShowInsights
Further f . Challenges
65. Let f , g, h be differentiable functions. Show that ( f gh)" (x) is equal to
f " (x)g(x)h(x) + f (x)g" (x)h(x) + f (x)g(x)h" (x)
Hint: Write f gh as f (gh).
SOLUTION Let p = f gh. Then

p" = ( f gh)" = f " gh + f (g" h + gh" ) = f " gh + f g" h + f gh"

67. Derivative of the Reciprocal Use the limit definition to prove
& '
d 1 f " (x)
=− 2 1
dx f (x) f (x)
Hint: Show that the difference quotient for 1/ f (x) is equal to
f (x) − f (x + h)
h f ( x) f (x + h)
30 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

SOLUTION Let g(x) = 1

f (x)
We then compute the derivative of g(x) using the difference quotient:
.
& ' & '
g(x + h) − g(x) 1 1 1 1 f (x) − f (x + h)
g" (x) = lim = lim − = lim
h→0 h h→0 h f (x + h) f (x) h→0 h f (x) f (x + h)
& '& '
f (x + h) − f (x) 1
= − lim
h→0 h f (x) f (x + h)
We can apply the rule of products for limits. The first parenthetical expression is the difference quotient definition of
f " (x). The second can be evaluated at h = 0 to give ( f (x))
1
2 . Hence

& '
d 1 f " (x)
g (x) =
"
=− 2
dx f (x) f (x)

69. Use the limit definition of the derivative to prove the following special case of the Product Rule:
d
(x f ( x)) = f (x) + x f " (x)
dx
SOLUTION First note that because f (x) is differentiable, it is also continuous. It follows that
lim f (x + h) = f (x)
h→0

Now we tackle the derivative:

& '
d (x + h) f (x + h) − x f ( x) f (x + h) − f (x)
(x f ( x)) = lim = lim x + f (x + h)
dx h→0 h h→0 h
f (x + h) − f (x)
= x lim + lim f (x + h)
h→0 h h→0

= x f " (x) + f (x)

71. The Power Rule Revisited If you are familiar with proof by induction, use induction to prove the Power Rule for
all whole numbers n. Show that the Power Rule holds for n = 1; then write xn as x · xn−1 and use the Product Rule.
SOLUTION Let k be a positive integer. If k = 1, thenf xxk = x. Note that
−
d # 1$ d
x = (x) = 1 = 1x0
dx dx
Hence the Power Rule holds for k = 1. Assume it holds for k = n where n ≥ 2. Then for k = n + 1, we have
d # k$ d # n+1 $ d d d
x = x = (x · xn ) = x (xn ) + xn (x)
dx dx dx dx dx
= x · nxn−1 + xn · 1 = (n + 1)xn = kxk−1
Accordingly, the Power Rule holds for all positive integers by induction.
Exercises 72 and 73: A basic fact of algebra states that c is a root of a polynomial f if and only if f (x) = (x − c)g(x) for
some polynomial g. We say that c is a multiple root if f (x) = (x − c)2 h(x), where h is a polynomial.
73. Use Exercise 72 to determine whether c = −1 is a multiple root.
(a) x5 + 2x4 − 4x3 − 8x2 − x + 2
(b) x4 + x3 − 5x2 − 3x + 2
SOLUTION
(a) To show that −1 is a multiple root of
f (x) = x5 + 2x4 − 4x3 − 8x2 − x + 2
it suffices to check that f (−1) = f " (−1) = 0. We have f (−1) = −1 + 2 + 4 − 8 + 1 + 2 = 0 and
f " (x) = 5x4 + 8x3 − 12x2 − 16x − 1
f " (−1) = 5 − 8 − 12 + 16 − 1 = 0
(b) Let f (x) = x4 + x3 − 5x2 − 3x + 2. Then f " (x) = 4x3 + 3x2 − 10x − 3. Because
f (−1) = 1 − 1 − 5 + 3 + 2 = 0
but
f " (−1) = −4 + 3 + 10 − 3 = 6 ! 0
it follows that x = −1 is a root of f , but not a multiple root.
 S E C T I O N 3.4 Rates of Change 31

3.4 Rates of Change

Preliminary Questions
1. Which units might be used for each rate of change?
(a) Pressure (in atmospheres) in a water tank with respect to depth
(b) The rate of a chemical reaction (change in concentration with respect to time with concentration in moles per liter)
SOLUTION
(a) The rate of change of pressure with respect to depth might be measured in atmospheres/meter.
(b) The reaction rate of a chemical reaction might be measured in moles/(liter·hour).

2. Two trains travel from New Orleans to Memphis in 4 h. The first train travels at a constant velocity of 90 mph, but the
velocity of the second train varies. What was the second train’s average velocity during the trip?
SOLUTION Since both trains travel the same distance in the same amount of time, they have the same average velocity:
90 mph.
3. Discuss how it is possible to be speeding up with a velocity that is decreasing.
SOLUTION If the velocity of an object in motion is negative and decreasing, then the velocity is becoming more negative.
This means that the magnitude of the velocity is increasing. But the magnitude of the velocity is the speed of the object,
so the speed is increasing. Thus, if the velocity of an object in motion is negative and decreasing, then the object is
speeding up.
4. Sketch the graph of a function that has an average rate of change equal to zero over the interval [0, 1] but has instan-
taneous rates of change at 0 and 1 that are positive.
SOLUTION Consider the graph of y = f (x) shown in the figure below. Because f (0) = f (1), the average rate of change
of f over the interval [0, 1] is zero. On the other hand, the tangent lines to the graph of f at x = 0 and x = 1 are positive,
so the instantneous rates of change at 0 and 1 are positive.

0.8

x
0.4 0.8

20.4

Exercises
In Exercises 1 8, find the rate of change.

1. Area of a square with respect to its side s when s = 5

SOLUTION Let the area be A = f (s) = s2 . Then the rate of change of A with respect to s is d/ds(s2 ) = 2s. When s = 5,
the area changes at a rate of 10 square units per unit increase. (Draw a 5 × 5 square on graph paper and trace the area
added by increasing each side length by 1, excluding the corner, to see what this means.)
√
3. Cube root 3 x with respect to x when x = 1, 8, 27
√3
SOLUTION Let f (x) = x. Writing f (x) = x1/3 , we see the rate of change of f (x) with respect to x is given by
f " (x) = 13 x−2/3 . The requested rates of change are given in the table that follows:

c ROC of f (x) with respect to x at x = c.

1 f " (1) = 13 (1) = 1
3

8 f " (8) = 13 (8−2/3 ) = 13 ( 41 ) = 1

12

27 f " (27) = 13 (27−2/3 ) = 13 ( 91 ) = 1

27

5. The diameter of a circle with respect to radius

SOLUTION The relationship between the diameter d of a circle and its radius r is d = 2r. The rate of change of the
diameter with respect to the radius is then d" = 2.
32 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

7. Volume V of a cylinder with respect to radius if the height is equal

2
to the radius
SOLUTION The volume of the cylinder is V = πr2 h = πr3 . Thus dV/dr = 3πr2 .

In Exercises 9 11, refer to Figure 11, the graph of distance s from the origin as a function of time
√ for a car trip.
S n m/ ) i sp c i t (i lvi ) 2 T
9. Find the average velocity over each interval.
(a) [0, 0.5] (b) [0.5, 1] (c) [1, 1.5] (d) [1, 2]
SOLUTION
(a) The average velocity over the interval [0, 0.5] is
50 − 0
= 100 km/hour
0.5 − 0
(b) The average velocity over the interval [0.5, 1] is
100 − 50
= 100 km/hour
1 − 0.5
(c) The average velocity over the interval [1, 1.5] is
100 − 100
= 0 km/hour
1.5 − 1
(d) The average velocity over the interval [1, 2] is
50 − 100
= −50 km/hour
2−1

11. Match the descriptions (i)–(iii) with the intervals (a)–(c) in Figure 11.
(i) Velocity increasing
(ii) Velocity decreasing
(iii) Velocity negative
(a) [0, 0.5]
(b) [2.5, 3]
(c) [1.5, 2]

Distance (km)

150

100

50

t (h)
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
FIGURE 11 Distance from the origin versus time for a car trip.

SOLUTION
(a) (i) The distance curve is increasing, and is also bending upward, so that distance is increasing at an increasing rate.
(b) (ii) Over the interval [2.5, 3], the distance curve is flattening, showing that the car is slowing down; that is, the
velocity is decreasing.
(c) (iii) The distance curve is decreasing, so the tangent line has negative slope; this means the velocity is negative.

Exercises 12 and 13 refer to the data in Example 1. Approximate the derivative with the symmetric difference quotient
T (t + 20) − T (t − 20)
(SDQ) approximation: T " (t) ≈ .
40
13. At what t does the SDQ approximation give the smallest (i.e., closest to 0) rate of change of temperature? What is
the rate of change?
SOLUTION From the values in the table in the solution to Exercise 12, the SDQ approximation gives the smallest (i.e.,
) h h SD i f o s o re? W h
closest to 0) rate of change at t = 180 minutes and at t = 200 minutes. The rate of change at both of these times is
◦
approximately −0.10 C/min.

Exercises 14 16, refer to the four graphs of s as a function of t in Figure 7.

15. Match each situation with the graph that best represents it.
(a) Rocky slowed down his car as it approached the moose in the road. The distance from the car to the moose is s and
the time since he spotted the moose is t.
 S E C T I O N 3.4 Rates of Change 33

(b) The rocket’s speed increased after liftoff until the fuel was used up. The distance from the rocket to the launchpad is
s and the time since liftoff is t.
(c) The increase in college costs slowed for the fourth year in a row. The cost of college is s and the time since the start
of the 4-year period is t.
SOLUTION
(a) Because the car is getting closer to the moose, the graph of s should be decreasing. Moreover, because the car is
slowing down, the slope of the graph of s should be getting closer to zero. This matches the graph in Figure 7(C).
(b) Because the rocket is getting farther from the launchpad, the graph of s should be increasing. Moreover, because the
speed of the rocket is increasing, the slope of the graph of s should be increasing. This matches the graph in Figure 7(A).
(c) Because college costs are increasing, the graph of s should be increasing. Moreover, because the rate of increase in
college costs is slowing down, the slope of the graph of s should be decreasing. This matches the graph in Figure 7(B).

17. Sketch a graph of velocity as a function of time for the shuttle train in Example 6.
SOLUTION Over the interval [0, 2], the velocity ver the is positi
5 yeve and
of increasing,
career b while
fro over the to interv
thal [2, 4], the
of velocity
is positi
wenve and wn decreasing
Dusty’s ba Over the
ver interv s [4, 6],
is al th the
tim velocity
since t is zero.
gin Finally is t al [6, 8], the velocity is
of , overa the interv
negative
( Iand decreasing, a while
a h over
t the intervalt n[8, 10],
to the
s velocity untisl negative
i hit th andl increasing.
Th d ta Aepossible t graph
t e of the
n
velocity
the as lla function of time
i is shown h in rthet figure
te below.i
V

t
2 4 6 8 10

19. Fred X has to make a book delivery from his warehouse, 15 mi north of the city, to the Amazing Book Store 10 mi
t
south of the city. Traffic is usually congested within 5 mi of the city. He leaves at noon, traveling due south through the
city, and arrives the store at 12:50. After 15 min at the store, he makes the return trip north to his warehouse, arriving at
2:00. Let s represent the distance from the warehouse in miles and t represent time in minutes since noon. Make sketches
of the graphs of s and s" as functions of t for Fred’s trip.
SOLUTION Possible graphs of s and s" for Fred’s trip are shown below.

s s9

30

20
120
t
10 40 80

t
40 80 120

21. The velocity (in centimeters per second) of blood molecules flowing through a capillary of radius 0.008 cm is
v = 6.4 × 10−8 − 0.001r2 , where r is the distance from the molecule to the center of the capillary. Find the rate of change
p n th
of velocity with respect to r when r = 0.004 cm.
turned a
SOLUTION The rate
in a of
m change
dec of the
re velocityf of the
th blood
grea molecules th v" (r) =A−s0.002
famine of is -ohen r = 0.004 cm, this
w er. W resurate
−6
is −8i × 10 1/s.
23. Use Figure 14 to estimate dT /dh at h = 30 and 70, where T is atmospheric temperature (in degrees Celsius) and h is
i ue p ays l i
altitude (in kilometers). Where is dT /dh equal to zero?

T (°C)

250
Thermosphere
Troposphere

Stratosphere

Mesosphere

200
150
100
50
0
−50
−100
h (km)
10 50 100 150
FIGURE 14 Atmospheric temperature versus altitude.
34 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

SOLUTION At h = 30 km, the graph of atmospheric temperature appears to be linear passing through the points
(23, −50) and (40, 0). The slope of this segment of the graph is then

0 − (−50) 50
= = 2.94
40 − 23 17
so
"
dT ""
"" ≈ 2.94◦ C/km
dh h=30

At h = 70 km, the graph of atmospheric temperature appears to be linear passing through the points (58, 0) and (88, −100).
The slope of this segment of the graph is then

−100 − 0 −100
= = −3.33
88 − 58 30
so
"
dT ""
"" ≈ −3.33◦ C/km
dh h=70
dT
dh
= 0 at those points where the tangent line on the graph is horizontal. This appears to happen over the interval [13, 23],
and near the points h = 50 and h = 90.

25. Calculate the rate of change of escape velocity vesc = (2.82 × 107 )r−1/2 m/s with respect to distance r from the center
of the earth.

of he e
SOLUTION The rate that escape velocity changes is v"esc (r) = −1.41 × 107 r−3/2 .

27. A particle moving along a line has position s(t) = t4 − 18t2 m at time t seconds. At which times does the particle
pass through the origin? At which times is the particle instantaneously motionless (i.e., it has zero velocity)?

SOLUTION The particle passes through the origin when s(t) = t4 − 18t2 = t2 (t2 − 18) = 0. This happens when t = 0
√
seconds and when t = 3 2 ≈ 4.24 seconds. With s(t) = t4 − 18t2 , it follows that v(t) = s" (t) = 4t3 − 36t = 4t(t2 − 9). The
particle is therefore instantaneously motionless when t = 0 seconds and when t = 3 seconds.

29. A projectile is launched in the air from the ground with an initial velocity v0 = 60 m/s. What is the maximum height
that the projectile reaches? (Compare your result with Exercise 37 in Section 2.5, where we considered maximum height
when air resistance is included and we investigated the result of letting the air resistance go to 0.)

SOLUTION With the launch taking place from the ground, so that s0 = 0, and an initial velocity of v0 = 60 m/s, the
height and velocity of the projectile are given by

s(t) = 60t − 4.9t2 and v(t) = 60 − 9.8t

Maximum height is attained when the velocity is zero, so we solve

60
60 − 9.8t = 0 to obtain t=
9.8

The maximum height reached by the projectile is then

& ' & ' & '2
60 60 60
s = 60 − 4.9 ≈ 183.67 m
9.8 9.8 9.8

This value is in agreement with the estimate obtained in Exercise 37 from Section 2.5.

31. A ball tossed in the air vertically from ground level returns to earth 4 s later. Find the initial velocity and maximum
height of the ball.

SOLUTION Galileo’s formula gives s(t) = s0 + v0 t − 12 gt2 = v0 t − 4.9t2 , where the time t is in seconds (s) and the height
s is in meters (m). When the ball hits the ground after 4 seconds its height is 0. Solve 0 = s(4) = 4v0 − 4.9(4)2 to obtain
v0 = 19.6 m/s. The ball reaches its maximum height when s" (t) = 0, that is, when 19.6 − 9.8t = 0, or t = 2 s. At this
time, t = 2 s,

1
s(2) = 0 + 19.6(2) − (9.8)(4) = 19.6 m
2
 S E C T I O N 3.4 Rates of Change 35

33. Show that for an object falling according to Galileo’s formula, the average velocity over any time interval [t1 , t2 ] is
equal to the average of the instantaneous velocities at t1 and t2 .
SOLUTION The simplest way to proceed is to compute both values and show that they are equal. The average velocity
over [t1 , t2 ] is
g
s(t2 ) − s(t1 ) (s0 + v0 t2 − 2 gt22 ) − (s0 + v0 t1 − 2 gt12 ) v0 (t2 − t1 ) + 2 (t2 2 − t1 2 )
1 1
= =
t2 − t1 t2 − t 1 t2 − t 1
v0 (t2 − t1 ) g g
= − (t2 + t1 ) = v0 − (t2 + t1 )
t2 − t1 2 2
whereas the average of the instantaneous velocities at the beginning and end of [t1 , t2 ] is
s" (t1 ) + s" (t2 ) 1 # $ 1 g g
= (v0 − gt1 ) + (v0 − gt2 ) = (2v0 ) − (t2 + t1 ) = v0 − (t2 + t1 )
2 2 2 2 2
The two quantities are the same.
35. By Faraday’s Law, if a conducting wire of length " meters moves at velocity v m/s perpendicular to a magnetic field
of strength B (in teslas), a voltage of size V = −B"v is induced in the wire. Assume that B = 2 and " = 0.5.
(a) Calculate dV/dv.
(b) Find the rate of change of V with respect to time t if v(t) = 4t + 9.
i
SOLUTION
(a) Assuming that B = 2 and l = 0.5, V = −2(0.5)v = −v. Therefore,
dV
= −1
dv
(b) If v = 4t + 9, then V = −2(0.5)(4t + 9) = −(4t + 9). Therefore, dV
dt
= −4.

37. Ethan V c that with

oltag finds I h hours R in he
resi of tutoring, ci is able Ohm’s S (h) percent
ar tor answerb correctly V = Rofwthe problems
the uni ona a
voger: S (3) coor S (30)?
" "
mathvexam.a Which w a ould
ohyou eAxpect to be lar wi Explain.
(a) h The
SOLUTION of I wit the
vera derirvative S " (h) measures res rate at R or thei percent
to which R = 8 t Ethan
al of problems R = 8answers
1 correctly changes
with respecthe to
ra theo number
changeof I wit ofr tutoring
o hours R receivRes.
to he
One
(c) possible of ch of S (h) iswshown
The rate graph r s in the I whe belo
to figure I =w1 on5 the left. This graph indicates that in the early hours of
working with the tutor, Ethan makes rapid progress in learning the material but eventually approaches either the limit of
his ability to learn the material or the maximum possible score on the exam. In this scenario, S " (3) would be larger than
S " (30).
An alternative graph of S (h) is shown below on the right. Here, in the early hours of working with the tutor little
progress is made (perhaps the tutor is assessing how much Ethan already knows, his learning style, his personality, etc.).
This is followed by a period of rapid improvement and finally a leveling off as Ethan reaches his maximum score. In this
scenario, S " (3) and S " (30) might be roughly equal.
Percentage correct

Percentage correct

Hours of tutoring Hours of tutoring

39. To determine√ drug dosages, doctors estimate a person’s body surface area (BSA) (in meters squared) using the
(
formula BSA = hm/60, where h is the height in centimeters and m the mass in kilograms. Calculate the rate of change
of BSA with respect to mass for a person of constant height h = 180. What is this rate at m = 70 and m = 80? Express
your result in the correct units. Does BSA increase more rapidly with respect to mass at lower or higher body mass?
√ √
SOLUTION Assuming constant height h = 180 cm, let f (m) = hm/60 = 105 m be the formula for body surface area
in terms of weight. The rate of change of BSA with respect to mass is
√ & ' √
5 1 −1/2 5
f (m) =
"
m = √
10 2 20 m
If m = 70 kg, this is
√√
5 14 m2
f " (70) = √ = ≈ 0.0133631
20 70 280 kg
36 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

If m = 80 kg,
√
5 1 1 m2
f " (80) =
√ = √ =
20 80 20 16 80 kg
√
Because the rate of change of BSA depends on 1/ m, it is clear that BSA increases more rapidly at lower body mass.
41. The tangent lines to the graph of f (x) = x2 grow steeper as x increases. At what rate do the slopes of the tangent
)
lines increase?
SOLUTION Let f (x) = x2 . The slopes s of the tangent lines are given by s = f " (x) = 2x. The rate at which these slopes
are increasing is ds/dx = 2.
43. The dollar cost of producing x bagels is given by the function C(x) = 300 + 0.25x − 0.5(x/1000)3 . Determine the
i
cost of producing 2000 bagels and estimate the cost of the 2001st bagel. Compare your estimate with the actual cost of
the 2001st bagel.
SOLUTION Expanding the power of 3 yields

C(x) = 300 + 0.25x − 5 × 10−10 x3

This allows us to get the derivative C " (x) = 0.25 − 1.5 × 10−9 x2 . The cost of producing 2000 bagels is

C(2000) = 300 + 0.25(2000) − 0.5(2000/1000)3 = 796

dollars. The cost of the 2001st bagel is, by definition, C(2001) − C(2000). By the derivative estimate, C(2001) −
C(2000) ≈ C " (2000)(1), so the cost of the 2001st bagel is approximately

C " (2000) = .25 − 1.5 × 10−9 (20002 ) = $0.244

C(2001) = 796.244, so the exact cost of the 2001st bagel is indistinguishable from the estimated cost. The function is
very nearly linear at this point.

45. According
ose the dol to Ste
cosvens’
of s Law in psychology is C(ved
video ca , the percei ) magnitude
500x 0 of a stimulus
2
+ 0−8 is3 proportional (approxi-
mately) to a power of the actual intensity I of the stimulus. Experiments show that the perceived brightness B of a light
satisfies B = kI 2/3 , where I is the light intensity, whereas the perceived heaviness H of a weight W satisfies H = kW 3/2
(k is a constant that is different in the two cases). Compute dB/dI and dH/dW and state whether they are increasing or
decreasing functions. Then explain the following statements:
(a) An increase in light intensity is felt more strongly when I is small than when I is large.
(b) An increase in load W is felt more strongly when W is large than when W is small.
SOLUTION
2k −1/3 2k
(a) dB/dI = I = 1/3
3 3I
As I increases, dB/dI shrinks, so that the rate of change of perceived intensity decreases as the actual intensity
increases. Increased light intensity has a diminished return in perceived intensity. A sketch of B against I is shown: See
that the height of the graph increases more slowly as you move to the right.
y

(b) dH/dW = 3k2 W 1/2 . As W increases, dH/dW increases as well, so that the rate of change of perceived weight increases
as weight increases. A sketch of H against W is shown: See that the graph becomes steeper as you move to the right.
y

x
 S E C T I O N 3.4 Rates of Change 37

Further Insights and Challenges

Exercises 47 49: The Lorenz curve y = F(r) is used by economists to study income distribution in a given country (see
Figure 15). By definition, F(r) is the fraction of the total income that goes to the bottom rth part of the population, where
0 ≤ r ≤ 1. For example, if F(0.4) = 0.245, then the bottom 40% of households receive 24.5% of the total income. Note
that F(0) = 0 and F(1) = 1.

F(r)
1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

r
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
(A) Lorenz curve for the United States
in 2010

F(r)
1.0

0.8
L1
L2
0.6

0.4
P

0.2 Q

r
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
(B) Two Lorenz curves: The tangent
lines at P and Q have slope 1.
FIGURE 15

47. Our goal is to find an interpretation for F " (r). The average income for a group of households is the total
income going to the group divided by the number of households in the group. The national average income is A = T/N,
where N is the total number of households and T is the total income earned by the entire population.
(a) Show that the average income among households in the bottom rth part is equal to (F(r)/r)A.
(b) Show more generally that the average income of households belonging to an interval [r, r + ∆r] is equal to
& '
F(r + ∆r) − F(r)
A
∆r

(c) Let 0 ≤ r ≤ 1. A household belongs to the 100rth percentile if its income is greater than or equal to the income of
100r % of all households. Pass to the limit as ∆r → 0 in (b) to derive the following interpretation: A household in the
100rth percentile has income F " (r)A. In particular, a household in the 100rth percentile receives more than the national
average if F " (r) > 1 and less if F " (r) < 1.
(d) For the Lorenz curves L1 and L2 in Figure 15(B), what percentage of households have above-average income?
SOLUTION
(a) The total income among households in the bottom rth part is F(r)T and there are rN households in this part of the
population. Thus, the average income among households in the bottom rth part is equal to
F(r)T F(r) T F(r)
= · = A
rN r N r
(b) Consider the interval [r, r + ∆r]. The total income among households between the bottom rth part and the bottom
r + ∆rth part is F(r + ∆r)T − F(r)T . Moreover, the number of households covered by this interval is (r + ∆r)N − rN =
∆rN. Thus, the average income of households belonging to an interval [r, r + ∆r] is equal to
F(r + ∆r)T − F(r)T F(r + ∆r) − F(r) T F(r + ∆r) − F(r)
= · = A
∆rN ∆r N ∆r
38 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

(c) Take the result from part (b) and let ∆r → 0. Because

F(r + ∆r) − F(r)

lim = F " (r)
∆r→0 ∆r
we find that a household in the 100rth percentile has income F " (r)A.
(d) The point P in Figure 15(B) has an r-coordinate of 0.6, while the point Q has an r-coordinate of roughly 0.75. Thus,
on curve L1 , 40% of households have F " (r) > 1 and therefore have above-average income. On curve L2 , roughly 25% of
households have above-average income.

49. Use Exercise 47(c) to prove:

(a) F " (r) is an increasing function of r.
(b) Income is distributed equally (all households have the same income) if and only if F(r) = r for 0 ≤ r ≤ 1.
SOLUTION
(a) Recall from Exercise 47 (c) that F " (r)A is the income of a household in the 100rth percentile. Suppose 0 ≤ r1 < r2 ≤
1. Because r2 > r1 , a household in the 100r2 th percentile must have income at least as large as a household in the 100r1 th
percentile. Thus, F " (r2 )A ≥ F " (r1 )A, or F " (r2 ) ≥ F " (r1 ). This implies F " (r) is an increasing function of r.
(b) If F(r) = r for 0 ≤ r ≤ 1, then F " (r) = 1 and households in all percentiles have income equal to the national average;
t
that is, income is distributed equally. Alternately, if income is distributed equally (all households have the same income),
then F (r) = 1 for 0 ≤ r ≤ 1. Thus, F must be a linear function in r with slope 1. Moreover, the condition F(0) = 0
"

requires the F intercept of the line to be 0. Hence, F(r) = 1 · r + 0 = r.

In Exercises 50 and 51, the average cost per unit at production level x is defined as Cavg (x) = C(x)/x, where C(x) is the
cost of producing x units. Average cost is a measure of the efficiency of the production process.

51. Show that Cavg (x) is equal to the slope of the line through the origin and the point (x, C(x)) on the graph of y = C(x).
Using this interpretation, determine whether average cost or marginal( cost
) is greater75at points
+ 374 , wFigure
A, B, C, D in ere 17.
is
0
C

B C
A

x
Production level
FIGURE 17 Graph of y = C(x).

SOLUTION By definition, the slope of the line through the origin and (x, C(x)), that is, between (0, 0) and (x, C(x)) is

C(x) − 0 C(x)
= = Cav
x−0 x
At point A, average cost is greater than marginal cost, as the line from the origin to A is steeper than the curve at this
point (we see this because the line, tracing from the origin, crosses the curve from below). At point B, the average cost is
still greater than the marginal cost. At the point C, the average cost and the marginal cost are nearly the same, since the
tangent line and the line from the origin are nearly the same. The line from the origin to D crosses the cost curve from
above, and so is less steep than the tangent line to the curve at D; the average cost at this point is less than the marginal
cost.

3.5 Higher Derivatives

Preliminary Questions
1. For each headline, rephrase as a statement about first and second derivatives and sketch a possible graph.

• “Stocks Go Higher, Though the Pace of Their Gains Slows”

• “Recent Rains Slow Roland Reservoir Water Level Drop”
• “Asteroid Approaching Earth at Rapidly Increasing Rate!!”
 S E C T I O N 3.5 Higher Derivatives 39

SOLUTION

• Because stocks are going higher, stock prices are increasing and the first derivative of stock prices must therefore
be positive. On the other hand, because the pace of gains is slowing, the second derivative of stock prices must be
negative.

Stock price

Time

• Because the water level is dropping, the water level is decreasing and the first derivative of the water level must
therefore be negative. On the other hand, because the drop in water level is being slowed by the recent rains (that
is, the rate of decrease in the water level is getting closer to zero), the second derivative of the water level must be
positive.

Water level

Time

• Because the asteroid is approaching Earth, the distance between the asteroid and Earth is decreasing and the first
derivative of the distance must therefore be negative. On the other hand, because the rate at which the asteroid is
approaching Earth is increasing (that is, the rate of decrease in the distance is becoming more negative), the second
derivative of the water level must also be negative.
Distance

Time

2. Sketch a graph of position as a function of time for an object that is slowing down and has positive acceleration.

SOLUTION Because the object is slowing down but has positive acceleration, the velocity of the object must be negative.
Thus, the graph of position as a function of time should be decreasing and bending upward.

3. Sketch a graph of position as a function of time for an object that is speeding up and has negative acceleration.

SOLUTION Because the object is speeding up but has negative acceleration, the velocity of the object must be negative.
Thus, the graph of position as a function of time should be decreasing and bending downward.

t
40 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

4. True or false? The third derivative of position with respect to time is zero for an object falling to Earth under the
influence of gravity. Explain.
SOLUTION This statement is true. The acceleration of an object falling to earth under the influence of gravity is constant;
hence, the second derivative of position with respect to time is constant. Because the third derivative is just the derivative
of the second derivative and the derivative of a constant is zero, it follows that the third derivative is zero.
5. Which type of polynomial satisfies f """ (x) = 0 for all x?
SOLUTION The third derivative of all quadratic polynomials (polynomials of the form ax2 + bx + c for some constants
a, b and c) is equal to 0 for all x.
6. What is the millionth derivative of f (x) = e x ?
SOLUTION Every derivative of f (x) = e x is e x .
7. What are the seventh and eighth derivatives of f (x) = x7 ?
SOLUTION Let f (x) = x7 . Then

f " (x) = 7x6 , f "" (x) = 42x5 , f """ (x) = 210x4 , f (4) (x) = 840x3 , f (5) (x) = 2520x2 , and f (6) (x) = 5040x

Finally,

f (7) (x) = 5040 and f (8) (x) = 0

Exercises
In Exercises 1 16, calculate y"" and y""" .

1. y = 14x2
SOLUTION Let y = 14x2 . Then y" = 28x, y"" = 28, and y""" = 0.
3. y = x4 − 25x2 + 2x
SOLUTION Let y = x4 − 25x2 + 2x. Then y" = 4x3 − 50x + 2, y"" = 12x2 − 50, and y""" = 24x.
4
5. y = =πr43
3
SOLUTION Let y = 43 πr3 . Then y" = 4πr2 , y"" = 8πr, and y""" = 8π.
7. y = 20t4/5 − 6t2/3
SOLUTION Let y = 20t4/5 − 6t2/3 . Then y" = 16t−1/5 − 4t−1/3 , y"" = − 165 t−6/5 + 43 t−4/3 , and y""" = 25
t
96 −11/15
− t .
16 −7/3
9

4
9. y = z −
z
SOLUTION Let y = z − 4z−1 . Then y" = 1 + 4z−2 , y"" = −8z−3 , and y""" = 24z−4 .
11. y = θ2 (2θ + 7)
SOLUTION Let y = θ2 (2θ + 7) = 2θ3 + 7θ2 . Then y" = 6θ2 + 14θ, y"" = 12θ + 14, and y""" = 12.
x−4
13. y =
x
SOLUTION Let y = x−4
x
= 1 − 4x−1 . Then y" = 4x−2 , y"" = −8x−3 , and y""" = 24x−4 .
15. y = x5 e x
SOLUTION Letx y = x5 e x . Then

y" = 5x4 e x + x5 e x = (x5 + 5x4 )e x

y"" = (5x4 + 20x3 )e x + (x5 + 5x4 )e x = (x5 + 10x4 + 20x3 )e x
y""" = (5x4 + 40x3 + 60x2 )e x + (x5 + 10x4 + 20x3 )e x = (x5 + 15x4 + 60x3 + 60x2 )e x

In Exercises 17
x 26, calculate the derivative indicated.

17. f (4) (1), f (x) = x4

SOLUTION Let f (x) = x4 . Then f " (x) = 4x3 , f "" (x) = 12x2 , f """ (x) = 24x, and f (4) (x) = 24. Thus f (4) (1) = 24.
 S E C T I O N 3.5 Higher Derivatives 41

"
d2 y ""
19. " (, )y = g(
4t−)3 + −4
3t2
dt2 "t=1
dy
= −12t−4 + 6t and ddt2y = 48t−5 + 6. Hence
2
SOLUTION Let y = 4t−3 + 3t2 . Then dt
"
d2 y """ −5
" = 48(1) + 6 = 54
dt2 "t=1

"
d4 x "" "
21. " ", x = t−3/4
dt4 "t=16"""
Let x(t) = t−3/4 . Then dx
= − 43 t−7/4 , ddt2x = 16 t
21 −11/4 d x
t−15/4 , and d4 x
t
2 3
SOLUTION dt
, dt3 = − 231
64 dt4
= 3465 −19/4
256
. Thus
"
d4 x """ 3465 −19/4 3465
" = 16 =
dt t=16
4 " 256 134217728

23. f """ (−3),f (x) = 4e x − x3

(4 (
x
SOLUTION Let f (x) = 4e − x . Then f " (x) = 4e x − 3x2 , f "" (x) = 4e x − 6x, f """ (x) = 4e x − 6, and f """ (−3) = 4e−3 − 6.
3

√
25. h"" (1), h(w) = wew
√
SOLUTION Let h(w) = 1wew = w1/2 ew . Then
& ' & '
1 1
h" (w) = w−1/2 ew + w1/2 ew = w1/2 + w−1/2 ew
2 2
and
& ' & ' & '
1 −1/2 1 −3/2 w 1 1
h"" (w) = w − w e + w1/2 + w−1/2 ew = w1/2 + w−1/2 − w−3/2 ew
2 4 2 4
7
Thus, h"" (1) = e.
4
27. Calculate y(k) (0) for 0 ≤ k ≤ 5, where y = x4 + ax3 + bx2 + cx + d (with a, b, c, d the constants).

+ 1power, constant multiple, and sum rules at each stage, we get (note y is y by convention):
(0)
SOLUTION Applying sthe

k y(k)
0 x4 + ax3 + bx2 + cx + d
1 4x3 + 3ax2 + 2bx + c
2 12x2 + 6ax + 2b
3 24x + 6a
4 24
5 0

from which we get y(0) (0) = d, y(1) (0) = c, y(2) (0) = 2b, y(3) (0) = 6a, y(4) (0) = 24, and y(5) (0) = 0.
d6 −1
29. Use the result
of t in Example
followin 3sto find x=.
dx6
SOLUTION With the launch taking place from the ground, so that s0 = 0, and an initial velocity of v0 = 60 m/s, the
6
height and velocity of the projectile are given by

s(t) = 60t − 4.9t2 and v(t) = 60 − 9.8t.

Maximum height is attained when the velocity is zero, so we solve

60
60 − 9.8t = 0 to obtain t= .
9.8
The maximum height reached by the projectile is then
& ' & ' & '2
60 60 60
s = 60 − 4.9 ≈ 183.67 m.
9.8 9.8 9.8
This value is in agreement with the estimate obtained in Exercise 37 from Section 2.5.
42 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

In Exercises 31 36, find a general formula for f (n) (x).

31. f (x) = x−2

SOLUTION f " (x) = −2x−3 , f "" (x) = 6x−4 , f """ (x) = −24x−5 , f (4) (x) = 5 · 24x−6 , . . . . From this we can conclude that the
nth derivative can be written as f (n) (x) = (−1)n (n + 1)!x−(n+2) .

33. f (x) = x−1/2

SOLUTION f " (x) = 2

x .
−1 −3/2
We will avoid simplifying numerators and denominators to find the pattern:

−3 −1 −5/2 3×1
f "" (x) = x = (−1)2 2 x−5/2
2 2 2
5 3 × 1 5 × 3 × 1 −7/2
f """ (x) = − x−7/2 = (−1)3 x
2 2 2 23
..
.
(2n − 1) × (2n − 3) × . . . × 1 −(2n+1)/2
f (n) (x) = (−1)n x
2n

35. f (x) = xe−x

SOLUTION Let f (x) = xe−x . Then

f " (x) = e−x + x(−e−x ) = (1 − x)e−x = −(x − 1)e−x

f "" (x) = −e−x + (1 − x)(−e−x ) = (x − 2)e−x
f """ (x) = e−x + (x − 2)(−e−x ) = (3 − x)e−x = −(x − 3)e−x

From this we conclude that the nth derivative can be written as f (n) (x) = (−1)n (x − n)e−x .

37. (a) Find the acceleration at time t = 5 min of a helicopter whose height is s(t) = 300t − 4t3 m.
(b) Plot the acceleration s"" for 0 ≤ t ≤ 6. How does this graph show that the helicopter is slowing down during this time
interval?

SOLUTION
(a) Let s(t) = 300t − 4t3 , with t in minutes and s in meters. The velocity is v(t) = s" (t) = 300 − 12t2 and acceleration is
a(t) = s"" (t) = −24t. Thus a(5) = −120 m/min2 .
(b) The acceleration of the helicopter for 0 ≤ t ≤ 6 is shown in the figure below. As the acceleration of the helicopter is
negative, the velocity of the helicopter must be decreasing. The velocity, v(t) = 300 − 12t2 = 12(25 − t2 ), is positive for
0 ≤ t < 5 and negative for t > 5. Thus, the helicopter is slowing down for 0 ≤ t < 5 and speeding up for 5 ≤ t ≤ 6.

x
−20 1 2 3 4 5 6
−40
−60
−80
−100
−120
−140

39. Figure 6 shows f , f " , and f "" . Determine which is which.

y y y

x x x
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3

(A) (B) (C)

FIGURE 6

SOLUTION (a) f "" (b) f " (c) f

The tangent line to (c) is horizontal at x = 1 and x = 3, where (b) has roots. The tangent line to (b) is horizontal at
x = 2 and x = 0, where (a) has roots.
 S E C T I O N 3.5 Higher Derivatives 43

41. Figure 8 shows the graph of the position s of an object as a function of time t. Determine the intervals on which the
acceleration is positive.
s

t
10 20 30 40
Time
FIGURE 8

SOLUTION Roughly from time 10 to time 20 and from time 30 to time 40. The acceleration is positive over the same
intervals over which the graph is bending upward.
43. Find all values of n such that y = xn satisfies

x2 y"" − 2xy" = 4y

SOLUTION Let y = xn . Then y" = nxn−1 , y"" = n(n − 1)xn−2 , and

x2 y"" − 2xy" = n(n − 1)xn − 2nxn

In order for this last expression to be equal to 4y = 4xn , we must have

n(n − 1) − 2n = 4 or n2 − 3n − 4 = (n − 4)(n + 1) = 0

Thus, y = xn satisfies the equation x2 y"" − 2xy" = 4y for n = 4 and n = −1.

45. According to one model that takes into account air resistance, the acceleration a(t) (in m/s2 ) of a skydiver of mass m
ll
in free-fall satisfies
k
a(t) = −y9"".8−+1 v=(t0)2
m
where v(t) is velocity (negative since the object is falling) and k is a constant. Suppose that m = 75 kg and k = 0.24 kg/m.
(a) What is the skydiver’s velocity when a(t) = −4.9?
(b) What is the skydiver’s velocity when a(t) = 0? (This velocity is the terminal velocity, the velocity attained when air
resistance balances gravity and the skydiver falls at a constant speed.)
SOLUTION Solving a(t) = −9.8 + mk v(t)2 for the velocity and taking into account that the velocity is negative since the
skydiver is falling, we find
) )
m 75 (
v(t) = − (a(t) + 9.8) = − (a(t) + 9.8) = − 312.5(a(t) + 9.8)
k 0.24
(a) Substituting a(t) = −4.9 into the above formula for the velocity, we find
( √
v(t) = − 312.5(4.9) = − 1531.25 ≈ −39.13 m/s

(b) When a(t) = 0,

( √
v(t) = − 312.5(9.8) = − 3062.5 ≈ −55.34 m/s

47. In a manufacturing process, a drill press automatically drills a hole into a sheet metal part on a conveyor. In the
drilling operation the drill bit starts at rest directly above the part, descends quickly, drills a hole, and quickly returns to
the start position. The maximum vertical speed of the drill bit is 4 in./s, and while drilling the hole, it must move no more
than 2.6 in./s to avoid warping the metal. Let s(t) be2 the drill bit’s height (in
2 inches) above the part as a function of time
t in seconds. Sketch possible graphs of the drill bit’s velocity
= g [s" (t)] and acceleration [s"" (t)].
SOLUTION Possible graphs of the drill bit’s velocity [s" (t)] and acceleration [s"" (t)] are shown below.

s9 s0

( 4

t t

24
44 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

x+2
49. Let fo(x) = . Use a computer f ( system
to comalgebra 1 3 f theth f (x)wfor 1 ≤ k ≤ 4. Can you find a
(x) for to compute
(k)
x − 1 ra s
general formula for f (k) (x)?
5 3
x+2
SOLUTION Let f (x) = . Using a computer algebra system,
x−1
3 3·1
f " (x) = − = (−1)1
(x − 1)2 (x − 1)1+1
6 3·2·1
f "" (x) = = (−1)2
(x − 1)3 (x − 1)2+1
18 3 · 3!
f """ (x) = − = (−1)3 and
(x − 1)4 (x − 1)3+1
72 3 · 4!
f (4) (x) = = (−1)4
(x − 1)5 (x − 1)4+1
From the pattern observed above, we conjecture
3 · k!
f (k) (x) = (−1)k
(x − 1)k+1

Further Insights and Challenges

51. What is p(99) (x) for p(x) as in Exercise 50?
0
SOLUTION First note that for any integer n ≤ 98,

d99 n
x =0
dx99
Now, if we expand p(x), we find

p(x) = x99 + terms of degree at most 98

therefore,
d99 d99 d99
p(x) = 99 (x99 + terms of degree at most 98) = 99 x99
dx 99 dx dx
Using logic similar to that used to compute the derivative in Example (3), we compute:
d99 99
(x ) = 99 × 98 × . . . 1
dx99
so that d99
dx99
p(x) = 99!.
53. Use the Product Rule to find a formula for ( f g)""" and compare your result with the expansion of (a + b)3 . Then try
l
to guess the general formula for ( f g)(n) .
SOLUTION Continuing from Exercise 52, we have

h""" = f """ g + f "" g" + 2( f "" g" + f " g"" ) + f " g"" + f g""" = f """ g + 3 f "" g" + 3 f " g"" + f g"""

The binomial theorem gives

(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3 = a3 b0 + 3a2 b1 + 3a1 b2 + a0 b3

and more generally

n & '
* n
(a + b)n = an−k bk
k=0
k

where the binomial coefficients are given by

& '
n k(k − 1) · · · (k − n + 1)
=
k n!

Accordingly, the general formula for ( f g)(n) is given by

n & '
* n
( f g)(n) = f (n−k) g(k)
k=0
k

where p(k) is the kth derivative of p (or p itself when k = 0).

 S E C T I O N 3.6 Trigonometric Functions 45

3.6 Trigonometric Functions

Preliminary Questions
1. Determine the sign (+ or −) that yields the correct formula for the following:
d
(a) (sin x + cos x) = ± sin x ± cos x
dx
d
(b) sec x = ± sec x tan x
dx
d
(c) cot x = ± csc2 x
dx
SOLUTION The correct formulas are
d
(a) (sin x + cos x) = − sin x + cos x
dx
d
(b) sec x = sec x tan x
dx
d
(c) cot x = − csc2 x
dx
2. Which of the following functions can be differentiated using the rules we have covered so far?
(a) y = 3 cos x cot x (b) y = cos(x2 ) (c) y = e x sin x
SOLUTION
(a) 3 cos x cot x is a product of functions whose derivatives are known. This function can therefore be differentiated
using the Product Rule.
(b) cos(x2 ) is a composition of the functions cos x and x2 . We have not yet discussed how to differentiate composite
functions.
(c) e x sin x is a product of functions whose derivatives are known. This function can therefore be differentiated using the
Product Rule.

3. For each, give an equation of the tangent line to the graph at x = 0.

(a) y = sin x
(b) y = cos x
SOLUTION
(a) Let f (x) = sin x. Then f " (x) = cos x, and an equation of the tangent line is

y = f " (0)(x − 0) + f (0) = 1(x) + 0 = x

(b) Let f (x) = cos x. Then f " (x) = − sin x, and an equation of the tangent line is

y = f " (0)(x − 0) + f (0) = 0(x) + 1 = 1

4. How is the addition formula for sine used in deriving the formula (sin x)" = cos x?
SOLUTION The difference quotient for the function sin x involves the expression sin(x + h). The addition formula for
the sine function is used to expand this expression as sin(x + h) = sin x cos h + sin h cos x.

Exercises
In Exercises 1 4, find an equation of the tangent line at the point indicated.

1. y = sin x, x= π
4

SOLUTION Let f (x) = sin x. Then f " (x) = cos x and the equation of the tangent line is
+π,+ π, + π , √2 + π,
√
2
√
2
√ +
2 π,
y = f" x− +f = x− + = x+ 1−
4 4 4 2 4 2 2 2 4

3. y = tan x, x= π
4

SOLUTION Let f (x) = tan x. Then f " (x) = sec2 x and the equation of the tangent line is
+π,+ π, +π, + π, π
y = f" x− +f =2 x− + 1 = 2x + 1 −
4 4 4 4 2
46 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

In Exercises 5 24, compute the derivative.

5. f (x) = sin x cos x

SOLUTION Let f (x) = sin x cos x. Then

f " (x) = cos x(cos x) + sin x(− sin x) = cos2 x − sin2 x

7. f (x) = x sin x
SOLUTION Let f (x) = x sin x. Then

f " (x) = sin x + x cos x

9. H(t) = sin t sec2 t

SOLUTION Let H(t) = sin t sec2 t. Then

d
H " (t) = cos t sec2 t + sin t (sec t · sec t)
dt
= sec t + sin t(sec t tan t sec t + sec t sec t tan t)
= sec t + 2 sin t sec2 t tan t

11. f (θ) = tan θ sec θ

SOLUTION Let f (θ) = tan θ sec θ. Then
# $
f " (θ) = sec2 θ sec θ + tan θ sec θ tan θ = sec3 θ + sec θ tan2 θ = tan2 θ + sec2 θ sec θ

13. f (x) = (2x4 − 4x−1 ) sec x

SOLUTION Let f (x) = (2x4 − 4x−1 ) sec x. Then

f " (x) = (8x3 + 4x−2 ) sec x + (2x4 − 4x−1 ) sec x tan x

sec θ
15. y =
θ
sec θ
SOLUTION Let y = . Then
θ
θ sec θ tan θ − sec θ
y" =
θ2

3 cos y − 4
17. R(y) =
sin y
3 cos y − 4
SOLUTION Let R(y) = . Then
sin y

sin y(−3 sin y) − (3 cos y − 4)(cos y) 4 cos y − 3(sin2 y + cos2 y) 4 cos y − 3

R" (y) = = =
sin2 y sin2 y sin2 y

1 + tan x
19. f (x) =
1 − tan x
i
1 + tan x
SOLUTION Let f (x) = . Then
1 − tan x
# $
(1 − tan x) sec2 x − (1 + tan x) − sec2 x 2 sec2 x
f (x) =
"
=
(1 − tan x) 2
(1 − tan x)2

21. f (x) = e x sin x

SOLUTION Let f (x) = e x sin x. Then f " (x) = e x sin x + e x cos x = e x (sin x + cos x).
 S E C T I O N 3.6 Trigonometric Functions 47

23. f (θ) = eθ (5 sin θ − 4 tan θ)

SOLUTION Let f (θ) = eθ (5 sin θ − 4 tan θ). Then

f " (θ) = eθ (5 sin θ − 4 tan θ) + eθ (5 cos θ − 4 sec2 θ)

= eθ (5 sin θ + 5 cos θ − 4 tan θ − 4 sec2 θ)

In Exercises 25 e34,
f (x) = x find an equation of the tangent line at the point specified.
cos x
25. y = x3 + cos x, x=0
SOLUTION Let f (x) = x3 + cos x. Then f " (x) = 3x2 − sin x and f " (0) = 0. The tangent line at x = 0 is

y = f " (0)(x − 0) + f (0) = 0(x) + 1 = 1

sin t
27. y = , t = ππ3
1 + cos t
SOLUTION Let f (t) = sin t
1+cos t
. Then

(1 + cos t)(cos t) − sin t(− sin t) 1 + cos t 1

f " (t) = = =
(1 + cos t)2 (1 + cos t)2 1 + cos t
and
!π" 1 2
f" = =
3 1 + 1/2 3
The tangent line at x = π
3
is
!π"! √ √
π" !π" 2 ! π" 3 2 3 2π
y = f" x− +f = x− + = x+ −
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 9

29. y = 2(sin θ + cos θ), 3

θ= π
= √
SOLUTION Let f (θ) = 2(sin θ + cos θ). Then f " (θ) = 2(cos θ − sin θ) and f " ( π3 ) = 1 − 3. The tangent line at x = π
3
is
!π"! π" !π" √ ! π" √
y = f" x− +f = (1 − 3) x − +1+ 3
3 3 3 3

31. y = e x cos x, x=0

SOLUTION Let f (x) = e x cos x. Then

f " (x) = e x cos x + e x (− sin x) = e x (cos x − sin x)

and f " (0) = e0 (cos 0 − sin 0) = 1. Thus, the equation of the tangent line is

y = f " (0)(x − 0) + f (0) = x + 1

33. y = et (1 − cos t), t= π

2π

SOLUTION Let f (t) = et (1 − cos t). Then

f " (t) = et (1 − cos t) + et sin t = et (1 + sin t − cos t)

and f " ( π2 ) = 2eπ/2 . The tangent line at x = π

2
is
!π"! π" !π" ! π"
y = f" t− +f = 2eπ/2 t − + eπ/2
2 2 2 2

In Exercises 35
θ 37,
θ use
θ Theor
π em 1 to verify the formula.
d
35. cot x = − csc2 x
dx
cos x
SOLUTION cot x = . Using the quotient rule and the derivative formulas, we compute:
sin x
d d cos x sin x(− sin x) − cos x(cos x) −(sin2 x + cos2 x) −1
cot x = = = = = − csc2 x
dx dx sin x sin2 x sin2 x sin2 x
48 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

d
37. d x = − csc x cot x
csc
dx
1
SOLUTION Since csc x = , we can apply the quotient rule and the two known derivatives to get:
sin x
d d 1 sin x(0) − 1(cos x) − cos x cos x 1
csc x = = = =− = − cot x csc x
dx dx sin x sin2 x sin2 x sin x sin x

In Exercises
how39
th 42,
t b calculate
th y = sinthe higher
x and = derivative
co x satis
39. f "" (θ), f (θ) = θ sin θ
SOLUTION Let f (θ) = θ sin θ. Then

f " (θ) = sin θ + θ cos θ

f "" (θ) = cos θ + cos θ + θ(− sin θ) = 2 cos θ − θ sin θ

41. y"" , y""" ,

2
y = tan x
SOLUTION
2 Let y = tan x. Then y" = sec2 x and by the Chain Rule,

d
y"" = = sec2 x = 2(sec x)(sec x tan x) = 2 sec2 x tan x
dx
y""" = 2 sec2 x(sec2 x) + (2 sec2 x tan x) tan x = 2 sec4 +4 sec4 x tan2 x

43. Calculate the first five derivatives of f (x) = cos x. Then determine f (8) (x) and f (37) (x).
SOLUTION Let f (x) = cos x.
• Then f (x) = − sin x, f "" (x) = − cos x, f """ (x) = sin x, f (4) (x) = cos x, and f (5) (x) = − sin x.
"

• Accordingly, the successive derivatives of f cycle among

{− sin x, − cos x, sin x, cos x}

in that order. Since 8 is a multiple of 4, we have f (8) (x) = f (4) (x) = cos x.
• Since 36 is a multiple of 4, we have f (36) (x) = f (4) (x) = cos x. Therefore, f (37) (x) = − sin x.

45. Let f (x) = sin x. We can compute f (n) (x) as follows: First, express n = 4m + r where m is a whole number and r = 0,
1, 2, or 3. Then determine f (n) (x) from r. Explain how to do the latter step.
SOLUTION Let f (x) = sin x. If n = 4m + r where m is a whole number and r = 0, 1, 2, or 3, then f (n) (x) = f (r) (x). In
particular:
• If r = 0, then f (n) (x) = f (0) (x) = f (x) = sin x.
• If r = 1, then f (n) (x) = f (1) (x) = cos x.
• If r = 2, then f (n) (x) = f (2) (x) = − sin x.
• If r = 3, then f (n) (x) = f (3) (x) = − cos x.

47. Let f (x) = sin2 x and g(x) = cos2 x.

T eprovet f (x) = −g) (x) withoutE directly to thef a(x)t andt gp (x).
" " " "
(a) Use 0an identity
2 3 and l h computing
(b) Now verify the result in (a) by directly computing f (x) and g (x).
" "

SOLUTION
(a) Using the identity sin2 x + cos2 x = 1, we have f (x) + g(x) = 1. Taking the derivative on both sides of this equation
yields f " (x) + g" (x) = 0, or f " (x) = −g" (x).
(b) Working directly, first write f (x) = sin x sin x and g(x) = cos x cos x. Then, by the Product Rule,

f " (x) = cos x sin x + sin x cos x = 2 sin x cos x, and

g" (x) = − sin x cos x + cos x(− sin x) = −2 sin x cos x.

Thus, f " (x) = −g" (x).

49. Find the values of x between 0 and 2π where the tangent line to the graph of y = sin x cos x is horizontal.
SOLUTION Let y = sin x cos x. Then
"

y" = cox) + (sin xf)(−x sinnxd) = cos

dir x)(cos
b (cos x) 2 x − sin2 x

When y" = 0, we have sin x = ± cos x. In the interval [0, 2π], this occurs when x = π4 , 3π 5π 7π
4
, 4, 4.
 S E C T I O N 3.6 Trigonometric Functions 49

51. Let g(t) = t − sin t.

(a) Plot the graph of g with a graphing utility for 0 ≤ t ≤ 4π.
(b) Show that the slope of the tangent line is nonnegative. Verify this on your graph.
(c) For which values of t in the given range is the tangent line horizontal?
SOLUTION Let g(t) = t − sin t.
(a) Here is a graph of g over the interval [0, 4π].
y

12
10
8
6
4
2
x
2 4 6 8 10 12

(b) Since g" (t) = 1 − cos t ≥ 0 for all t, the slope of the tangent line to g is always nonnegative. We see that the graph is
never decreasing; therefore, the slope of the tangent is never negative.
(c) In the interval [0, 4π], the tangent line is horizontal when t = 0, 2π, 4π.

53. Show
t f (x that
= (s no
n tangent
)/x for xline toa the (0) = 1of f (x) = tan x has zero slope. What is the least slope of a tangent
d graph
line? Justify by sketching the graph of f " (x) = (tan x)" .
th f (x" ) = tan0 x. cTh=en f " (x)U= sec2 x = cos2 x . Note fi that f " (x) = cos2 x has
1 1
(b) Sho
SOLUTION Let alg numerator
system1;t the
fin equation
a good
f (x) = 0 therefore has nossolution. Because the maximum
"
a ximation t v c 0 such th f
value of cos x is 1, the minimum value of f (x) = cos12 x is 1.
"
(c ) 0 2 "

f xc is the g of f .
"
Hence,
(c the
Veleast slope
th foroa tangentl line to=tan ) 1. Here is a graph
y

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
x
−4 −2 2 4

55. A projectile is launched from ground level with an initial velocity v0 at an angle θ, where 0 ≤ θ ≤ π/2. Its horizontal
0 i m. in
range is R = (2v20 /g) sin θ cos θ, wherπe g = 32 ft/s2 with v0 in ft/s, and g = 9.8 m/s2 with v0 in m/s. Calculate dR/dθ. The
maximum range occurs where dR/dθ = 0. Show that that occurs at θ = π/4 and that the maximum range is v0 /g.
3 2

SOLUTION Let R(θ) = (2v20 /g) sin θ cos θ. Then

dR 2v20 2v2
= (cos θ cos θ + sin θ(− sin θ)) = 0 (cos2 θ − sin2 θ)
dθ g g

Setting dR/dθ = 0 yields the equation cos2 θ = sin2 θ. With the restriction 0 ≤ θ ≤ π/2, this latter equation is equivalent
to cos θ = sin θ, which has θ = π/4 as its solution. When θ = π/4,
√ √
! π " 2v2 π π 2v2 2 2 v20
R = 0 sin cos = 0 · · =
4 g 4 4 g 2 2 g

Further Insights and Challenges

(Fig the limit definition of the derivative and the addition law for the cosine function to prove that (cos x) = − sin x.
"
57. Use
SOLUTION Let f (x) = cos x. Then

cos(x + h) − cos x cos x cos h − sin x sin h − cos x

f " (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
& '
sin h cos h − 1
= lim (− sin x) + (cos x) = (− sin x) · 1 + (cos x) · 0 = − sin x
h→0 h h
50 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

59. Verify the following identity and use it to give another proof of the formula (sin x)" = cos x:
# $ # $
sin(x + h) − sin x = 2 cost nx + 12 hn sin 12 h

Hint: Use the addition formula for sine to prove that sin(a + b) − sin(a − b) = 2 cos a sin b.
SOLUTION
to com Recall
(tan that
)" d
sin(a + b) = sin a cos b + cos a sin b

and

sin(a − b) = sin a cos b − cos a sin b

Subtracting the second identity from the first yields

sin(a + b) − sin(a − b) = 2 cos a sin b

If we now set a = x + h
2
and b = h2 , then the previous equation becomes
& ' & '
h h
sin(x + h) − sin x = 2 cos x + sin
2 2

Finally, we use the limit definition of the derivative of sin x to obtain

# $ # $
d sin(x + h) − sin x 2 cos x + h2 sin 2h
sin x = lim = lim
dx h→0 h h→0 h
& ' # $
h
h sin 2
= lim cos x + · lim # $ = cos x · 1 = cos x
h→0 2 h→0 h
2

d
In other words, (sin x) = cos x.
dx
61. Let f (x) = x sin x and g(x) = x cos x.
( )
(a) Show that f " (x) = g(x) + sin x and g" (x) = − f (x) + cos x.
l
(b) Verify that f ""mit
(x) = −xf (x) + 2? cos x and g"" (x) = −g(x) − 2 sin x.
(c) By further experimentation, try to find formulas for all higher derivatives of f and g. Hint: The kth derivative depends
on whether k = 4n, 4n + 1, 4n + 2, or 4n + 3.
SOLUTION Let f (x) = x sin x and g(x) = x cos x.
(a) We examine first derivatives: f " (x) = sin x + x cos x = g(x) + sin x and g" (x) = cos x + x(− sin x) = − f (x) + cos x;
i.e., f " (x) = g(x) + sin x and g" (x) = − f (x) + cos x.
(b) Now look at second derivatives: f "" (x) = g" (x) + cos x = − f (x) + 2 cos x and g"" (x) = − f " (x) − sin x = −g(x) − 2 sin x;
i.e., f "" (x) = − f (x) + 2 cos x and g"" (x) = −g(x) − 2 sin x.
(c)
• The third derivatives are f """ (x) = − f " (x) − 2 sin x = −g(x) − 3 sin x and g""" (x) = −g" (x) − 2 cos x = f (x) − 3 cos x;
i.e., f """ (x) = −g(x) − 3 sin x and g""" (x) = f (x) − 3 cos x.
• The fourth derivatives are f (4) (x) = −g" (x) − 3 cos x = f (x) − 4 cos x and g(4) (x) = f " (x) + 3 sin x = g(x) + 4 sin x;
i.e., f (4) = f (x) − 4 cos x and g(4) (x) = g(x) + 4 sin x.
• We can now see the pattern for the derivatives, which are summarized in the following table. Here n = 0, 1, 2, . . .

k 4n 4n + 1 4n + 2 4n + 3
f (k) (x) f (x) − k cos x g(x) + k sin x − f (x) + k cos x −g(x) − k sin x
g(k) (x) g(x) + k sin x − f (x) + k cos x −g(x) − k sin x f (x) − k cos x

3.7t The
x- a Chain
d y axes L Rule
∆ sin θ

Preliminar OA ⊥ A
(b) ∠BDA =yθQuestions
(c) BDthe
1. Identify θ) and inside functions for each of these composite functions.
= outside
√
(a) y = 4 x + 9x
e x 2 (b) BCx2 +B1)
all y = tan(
(c) y = sec x
5
(d) y = (1 + e x )4
 S E C T I O N 3.7 The Chain Rule 51

SOLUTION
√
(a) The outer function is x, and the inner function is 4x + 9x2 .
(b) The outer function is tan x, and the inner function is x2 + 1.
(c) The outer function is x5 , and the inner function is sec x.
(d) The outer function is x4 , and the inner function is 1 + e x .

2. Which of the following can be differentiated without using the Chain Rule?
x
(a) y = tan(7x2 + 2) (b) y =
√ x √1
+
(c) y = x · sec x (d) y = x sec x
(e) y = xe x (f) y = sin(e x )
√
SOLUTION The function x +x 1 can be differentiated using the Quotient
√ Rule, and the functions x · sec x and xe x can be
differentiated using the Product Rule. The functions tan(7x2 + 2), x sec x, and sin(e x ) require the Chain Rule.
3. Which is the derivative of f (5x)?
(a) 5 f " (x) (b) 5 f " (5x) (c) f " (5x)
SOLUTION The correct answer is (b): 5 f " (5x).
4. Suppose that f " (4) = g(4) = g" (4) = 1. Do we have enough information to compute F " (4), where F(x) = f (g(x))? If
not, what is missing?
SOLUTION If F(x) = f (g(x)), then F " (x) = f " (g(x))g" (x) and F " (4) = f " (g(4))g" (4). Thus, we do not have enough
information to compute F " (4). We are missing the value of f " (1).

Exercises
In Exercises 1 4, fill in a table of the following type:

f (g(x)) f " (u) f " (g(x)) g" (x) ( f ◦ g)" (x)

1. f (u) = u3/2 , g(x) = x4 + 1

SOLUTION

f (g(x)) f " (u) f " (g(x)) g" (x) ( f ◦ g)"

(x4 + 1)3/2 2
u
3 1/2 3 4
2
(x + 1)1/2 4x3 6x3 (x4 + 1)1/2

3. f (u) = tan u,3 g(x) = x4

SOLUTION

f (g(x)) f " (u) f " (g(x)) g" (x) ( f ◦ g)"

tan(x4 ) sec2 u sec2 (x4 ) 4x3 4x3 sec2 (x4 )

In Exercises
f ( ) 5 and
4 6, write the function as a composite f (g(x)) and compute the derivative using the Chain Rule.
( )
5. y = (x + sin x)4
SOLUTION Let f (x) = x4 , g(x) = x + sin x, and y = f (g(x)) = (x + sin x)4 . Then

dy
= f " (g(x))g" (x) = 4(x + sin x)3 (1 + cos x)
dx

d
) u for the following choices of u(x):
y = co dx cos
7. Calculate
(a) u(x) = 9 − x2 (b) u(x) = x−1 (c) u(x) = tan x
SOLUTION
(a) cos(u(x)) = cos(9 − x2 ).
d
cos(u(x)) = − sin(u(x))u" (x) = − sin(9 − x2 )(−2x) = 2x sin(9 − x2 )
dx
52 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

(b) cos(u(x)) = cos(x−1 ).

! "
d 1 sin(x−1 )
cos(u(x)) = − sin(u(x))u" (x) = − sin(x−1 ) − 2 =
dx x x2

(c) cos(u(x)) = cos(tan x).

d
cos(u(x)) = − sin(u(x))u" (x) = − sin(tan x)(sec2 x) = − sec2 x sin(tan x)
dx

df df du
9. Compute ifd = 2 and = 6.
dx du f( dx
th
(a) f (u
SOLUTION in u
A suming f is a function of u, which
f ( is u3/2 a function of x,
) in turn

df d f du
= · = 2(6) = 12
dx du dx

11. Let f (x) = (2x2 − 5)2 . Compute f " (x) three different ways: 1. Multiplying out and then differentiating, 2. using the
Product Rule, and 3. using the Chain2 Rule. Show that the results coincide.

SOLUTION Let f (x) = (2x2 − 5)2 .

• Multiplying out yields f (x) = 4x4 − 20x2 + 25. Then f " (x) = 16x3 − 40x = 8x(2x2 − 5).
• To use the Product Rule, write f (x) = (2x2 − 5)(2x2 − 5). Then,

f " (x) = 4x(2x2 − 5) + (2x2 − 5)(4x) = 8x(2x2 − 5)

• Using the Chain Rule,

d
f " (x) = 2(2x2 − 5) (2x2 − 5) = 2(2x2 − 5)(4x) = 8x(2x2 − 5)
dx
In Exercises 13 24, compute the
1
derivative using derivative rules that have been introduced so far.

13. y = (x4 + 5)3

SOLUTION Using the General Power Rule,

d 4 d
(x + 5)3 = 3(x4 + 5)2 ( x4 + 5) = 3(x4 + 5)2 (4x3 ) = 12x3 (x4 + 5)2
dx dx

√
15. y = 7x − 3

SOLUTION Using the General Power Rule

d √ d 1 7
7x − 3 = (7x − 3)1/2 = (7x − 3)−1/2 (7) = √
dx dx 2 2 7x − 3

17. y = (x2 + 9x)−2

SOLUTION Using the General Power Rule,

d 2 d
(x + 9x)−2 = −2(x2 + 9x)−3 (x2 + 9x) = −2(x2 + 9x)−3 (2x + 9)
dx dx

19. y = cos4 θ

SOLUTION Using the General Power Rule,

d d
cos4 θ = 4 cos3 θ cos θ = −4 cos3 θ sin θ
dθ dθ
 S E C T I O N 3.7 The Chain Rule 53

21. y = (2 cos θ + 5 sin θ)9

SOLUTION Using the General Power Rule,

d d
(2 cos θ + 5 sin θ)9 = 9(2 cos θ + 5 sin θ)8 (2 cos θ + 5 sin θ) = 9(2 cos θ + 5 sin θ)8 (5 cos θ − 2 sin θ)
dθ dθ

23. y = e x−12
SOLUTION Using the General Exponential Rule,

d x−12
e = (1)e x−12 = e x−12
dx

In Exercises 25
8x+ 28, compute the derivative of f ◦ g.

25. f (u) = sin u, g(x) = 2x + 1

SOLUTION Let h(x) = f (g(x)) = sin(2x + 1). Then,

d
f (g(x)) = f " (g(x))g" (x) = cos(2x + 1) · 2 = 2 cos(2x + 1)
dx

27. f (u) = eu , g(x) = x + x−1

Let h(x) = f (g(x)) = e x+x . Then
−1
SOLUTION

d −1 # $
f (g(x)) = f " (g(x))g" (x) = e x+x 1 − x−2
dx

In Exercises 29 and 30, find the derivatives of f (g(x)) and g( f (u)).

29. f (u) = cos u, g(x) = x2 + 1

SOLUTION

d
f (g(x)) = f " (g(x))g" (x) = − sin(x2 + 1)(2x) = −2x sin(x2 + 1)
dx
d
g( f (x)) = g" ( f (x)) f " (x) = 2(cos x)(− sin x) = −2 sin x cos x
dx

In Exercises 31 44, use the Chain

1 Rule to find the derivative.
31. y = sin(x2 )
# $ # $ # $
SOLUTION Let y = sin x2 . Then y" = cos x2 · 2x = 2x cos x2 .
√
33. y = t2 + 9
√
SOLUTION Let y = t2 + 9 = (t2 + 9)1/2 . Then

1 2 t
y" = (t + 9)−1/2 (2t) = √
2 t2 + 9

35. y = (x4 − x3 − 1)2/3

# $2/3
SOLUTION Let y = x4 − x3 − 1 . Then

2# 4 $−1/3 # $
y" = x − x3 − 1 4x3 − 3x2
3
! "4
x+1
37. y =
x−1
! "4
x+1
SOLUTION Let y = . Then
x−1
! "3
x+1 (x − 1) · 1 − (x + 1) · 1 8 (x + 1)3 8(1 + x)3
y" = 4 · = − =
x−1 (x − 1) 2
(x − 1) 5 (1 − x)5
54 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

1
39. y = sec
x
# $
SOLUTION Let f (x) = sec x−1 . Then

# $ # $ # $ sec (1/x) tan (1/x)

f " (x) = sec x−1 tan x−1 · −x−2 = −
x2

41. y = tan(θ + cos θ)

SOLUTION Let y = tan (θ + cos θ). Then

y" = sec2 (θ + cos θ) · (1 − sin θ) = (1 − sin θ) sec2 (θ + cos θ)

43. y = e2−9t
2

Let y = e2−9t . Then

2
SOLUTION

y" = e2−9t (−18t) = −18te2−9t

2 2

In Exercises 45 (74,
4θ find the derivative using the appropriate rule or combination of rules.
)
45. y = tan(x2 + 4x)
SOLUTION Let y = tan(x2 + 4x). By the Chain Rule,

y" = sec2 (x2 + 4x) · (2x + 4) = (2x + 4) sec2 (x2 + 4x)

47. y = x cos(1 − 3x)

SOLUTION Let y = x cos (1 − 3x). Applying the Product Rule and then the Chain Rule,

y" = cos (1 − 3x) + x (− sin (1 − 3x)) · (−3) = cos (1 − 3x) + 3x sin (1 − 3x)

49. y = (4t + 9)1/2

SOLUTION Let y = (4t + 9)1/2 . By the General Power Rule,
! "
dy 1
=4 (4t + 9)−1/2 = 2(4t + 9)−1/2
dt 2

51. y = (x3 + cos x4)−4

SOLUTION Let y = (x3 + cos x)−4 . By the General Power Rule,

y" = −4(x3 + cos x)−5 (3x2 − sin x) = 4(sin x − 3x2 )(x3 + cos x)−5

√
53. y = sini x cos x
SOLUTION We start by using a trig identity to rewrite
%
√ 1 1
y= sin x cos x = sin 2x = √ (sin 2x)1/2
2 2
Then, after two applications of the Chain Rule,

1 1 cos 2x
y" = √ · (sin 2x)−1/2 · cos 2x · 2 = √
2 2 2 sin 2x

55. y = (cos 6x + sin x2 )41/2

SOLUTION Let y = (cos 6x + sin(x2 ))1/2 . Applying the General Power Rule followed by two applications of the Chain
Rule,

1& '−1/2 & ' x cos(x2 ) − 3 sin 6x

y" = cos 6 x + sin( x2 ) − sin 6x · 6 + cos(x2 ) · 2x = (
2 cos 6x + sin(x2 )
 S E C T I O N 3.7 The Chain Rule 55

57. y = tan3 x + tan(

1/
x3 )

x + y2 = tan x + tan(x ) = (tan x) + tan(x ). Applying the General Power Rule to the first term and the
3 3 3 3
SOLUTION Let
Chain Rule to the second term,
& '
y" = 3(tan x)2 sec2 x + sec2 (x3 ) · 3x2 = 3 x2 sec2 (x3 ) + sec2 x tan2 x

%
z+1
59. y =
z−1
! "1/2
z+1
SOLUTION Let y = . Applying the General Power Rule followed by the Quotient Rule,
z−1
! "−1/2
dy 1 z + 1 (z − 1) · 1 − (z + 1) · 1 −1
= · = √ .
dz 2 z − 1 (z − 1) 2
z + 1 (z − 1)3/2

cos(1 + x)
61. y =
1 + cos x
SOLUTION Let

cos(1 + x)
y= .
1 + cos x
Then, applying the Quotient Rule and the Chain Rule,

dy −(1 + cos x) sin(1 + x) + cos(1 + x) sin x cos(1 + x) sin x − cos x sin(1 + x) − sin(1 + x)
= =
dx (1 + cos x)2 (1 + cos x)2
sin(−1) − sin(1 + x)
=
(1 + cos x)2
The last line follows from the identity

sin(A − B) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B

with A = x and B = 1 + x.

63. y = cot7 (x5 )

# $
SOLUTION Let y = cot7 x5 . Applying the General Power Rule followed by the Chain Rule,

dy # $ # # $$ # $ # $
= 7 cot6 x5 · − csc2 x5 · 5x4 = −35x4 cot6 x5 csc2 x5
dx

# $9
65. y = 1 + cot5 (/x4 + 1)
# # $$9
SOLUTION Let y = 1 + cot5 x4 + 1 . Applying the General Power Rule three times, we get

dy # # $$8 # $ # # $$
= 9 1 + cot5 x4 + 1 · 5 cot4 x4 + 1 · − csc2 x4 + 1 · 4x3
dx
# $ # $# # $$8
= −180x3 cot4 x4 + 1 csc2 x4 + 1 1 + cot5 x4 + 1

67. y = (2e3x + 3e−2x )4

SOLUTION Let y = (2e3x + 3e−2x )4 . Applying the General Power Rule followed by two applications of the General
Exponential Rule, we find

dy
= 4(2e3x + 3e−2x )3 (6e3x − 6e−2x ) = 24(2e3x + 3e−2x )3 (e3x − e−2x ).
dx

69. y = e(x
2 +2x+3)2

Let y = e(x
2 +2x+3)2
SOLUTION . By the General Exponential Rule and the General Power Rule, we obtain

dy
= e(x +2x+3) · 2(x2 + 2x + 3)(2x + 2) = 4(x + 1)(x2 + 2x + 3)e(x +2x+3)
2 2 2 2

dx
56 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

% )
√
71. y = 1+ 1+ x
* # $1/2 +1/2
SOLUTION Let y = 1 + 1 + x1/2 . Applying the General Power Rule twice,

dy 1 * # $1/2 +−1/2 1 # $−1/2 1 1

= 1 + 1 + x1/2 · 1 + x1/2 · x−1/2 = %
dx 2 2 2 √ ) √ ) √
8 x 1+ x 1+ 1+ x

73. y = (kx + b)−1/3 ; k and b any constants

SOLUTION Let y = (kx + b)−1/3 , where b and k are constants. By the General Power Rule,

1 k
y" = − (kx + b)−4/3 · k = − (kx + b)−4/3
3 3

In Exercises 75 78, compute the higher derivative.

d2
75. sin(x2 )
dx2
# $ # $
SOLUTION Let f (x) = sin x2 . Then, by the Chain Rule, f " (x) = 2x cos x2 and, by the Product Rule and the Chain
Rule,
# $ # # $ $ # $ # $
f "" (x) = 2 cos x2 + 2x − sin x2 · 2x = 2 cos x2 − 4x2 sin x2

d3 2
77. d − x2)8
(9
dx3
SOLUTION Let f (x) = (9 − x)8 . Then, by repeated use of the General Power Rule,

f " (x) = 8(9 − x)7 · (−1) = −8(9 − x)7

f "" (x) = −56(9 − x)6 · (−1) = 56(9 − x)6
f """ (x) = 336(9 − x)5 · (−1) = −336(9 − x)5

√
79. Assume that the average molecular velocity v of a gas in a particular container is given by v(T ) = 29 T m/s, where
,
dv ,,,
T is the temperature
3 in kelvins. The temperature is related to the pressure (in atmospheres) by T = 200P. Find ,, .
dP P=1.5
SOLUTION First note that when P = 1.5 atmospheres, T = 200(1.5) = 300K. Thus,
, , , √
dv ,, dv ,, dT ,, 29 290 3 m
, = , · , = √ · 200 =
dP ,P=1.5 dT ,T =300 dP ,P=1.5 2 300 3 s · atmospheres
√
Alternately, substituting T = 200P into the equation for v gives v = 290 2P. Therefore,
√
dv 290 2 290
= √ = √
dP 2 P 2P
so
, √
dv ,, 290 290 3 m
, = √ =
dP ,P=1.5 3 3 s · atmospheres

81. An expanding sphere has radius r = 0.4t cm at time t (in seconds). Let V be the sphere’s volume. Find dV/dt when
1
(a) r = 3 and (b) t = 3.
SOLUTION Let r = 0.4t, where t is in seconds (s) and r is in centimeters (cm). With V = 43 πr3 , we have

dV
= 4πr2
dr
Thus
dV dV dr
= = 4πr2 · (0.4) = 1.6πr2
dt dr dt
 S E C T I O N 3.7 The Chain Rule 57

dV
(a) When r = 3, = 1.6π(3)2 ≈ 45.24 cm/s.
dt
dV
(b) When t = 3, we have r = 1.2. Hence = 1.6π(1.2)2 ≈ 7.24 cm/s.
dt
83. The function L(t) = 12 + 3.4 sin( 3652π
t) models the length of a day from sunrise to sunset in Sapporo, Japan, where t is
the day in the year after the spring equinox3 on March 21. Determine L" (t), and use it to calculate the rate that the length
days tare
of the here is the day inon
changing theDecember
year after1, January
e s ring 1,
e and
uinox on Ma 1.
February c Discuss
21. De erm
whatnetheL results
(t), andsay
useabout
it o cal ulate the rate
the changing day
length in the late fall and winter in Sapporo.
SOLUTION Let L(t) = 12 + 3.4 sin( 365
2π
t) model the length of a day from sunrise to sunset in Sapporo, Japan, where t is
the day in the year after the spring equinox on March 21. Then
! " ! "
2π 2π 6.8π 2π
L" (t) = 3.4 cos t · = cos t
365 365 365 365
December 1 corresponds to t = 255, so the rate of change in the length of the day on December 1 is
! "
6.8π 510π
L (255) =
"
cos ≈ −0.0186 hours/day
365 365
Next, January 1 corresponds to t = 286, so the rate of change in the length of the day on January 1 is
! "
6.8π 572π
L" (286) = cos ≈ 0.0123 hours/day
365 365
Finally, February 1 corresponds to t = 317, so the rate of change in the length of the day on February 1 is
! "
6.8π 634π
L" (317) = cos ≈ 0.0387 hours/day
365 365
The length of the day is decreasing in late fall in Sapporo but then is increasing once winter begins. As the winter
progresses, the rate at which the length of the day is increasing is itself increasing.
85. The general shape of the graph of S (t) = Ate−kt for A, k > 0 is shown in Figure 2(B). There are two points on the
2

graph where the tangent line is horizontal and therefore where S " (t) = 0. Determine t in terms of k for these points by
S D i i t
solving S " (t) = 0.
Let S (t) = Ate−kt . Then,
2
SOLUTION

S " (t) = Ae−kt + At(−2kte−kt ) = Ae−kt (1 − 2kt2 )

2 2 2

Thus, S " (t) = 0 when t = ± √12k .

87. A 1999 study by Starkey and Scarnecchia developed the following model for the average weight (in kilograms) at
t
age t (in years) of channel catfish in the Lower Yellowstone River (Figure 4):

W(t) = (3.46293 − 3.32173e−0.03456t )3.4026

Find the rate at which average weight is changing at age t = 10.

W (kg)
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

5 10 15 20
t (year)
FIGURE 4 Average weight of channel catfish at age t.

SOLUTION Let W(t) = (3.46293 − 3.32173e−0.03456t )3.4026 . Then

W " (t) = 3.4026(3.46293 − 3.32173e−0.03456t )2.4026 (−3.32173)(−0.03456)e−0.03456t

= 0.3906(3.46293 − 3.32173e−0.03456t )2.4026 e−0.03456t

At age t = 10,

W " (10) = 0.3906(1.1118)2.4026 (0.7078) ≈ 0.3566 kg/yr

58 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

89. Assume that

f (1) = 4, f " (1) = −3, g(2)

k
= 1, g" (2) = 3
!
Calculate the derivatives of the following functions at x = 2:
(a) f (g(x)) (b) f (x/2) (c) g(2g(x))
SOLUTION
(a) Let h(x) = f (g(x)). Then

h" (2) = f " (g(2))g" (2) = f " (1)g" (2) = −3(3) = −9

(b) Let h(x) = f (x/2). Then

1 " 1 1 3
h" (2) = f (2/2) = f " (1) = (−3) = −
2 2 2 2
(c) Let h(x) = g(2g(x)). Then

h" (2) = g" (2g(2)) · 2g" (2) = g" (2 · 1) · 2g" (2) = 2g" (2)g" (2) = 2(3)2 = 18

91. Compute the derivative of h(sin x) at x = π6 , assuming that h" (0.5) = 10.
SOLUTION Let u = sin x and suppose that h" (0.5) = 10. Then
d dh du dh
(h(u)) = = cos x
dxfu dux dx0 du
# $ √
When x = π6 , we have u = 0.5. Accordingly, the derivative of h(sin x) at x = π
6
is 10 cos π (4
6
= 5 3.

In Exercises
Let 93( 96,
= use
(g( the
)) table ofthvalues
grap to calculate
f and ther derivative
shown in of the function
5 Estimat the
g" given
an point
f "(

x 1 4 6
f (x) 4 0 6
f " (x) 5 7 4
g(x) 4 1 6
g" (x) 5 1
2
3

93. f (g(x)), x=6

,,
d
SOLUTION f (g(x)),,, = f " (g(6))g" (6) = f " (6)g" (6) = 4 × 3 = 12
dx x=6
√
95. g( x),
(
x = 16
, ! " ! "! "! "
d √ ,, 1 √ 1 1 1 1
SOLUTION g( x),, = g" (4) (1/ 16) = =
dx x=16 2 2 2 4 16
97. The price (in dollars) of a computer component is P = 2C − 18C −1 , where C is the manufacturer’s cost to produce it.
Assume that cost at time t (in years) is C = 9 + 3t−1 . Determine the rate of change of price with respect to time at t = 3.
dC
SOLUTION = −3t−2 . C(3) = 10 and C " (3) = − 13 , so we compute:
dt
, ! "
dP ,, 18 2 18 1 dollars
,, = 2C " (3) + C "
(3) = − + − = −0.727
dt t=3 (C(3))2 3 100 3 year

99. According to the U.S. standard atmospheric

3 2
model, developed by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis-
tration for use in aircraft and rocket design, atmospheric temperature T (in degrees Celsius), pressure P (kPa = 1000 pas-
cals), and altitude h (in meters) are related by these formulas (valid in the troposphere h ≤ 11,000):
! "5.256
T + 273.1
T = 15.04 − 0.00649h, P = 101.29
288.08
Use the Chain Rule to calculate dP/dh.
SOLUTION
! "4.256 ! "
dP T + 273.1 1
= 101.29(5.256) = 6.29537 × 10−11 (T + 273.1)4.256
dT 288.08 288.08
dT dP dP dT
and dh
= −0.00649◦ C/m. dh
= dT dh
, so
dP # $
= 6.29537 × 10−11 (T + 273.1)4.256 (−0.00649) = −4.08569 × 10−13 (288.14 − 0.00649 h)4.256
dh
 S E C T I O N 3.7 The Chain Rule 59

101. In the setting of Exercise 100, calculate the rate of change of T (in K/yr) if T = 283 K and R increases at a rate of
0.5 Js−1 m−2 per yr.
SOLUTION
arth r eiBy
v the Chain
from t Rule,
sun
dR dR dT dT
= · = 4σT 3
dt dT dt dt
Assuming T = 283 K and dR
dt
= 0.5 Js−1 m−2 per year, it follows that

dT dT 0.5
0.5 = 4σ(283)3 ⇒ = ≈ 0.0973 K/yr
dt dt 4σ(283)3

103. Use the Chain Rule to express the second derivative of f ◦ g in terms of the first and second derivatives of f and g.
SOLUTION Let h(x)
2
= f (g(x)). Then

h" (x) = f " (g(x))g" (x)

and

h"" (x) = f " (g(x))g"" (x) + g" (x) f "" (g(x))g" (x) = f " (g(x))g"" (x) + f "" (g(x)) (g" (x))2

Com the seco deri ative o sin(g( x))

Further Insights and Challenges
105. Show that if f , g, and h are differentiable, then

[ f (g(h(x)))]" = f " (g(h(x)))g" (h(x))h" (x)

SOLUTION Let f , g, and h be differentiable. Let u = h(x), v = g(u), and w = f (v). Then

dw d f dv d f dg du
= = = f " (g(h(x))g" (h(x))h" (x)
dx dv dx dv du dx

arity ff fand andf is odd.

"
107. (a) tSketch a graph io
at di ferentia of any
re even
erse function explain
is even graphically
then f " is oddwhy so
Differenthat f is even. Is f necessarily odd? Hint: Check whether this is true for linear functions.
(b) Suppose "

SOLUTION
(a) The graph of an even function is symmetric with respect to the y-axis. Accordingly, its image in the left half-plane is
a mirror reflection of that in the right half-plane through the y-axis. If at x = a ≥ 0, the slope of f exists and is equal to
m, then by reflection its slope at x = −a ≤ 0 is −m. That is, f " (−a) = − f " (a). Note: This means that if f " (0) exists, then
it equals 0.
y

4
3
2
1
x
−2 −1 1 2

(b) Suppose that f " is even. Then f is not necessarily odd. Let f (x) = 4x + 7. Then f " (x) = 4, an even function. But f is
not odd. For example, f (2) = 15, f (−2) = −1, but f (−2) ! − f (2).
109. Prove that for all whole numbers n ≥ 1,
dn Ex # nπ $
sin x = sin x +
dxn 2
# $
Hint: Use the identity
derive cos x = sinR x + π2 r.

SOLUTION We will proceed by induction on n. For n = 1, we find

d * π+
sin x = cos x = sin x +
dx 2
as required. Now, suppose that for some positive integer k,

dk # kπ $
sin x = sin x +
dx k 2
60 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

Then

dk+1 d # kπ $
sin x = sin x +
dx k+1 dx 2
! " ! "
kπ (k + 1)π
= cos x + = sin x +
2 2

111. Chain Rule This exercise proves the Chain Rule without the special assumption made in the text. For any number
b, define a new function !

f (u) − f (b2) x!
F (u) = for all u!b
u) − b

(a) Show that if we define F(b) = f " (b), then F is continuous at u = b.

(b) Take b = g(a). Show that if x ! a, then for all u,

f (u) − f (g(a)) u − g(a)

= F(u) 1
x−a x−a

Note that both sides are zero if u = g(a).

(c) Substitute u = g(x) in Eq. (1) to obtain

f (g(x)) − f (g(a)) g(x) − g(a)

= F(g(x))
x−a x−a

Derive the Chain Rule by computing the limit of both sides as x → a.

SOLUTION For any differentiable function f and any number b, define

f (u) − f (b)
F(u) =
u−b

for all u ! b.
(a) Define F(b) = f " (b). Then

f (u) − f (b)
lim F(u) = lim = f " (b) = F(b)
u→b u→b u−b

i.e., lim F(u) = F(b). Therefore, F is continuous at u = b.

u→b

(b) Let g be a differentiable function and take b = g(a). Let x be a number distinct from a. If we substitute u = g(a) into
Eq. (1), both sides evaluate to 0, so equality is satisfied. On the other hand, if u ! g(a), then

f (u) − f (g(a)) f (u) − f (g(a)) u − g(a) f (u) − f (b) u − g(a) u − g(a)

= = = F(u)
x−a u − g(a) x−a u−b x−a x−a

(c) Hence for all u, we have

f (u) − f (g(a)) u − g(a)

= F(u)
x−a x−a

Substituting u = g(x) in Eq. (1), we have

f (g(x)) − f (g(a)) g(x) − g(a)

= F(g(x))
x−a x−a

Letting x → a gives
! "
f (g(x)) − f (g(a)) g(x) − g(a)
lim = lim F(g(x)) = F(g(a))g" (a) = F(b)g" (a) = f " (b)g" (a)
x→a x−a x→a x−a
= f " (g(a))g" (a)

Therefore ( f ◦ g)" (a) = f " (g(a))g" (a), which is the Chain Rule.
 S E C T I O N 3.8 Implicit Differentiation 61

3.8 Implicit Differentiation

Preliminary Questions
d dy
1. Which differentiation rule is used to show sin y = cos y ?
dx dx
dy
SOLUTION The chain rule is used to show that dxd
sin y = cos y dx .
2. One of (a)–(c) is incorrect. Find and correct the mistake.
d
(a) sin(y2 ) = 2y cos(y2 )
dy
d
(b) sin(x2 ) = 2x cos(x2 )
dx
d
(c) sin(y2 ) = 2y cos(y2 )
dx
SOLUTION
(a) This is correct. Note that the differentiation is with respect to the variable y.
(b) This is correct. Note that the differentiation is with respect to the variable x.
(c) This is incorrect. Because the differentiation is with respect to the variable x, the chain rule is needed to obtain
d dy
sin(y2 ) = 2y cos(y2 )
dx dx
3. On an exam, Jason was asked to differentiate the equation

x2 + 2xy + y3 = 7

Find the errors in Jason’s answer: 2x + 2xy" + 3y2 = 0.

SOLUTION There are two mistakes in Jason’s answer. First, Jason should have applied the product rule to the second
term to obtain
d dy
(2xy) = 2x + 2y
dx dx
Second, he should have applied the general power rule to the third term to obtain
d 3 dy
y = 3y2
dx dx

d
4. Which of (a) or (b) is equal to (x sin t)?
dx
dt dt
(a) (x cos t) (b) (x cos t) + sin t
dx dx
SOLUTION Using the product rule and the chain rule we see that
d dt
(x sin t) = x cos t + sin t
dx dx
so the correct answer is (b).
5. Determine which inverse trigonometric function g has the derivative
1
g" (x) =
x2 + 1
SOLUTION g(x) = tan−1 x has the derivative

1
g" (x) =
x2 + 1

6. What does the following identity tell us about the derivatives of sin−1 x and cos−1 x?
π
sin−1 x + cos−1 x =
2
SOLUTION Differentiating both sides of the idenity with respect to x yields

d d d d
sin−1 x + cos−1 x = 0 or sin−1 x = − cos−1 x
dx dx dx dx
In other words, the derivatives of sin−1 x and cos−1 x are negatives of each other.
62 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

7. Assume that a is a constant and that y is implicitly a function of x. Compute the derivative with respect to x of each of
a2 , x2 , and y2 .
SOLUTION Because a is a constant,

d 2
a =0
dx
On the other hand,
d 2
x = 2x
dx
Finally, because y is implicitly a function of x,
d 2 dy
y = 2y
dx dx

Exercises
dy
1. Show that if you differentiate both sides of x2 + 2y3 = 6, the result is 2x + 6y2 dx = 0. Then solve for dy/dx and
evaluate it at the point (2, 1).
SOLUTION Let x2 + 2y3 = 6. Then

d 2 d
(x + 2y3 ) = 6
dx dx
dy
2x + 6y2 =0
dx
Solving for dy/dx yields
dy
6y2 = −2x
dx
dy −2x
=
dx 6y2
dy
At (2, 1), dx
= −4
6
= − 32 .

In Exercises 3 10, differentiate the expression with respect to x, assuming that y is implicitly
dy a function of x.
t
3. x2 y3
SOLUTION Assuming that y is implicitly a function of x, then

d # 2 3$
x y = x2 · 3y2 y" + y3 · 2x = 3x2 y2 y" + 2xy3
dx

5. (x2 + y2 )3/2

y2
SOLUTION Assuming that y is implicitly a function of x, then

d *# 2 $3/2 + 3 # $1/2 (
x + y2 = x 2 + y2 (2x + 2yy" ) = 3 (x + yy" ) x2 + y2
dx 2
√
7. x 3 y
SOLUTION Assuming that y is implicitly a function of x, then
! "
d √3 √3 1 −2/3 " √ xy" 3y + xy"
x y = y+ x y y = 3y+ ( = (
dx 3 3 3 y2 3 3 y2

y
9.
y+1
SOLUTION Assuming that y is implicitly a function of x, then
! "
d y (y + 1)y" − yy" y"
= =
dx y + 1 (y + 1)2 (y + 1)2
 S E C T I O N 3.8 Implicit Differentiation 63

In Exercises 11 28, calculate the derivative with respect to x of the other variable appearing in the equation.

11. 3y3 + x2 = 5
2x
SOLUTION Let 3y3 + x2 = 5. Then 9y2 y" + 2x = 0, and y" = − .
9y2
13. x2 y + 2x3 y = x + y
SOLUTION Let x2 y + 2xy2 = x + y. Then

x2 y" + 2xy + 2x · 2yy" + 2y2 = 1 + y"

x2 y" + 4xyy" − y" = 1 − 2xy − 2y2
1 − 2xy − 2y2
y" = .
x2 + 4xy − 1

15. x3 R5 = 1
3x2 R5 3R
SOLUTION Let x3 R5 = 1. Then x3 · 5R4 R" + R5 · 3x2 = 0, and R" = − =− .
5x3 R4 5x
y x
17. + = 2y=
x y
SOLUTION Let
y x
+ = 2y
x y

Then
xy" − y y − xy"
+ = 2y"
x2 y2
! "
1 x y 1
− 2 − 2 y" = 2 −
x y x y
y2 − x2 − 2xy2 " y2 − x2
y =
xy2 x2 y
y(y2 − x2 )
y" =
x(y2 − x2 − 2xy2 )

19. y−2/3 + x3/2 = 1

SOLUTION Let yx−2/3 + x3/2 = 1. Then

2 3 9 1/2 5/3
− y−5/3 y" + x1/2 = 0 or y" = x y
3 2 4

1
21. y + = x2 +
/3 x
y =

SOLUTION Let y + 1
y
= x2 + x. Then

1 " 2x + 1 (2x + 1)y2

y" − y = 2x + 1 or y" = =
y 2 1−y −2 y2 − 1

23. sin(x + y) = x + cos y

)
SOLUTION Let sin(x + y) = x + cos y. Then

(1 + y" ) cos(x + y) = 1 − y" sin y

cos(x + y) + y" cos(x + y) = 1 − y" sin y
(cos(x + y) + sin y) y" = 1 − cos(x + y)
1 − cos(x + y)
y" =
cos(x + y) + sin y
64 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

25. xey = 2xy + y3

SOLUTION Let xey = 2xy + y3 . Then xy" ey + ey = 2xy" + 2y + 3y2 y" , whence
ey − 2y
y" =
2x + 3y2 − xey

27. e x + ey = x − y2
SOLUTION Let e x + ey = x − y. Then

e x + ey y" = 1 − y"
(ey + 1)y" = 1 − e x
1 − ex
y" =
ey + 1

In Exercises
2 +y 29 32, compute the derivative at the point indicated without using a calculator.

29. y = sin−1 x, x= 3
5

SOLUTION Let y = sin−1 x. Then y" = √1 and

1−x2
! "
3 1 1 5
y" = √ = =
5 1 − 9/25 4/5 4

31. y = sec−1 x, x=4

SOLUTION Let y = sec−1 x. Then y" = √1 and
|x| x2 −1

1
y" (4) = √ .
4 15

In Exercises 33 46,
( find
) the derivative
1 .

33. y = sin−1 (7x)

d 1 d 7
SOLUTION sin−1 (7x) = ( · 7x = (
dx 1 − (7x)2 dx 1 − (7x)2
35. y = cos−1 (x2 ) *
d −1 d 2 −2x
SOLUTION cos−1 (x2 ) = √ · x = √
dx 1 − x4 dx 1 − x4
37. y = x tan−1 x
! "
d 1
SOLUTION x tan−1 x = x + tan−1 x
dx 1 + x2
39. y = arcsin(e−1x )
d 1 d x ex
SOLUTION sin−1 (e x ) = √ · e = √
dx 1 − e2x dx 1 − e2x
√
41. y = 1 − t2 + sin 1
−1
t
d √ # $ 1 1 −t 1 1−t
SOLUTION 1 − t2 + sin−1 t = (1 − t2 )−1/2 (−2t) + √ = √ + √ = √
dt 2 1−t 2 1−t 2 1−t 2 1 − t2
43. y = (tan−1 x)3! "
d1 # $ d 3(tan−1 x)2
SOLUTION 1 − −t 1 x)3 = 3(tan−1 x)2
(tan tan−1 x =
dx dx x2 + 1
45. y = cos−1 t−1 − sec−1 t
! "
d −1 −1 1
SOLUTION (cos−1 t−1 − sec−1 t)= ( − √
dt 1 − (1/t)2 t
2
|t| t2 − 1
1 1 1 1
=√ − √ = √ − √ =0
t −t
4 2 |t| t − 1 |t| t − 1 |t| t2 − 1
2 2

Alternatively, let t = sec θ. Then t−1 = cos θ and cos−1 t−1 − sec−1 t = θ − θ = 0. Consequently,
d
(cos−1 t−1 − sec−1 t) = 0
dx
 S E C T I O N 3.8 Implicit Differentiation 65

1
x) (cos x) = − √
−1 "
47. UseyFigure x pro
= cos 71 to si ve that .
1 − x2

1
1 − x2

y
x
FIGURE 7 Right triangle with y = cos−1 x.

SOLUTION Let y = cos−1 x. Then cos y = x and

dy dy 1 1
− sin y = 1 or =− =−
dx dx sin y sin(cos−1 x)
√
From Figure 7, we see that sin(cos−1 x) = sin y = 1 − x2 ; hence,
d 1 1
cos−1 x = − =−√
dx sin(cos−1 x) 1 − x2
√ √ & '
49. Let y = sec−1 x. Sho w that tan2 y = x2 − 1 if x ≥ 1 and that tan y = − x2 − 1− if x" ≤ −1.
2 Hint: tan y ≥ 0 on 0, π2
& '−1 ) ) h Fi 1−
and tan y ≤ 0 on π2 , π .
(
SOLUTION In general, 1 + tan2 y = sec2 y, so tan y = ± sec2 y − 1. With y = sec−1 x, it follows that sec y = x, so
√
tan y = ± x2 − 1. Finally, if x ≥ 1 then y = sec−1 x ∈ [0, π/2) so tan y is positive; on the other hand, if x ≤ 1 then
y = sec−1 x ∈ (π/2, π] so tan y is negative.
51. Show that x + yx−1 = 1 and y = x − x2 define the same curve [except that (0, 0) is not a solution of the first equation]
and that implicit differentiation yields y" = yx−1 − x and y" = 1 − 2x. Explain why these formulas produce the same
values for the derivative.
SOLUTION Multiply the first equation by x and then isolate the y term to obtain

x2 + y = x or y = x − x2

Implicit differentiation applied to the first equation yields

1 − yx−2 + x−1 y" = 0 or y" = yx−1 − x

From the first equation, we find yx−1 = 1 − x; upon substituting this expression into the previous derivative, we find

y" = 1 − x − x = 1 − 2x

which is the derivative of the second equation.

In Exercises 53 and 54, find dy/dx at the given point.

d

53. (x + 2)2 − 6(2y + 3)2 = 3, (1, −1)

SOLUTION By the chain rule,

2(x + 2) − 24(2y + 3)y" = 0

If x = 1 and y = −1, then

2(3) − 24(1)y" = 0

so that 24y" = 6, or y" = 41 .

In Exercises 55 62, find an! equation

2
"of the tangent line at the given point.

55. xy + x2 y2 = 6, (2, 1)
SOLUTION Taking the derivative of both sides of xy + x2 y2 = 6 yields

xy" + y + 2xy2 + 2x2 yy" = 0

Substituting x = 2, y = 1, we find
1
2y" + 1 + 4 + 8y" = 0 or y" = −
2
Hence, the equation of the tangent line at (2, 1) is y − 1 = − 12 (x − 2) or y = − 12 x + 2.
66 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

57. x2 + sin y = xy2 + 1, (1, 0)

SOLUTION Taking the derivative of both sides of x2 + sin y = xy2 + 1 yields

2x + cos yy" = y2 + 2xyy"

Substituting x = 1, y = 0, we find

2 + y" = 0 or y" = −2

Hence, the equation of the tangent line is y − 0 = −2(x − 1) or y = −2x + 2.

59. 2x1/2 + 4y−1/2 = xy, (1, 4)π
SOLUTION Taking the derivative of both sides of 2x1/2 + 4y−1/2 = xy yields

x−1/2 − 2y−3/2 y" = xy" + y

Substituting x = 1, y = 4, we find
! "
1 " 12
1−2 y = y" + 4 or y" = −
8 5

Hence, the equation of the tangent line is y − 4 = − 125 (x − 1) or y = − 125 x + 32

5
.
x2
61. e2 x−y =
ey , (2, 4)
y
x2
SOLUTION Taking the derivative of both sides of e2 x−y = yields
y

2xy − x2 y"
e2 x−y (2 − y" ) =
y2
Substituting x = 2, y = 4, we find
16 − 4y" 4
e0 (2 − y" ) = or y" =
16 3
Hence, the equation of the tangent line is y − 4 = 43 (x − 2) or y = 43 x + 43 .
63. Find the points on the graph of y2 = x3 − 3x + 1 (Figure 9) where the tangent line is horizontal.
(a) First show that 2yy" = 3x2 − 3, where y" = dy/dx.
(b) Do not solve for y" . Rather, set y" = 0 and solve for x. This yields two values of x where the slope may be zero.
(c) Show that the positive value of x does not correspond to a point on the graph.
(d) The negative value corresponds to the two points on the graph where the tangent line is horizontal. Find their coor-
dinates.

x
−2 −1 1 2

−2

FIGURE 9 Graph of y2 = x3 − 3x + 1.

SOLUTION
(a) Applying implicit differentiation to y2 = x3 − 3x + 1, we have
dy
2y = 3x2 − 3
dx
(b) Setting y" = 0 we have 0 = 3x2 − 3, so x = 1 or x = −1.
(c) If we return to the equation y2 = x3 − 3x + 1 and substitute x = 1, we obtain the equation y2 = −1, which has no real
solutions.
 S E C T I O N 3.8 Implicit Differentiation 67

(d) Substituting x = −1 into y2 = x3 − 3x + 1 yields

y2 = (−1)3 − 3(−1) + 1 = −1 + 3 + 1 = 3
√ √ √ √
so y = 3 or − 3. The tangent is horizontal at the points (−1, 3) and (−1, − 3).
65. Find all points on the graph of 3x2 + 4y2 + 3xy = 24 where the tangent line is horizontal (Figure 10).
i
−y

FIGURE 10 Graph of 3x2 + 4y2 + 3xy = 24.

SOLUTION
(a) Differentiating the equation 3x2 + 4y2 + 3xy = 24 implicitly yields

6x + 8yy" + 3xy" + 3y = 0

so
6x + 3y
y" = −
8y + 3x
Setting y" = 0 leads to 6x + 3y = 0, or y = −2x.
(b) Substituting y = −2x into the equation 3x2 + 4y2 + 3xy = 24 yields

3x2 + 4(−2x)2 + 3x(−2x) = 24

√
or 13x2 = 24. Thus, x = ±2 78/13, and the coordinates of the two points on the graph of 3x2 + 4y2 + 3xy = 24 where
the tangent line is horizontal are
 √ √   √ √ 
 2 78 4 78   2 78 4 78 
 ,−  and − , 
13 13 13 13

67. Figure 1 shows the graph of y4 + xy = x3 − x + 2. Find

2 dy/dx at the two points on the graph with x-coordinate 0 and
find an equation of the tangent line at each of those points.
SOLUTION Consider the equation y4 + xy = x3 − x + 2. Then 4y3 y" + xy" + y = 3x2 − 1, and

3x2 − y − 1
y" =
x + 4y3
√4 √4
Substituting x = 0 into y4 + xy = x3 − x + 2 gives y4 = 2, which has two real solutions, y = ± 2. When y = 2, we have
√4 √ √4
− 2−1 2+ 2
y" = # √ $3 = −
4 2
4 8
# √4 $
so an equation of the tangent line at the point 0, 2 is
√ √4
2+ 2 √4
y=− x+ 2
8
√4
When y = − 2, we have
√4 √ √4
2−1 2− 2
y = # √ $3 = −
"
4
4 − 2 8
# √4 $
so an equation of the tangent line at the point 0, − 2 is
√ √4
2− 2 √4
y=− x− 2
8
68 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

69. Find a point on the folium x3 + y3 = 3xy other than the origin at which the tangent line is horizontal.
SOLUTION Using implicit differentiation, we find

d # 3 $ d
x + y3 = (3xy)
dx dx
3x2 + 3y2 y" = 3(xy" + y)

Setting y" = 0 in this equation yields 3x2 = 3y or y = x2 . If we substitute this expression into the original equation
x3 + y3 = 3xy, we obtain:

x3 + x6 = 3x(x2 ) = 3x3 or x3 (x3 − 2) = 0

One solution of this equation is x = 0 and the other is x = 21/3 . Thus, the two points on the folium x3 + y3 = 3xy at which
the tangent line is horizontal are (0, 0) and (21/3 , 22/3 ).
71. Find the x-coordinates of the points where the tangent line is horizontal on the trident curve xy = x3 − 5x2 + 2x − 1,
so named by Isaac Newton in his treatise on curves published in 1710 (Figure 12).
Hint: 2x3 − 5x2 + 1 = (2x − 1)(x2 − 2x − 1).

20

4
x
−2 2 6 8

−20

FIGURE 12 Trident curve: xy = x3 − 5x2 + 2x − 1.

SOLUTION Take the derivative of the equation of a trident curve:

xy = x3 − 5x2 + 2x − 1

to obtain

xy" + y = 3x2 − 10x + 2

Setting y" = 0 in (a) gives y = 3x2 − 10x + 2. Substituting this into the equation of the trident, we have

xy = x(3x2 − 10x + 2) = x3 − 5x2 + 2x − 1

or

3x3 − 10x2 + 2x = x3 − 5x2 + 2x − 1

Collecting like terms and setting to zero, we have

0 = 2x3 − 5x2 + 1 = (2x − 1)(x2 − 2x − 1)

√
Hence, x = 12 , 1 ± 2.

73. Find the derivative at the points where x = 1 on the folium (x2 + y2 )2 = 25
4
xy2 . See Figure
2 14.

x
1

−2
25 2
FIGURE 14 Folium curve: (x2 + y2 )2 = xy .
4
 S E C T I O N 3.8 Implicit Differentiation 69

SOLUTION First, find the points (1, y) on the curve. Setting x = 1 in the equation (x2 + y2 )2 = 25
4
xy2 yields

25 2
(1 + y2 )2 = y
4
25 2
y4 + 2y2 + 1 = y
4
4y4 + 8y2 + 4 = 25y2
4y4 − 17y2 + 4 = 0
(4y2 − 1)(y2 − 4) = 0
1
y2 = or y2 = 4
4
Hence y = ± 12 or y = ±2. Taking d
dx
of both sides of the original equation yields

25 2 25
2( x2 + y2 )(2x + 2yy" ) = y + xyy"
4 2
25 2 25
4(x2 + y2 )x + 4(x2 + y2 )yy" = y + xyy"
4 2
25 25 2
(4(x2 + y2 ) − x)yy" = y − 4(x2 + y2 )x
2 4
y
25 2
− 4(x2 + y2 )x
y" = 4
y(4(x2 + y2 ) − 25
2
x)

• At (1, 2), x2 + y2 = 5, and

25 2
2 − 4(5)(1) 1
y" = 4
=
2(4(5) − 25
2
(1)) 3

Hence, at (1, 2), the equation of the tangent line is y − 2 = 31 (x − 1) or y = 13 x + 35 .

• At (1, −2), x2 + y2 = 5 as well, and
25
(−2)2 − 4(5)(1) 1
y" = 4
=−
−2(4(5) − 25
2
(1)) 3

Hence, at (1, −2), the equation of the tangent line is y + 2 = − 13 (x − 1) or y = − 13 x − 53 .

• At (1, 12 ), x2 + y2 = 45 , and
# $
# $2
25 1
− 4 54 (1) 11
y" = # # $
4 2
$ =
1
4 54 − 25 (1) 12
2 2

Hence, at (1, 12 ), the equation of the tangent line is y − 1

2
= 11
12
(x − 1) or y = 11
12
x − 5
12
.
• At (1, − 21 ), x2 + y2 = 45 , and
# $2 # $
25
− 21 − 4 54 (1) 11
y" =
4
# # $ $ =−
1 5 25
− 2 4 4 − 2 (1) 12

Hence, at (1, − 21 ), the equation of the tangent line is y + 1

2
11
= − 12 (x − 1) or y = − 12
11
x+ 5
12
.
The folium and its tangent lines are plotted below:
y

x
0.5 1 1.5 2
−1

−2
70 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

75. Calculate dx/dy for the equation y4 + 1 = y2 + x2 and find the points on the graph where the tangent line is vertical.
SOLUTION Let y4 + 1 = y2 + x2 . Differentiating this equation with respect to y yields

dx
4y3 = 2y + 2x
dy
so
dx 4y3 − 2y y(2y2 − 1)
= =
dy 2x x
√
dx 2
Thus, = 0 when y = 0 and when y = ± . Substituting y = 0 into the equation y4 + 1 = y2 + x2 gives 1 = x2 , so
dy √ 2 √
2 3
x = ±1. Substituting y = ± , gives x2 = 3/4, so x = ± . Thus, there are six points on the graph of y4 + 1 = y2 + x2
2 2
where the tangent line is vertical:
√ √   √ √  √ √   √ √ 
 3 2   3 2   3 2   3 2 
(1, 0), (−1, 0),  ,  , − ,  ,  ,−  , − ,− 
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

77. Use a computer algebra system to plot y2 = x3 − 4x for x and y between −4 and 2 2
4. Show
2
that if
2
dx/dy = 0,
then y = 0. Conclude that the tangent line is vertical at the points where the curve intersects the x-axis. Does your plot
confirm this conclusion?
SOLUTION A plot of the curve y2 = x3 − 4x is shown below.

x
−2 −1 1 2 3

−1

−2

Differentiating the equation y2 = x3 − 4x with respect to y yields

dx dx
2y = 3x2 −4
dy dy
or
dx 2y
=
dy 3x2 − 4

From here, it follows that dxdy

= 0 when y = 0, so the tangent line to this curve is vertical at the points where the curve
intersects the x-axis. This conclusion is confirmed by the plot of the curve shown above.

In Exercises 79 and 80, first compute y" and y"" by implicit differentiation. Then solve the given equation for y, and
hi
compute y" and y"" by direct differentiation. Finally, show that the results obtained by each approach are the same.

79. xy = y − 2

SOLUTION Let xy = y − 2. Then

y
y + xy" = y" which yields y" =
1−x
Additionally,
y
(1 − x)y" − y(−1) (1 − x) 1− x + y 2y
y"" = = =
(1 − x)2 (1 − x)2 (1 − x)2
Solving the original equation for y, we find
2
y= = 2(1 − x)−1
1−x
 S E C T I O N 3.8 Implicit Differentiation 71

Then,
2 4
y" = −2(1 − x)−2 (−1) = 2(1 − x)−2 = and y"" = −4(1 − x)−3 (−1) = 4(1 − x)−3 =
(1 − x)2 (1 − x)3

If we substitute y = 1 −2 x into the expressions for y" and y"" obtained by implicit differentiation, the expressions obtained
by direct differentiation result.

3 81 84, use implicit differentiation to calculate higher derivatives.

In Exercises 8
81. Consider the equation y3 − 32 x2 = 1.
(a) Show that y" = x/y2 and differentiate again to show that

y2 − 2xyy"
y"" =
y4

(b) Express y"" in terms of x and y using part (a).

SOLUTION
(a) Let y3 − 32 x2 = 1. Then 3y2 y" − 3x = 0, and y" = x/y2 . Therefore,

y2 · 1 − x · 2yy" y2 − 2xyy"
y"" = =
y4 y4
(b) Substituting the expression for y" into the result for y"" gives
# $
y2 − 2xy x/y2 y3 − 2x2
y =
""
=
y4 y5

83. Calculate y"" at the point (1, 1) on the curve xy2 + y − 2 = 0 by the following steps:
(a) Find y" by implicit differentiation and calculate y" at the point (1, 1).
(b) Differentiate the expression for y" found in (a). Then compute y"" at (1, 1) by substituting x = 1, y = 1, and the value
of y" found in (a).
SOLUTION Let xy2 + y − 2 = 0.
y2 1
(a) Then x · 2yy" + y2 · 1 + y" = 0, and y" = − . At (x, y) = (1, 1), we have y" = − .
2xy + 1 3
(b) Differentiating the expression for y" from (a) yields

(2xy + 1) (2yy" ) − y2 (2xy" + 2y)

y"" = −
(2xy + 1)2

Substituting x = 1, y = 1, and y" = − 13 gives

# $ # $
(3) − 23 − (1) − 23 + 2 −6 + 2 − 6 10
y =−
""
=− =
32 27 27

Exercises
U 85 andm86 explor
of te the
pr radius ofx curvatur
to e of curves.
y " Ther
th e can be many
) oncir
t cles
cu that 3
= ent
e ar+e tang 3x to a−curve
2 at
a particular point, but there is one that provides a “best fit” (Figure 17). This circle is called an osculating circle of the
curve. We define it formally in Section 13.4. The radius of the osculating circle is called the radius of curvature of the
curve and can be shown to be

(1 + (dy/dx)2 )3/2
r=
|d2 y/dx2 |

FIGURE 17 The osculating circle (red) at a point is the tangent circle that best fits the curve.
72 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

85. Consider the ellipse x2 + 4y2 = 16.

(a) Compute the radius of curvature in terms of x and y.
√
(b) Compute the radius of curvature at (4, 0), (2, 3), and (0, 2). Sketch the ellipse, plot these three points, and label
them with the corresponding radius of curvature.
SOLUTION
(a) Let x2 + 4y2 = 16. Then
x
2x + 8yy" = 0 so y" = −
4y
Additionally,
# $
4y − x − yx 4y + xy
2
4y(1) − x(4y"
) 4y2 + x2 16 1
y"" = − = − = − =− =− =− 3
16y 2 16y 2 16y 2 16y3 16y3 y
Thus,
# $3/2 * +3/2
x2 16y2 + x2 (16y2 + x2 )3/2
1+ 16y2 16y2 64y3 (16y2 + x2 )3/2
r= 1
= 1
= 1
=
y3 y3 y3
64

(b) At the point (4, 0), the radius of curvature is

(0 + 16)3/2 64
r= = =1
64 64
√
at the point (2, 3), the radius of curvature is

(16(3) + 4)3/2 523/2 133/2

r= = =
64 64 8
at the point (0, 2), the radius of curvature is

(16(4) + 0)3/2 643/2 √

r= = = 64 = 8
64 64
A sketch of the ellipse with these three points labeled with the radius of curvature is shown in the figure below.
y

2 r 5 8 r 5 13 13
8
1
r51
x
24 22 2 4
21

22

In Exercises 87 89, x and y are2 functions

2 of a variable t. Use implicit differentiation to express dy/dt in terms of dx/dt,
x, and y.

87. x2 y =
C3
SOLUTION Let x2 y = 3. Assuming that x and y are function of a variable t, it follows that
! "
dx dy dy 2y dx
2x y + x2 = 0 so =−
dt dt dt x dt

89. y4 + 2x2 = xy
2

SOLUTION Let y4 + 2x2 = xy. Assuming that x and y are function of a variable t, it follows that

dy dx dx dy
4y3 + 4x = y+x
dt dt dt dt
dy dx
(4y3 − x) = (y − 4x)
dt dt
dy y − 4x dx
= 3
dt 4y − x dt
 S E C T I O N 3.8 Implicit Differentiation 73

Further Insights and Challenges

91. Show that if P lies on the intersection of the two curves x2 − y2 = c and xy = d (c, d constants), then the tangents to
the curves at P are perpendicular.

SOLUTION Let C1 be the curve described by x2 − y2 = c, and let C2 be the curve described by xy = d. Suppose that
P = (x0 , y0 ) lies on the intersection of the two curves x2 − y2 = c and xy = d. Since x2 − y2 = c, the chain rule gives us
2x − 2yy" = 0, so that y" = 2x 2y
= yx . The slope to the tangent line to C1 is yx00 . On the curve C 2, since xy = d, the product
rule yields that xy" + y = 0, so that y" = − yx . Therefore the slope to the tangent line to C2 is − yx00 . The two slopes are
negative reciprocals of one another, hence the tangents to the two curves are perpendicular.

93. Divide the curve in Figure 18 into five branches,2 each of which is the graph of a function. Sketch the branches.
J

2
x
−4 −2 4

−2

FIGURE 18 Graph of y5 − y = x2 y + x + 1.

SOLUTION The branches are:

• Upper branch:

x
−4 −2 2 4
−2

• Lower part of lower left curve:

x
−4 −3 −2 −1
−1

−2

• Upper part of lower left curve:

x
−4 −3 −2 −1
−1

−2

• Upper part of lower right curve:

1
1 2 3 4
x

−1

−2
74 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

• Lower part of lower right curve:

y

1
1 2 3 4
x

−1

−2

3.9 Derivatives of General Exponential and Logarithmic

Functions
Preliminary Questions
1. What is the slope of the tangent line to y = 4 x at x = 0?
SOLUTION The slope of the tangent line to y = 4 x at x = 0 is
, ,,
d x ,,
4 ,, = 4 x ln 4,,, = ln 4
dx x=0 x=0

2. What is the rate of change of y = ln x at x = 10?

SOLUTION The rate of change of y = ln x at x = 10 is
,, ,
d 1, 1
ln x,,, = ,,, =
dx x=10 x x=10 10

3. What is b > 0 if the tangent line to y = b x at x = 0 has slope 2?

SOLUTION The tangent line to y = b x at x = 0 has slope
, ,,
d x ,,
b ,, = b x ln b,,, = ln b
dx x=0 x=0

This slope will be equal to 2 when

ln b = 2 or b = e2

1
4. What is b if (logb x)" = ?
3x
! ""
ln x 1
SOLUTION (logb x)" = = . This derivative will equal 1
when
ln b x ln b 3x

ln b = 3 or b = e3

5. What are y(100) and y(101) for y = cosh x?

SOLUTION Let y = cosh x. Then y" = sinh x, y"" = cosh x, and this pattern repeats indefinitely. Thus, y(100) = cosh x and
y(101) = sinh x.

Exercises
In Exercises 1 20, find the derivative.

1. y = x ln x
d x
SOLUTION x ln x = ln x + = ln x + 1
dx x
3. y = 2 x
3

d x3
2 = 3x2 (ln 2)2 x
3
SOLUTION
dx
 S E C T I O N 3.9 Derivatives of General Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 75

5. y = ln(9x2 − 8)
d 18x
SOLUTION ln(9x2 − 8) = 2
dx 9x − 8
7. y = (ln x)2
d 1 2
SOLUTION (ln x)2 = (2 ln x) = ln x
dx x x
9. y = e(ln x)
2

d (ln x)2 ln x
e = e(ln x) · 2 ·
2
SOLUTION
dx x
11. y = ln(ln x)
d 1
SOLUTION ln(ln x) =
dx x ln x
& '3
l ( x)t
13. y = ln(ln
! "! "
d 1 1 3(ln(ln x))2
SOLUTION (ln(ln x)) = 3(ln(ln x))
3 2
=
dx ln x x x ln x
& '
15. y = ln (x + 1)(2x + 9)
SOLUTION

d 1 4x + 11
ln ((x + 1)(2x + 9)) = · ((x + 1)2 + (2x + 9)) =
dx (x + 1)(2x + 9) (x + 1)(2x + 9)

Alternately, because ln((x + 1)(2x + 9)) = ln(x + 1) + ln(2x + 9),

d 1 2 4x + 11
ln((x + 1)(2x + 9)) = + =
dx x + 1 2x + 9 (x + 1)(2x + 9)

17. y = 11 x ! "
d x
SOLUTION + = ln 11 · 11 x
11
dx
2 x − 3−x
19. y =
x
d 2 x − 3−x x(2 x ln 2 + 3−x ln 3) − (2 x − 3−x )
SOLUTION =
dx x x2
In Exercises 21s 24,
x compute the derivative.

21. f " (x), f (x) = log2 x

ln x 1 1
SOLUTION f (x) = log2 x = . Thus, f " (x) = · .
ln 2 x ln 2
d
23. f (3 (sin tf)
log
dt
! "
d d ln(sin t) 1 1 cot t
SOLUTION log3 (sin t) = = · · cos t =
dt dt ln 3 ln 3 sin t ln 3

In Exercises
d 25 36, find an equation of the tangent line at the point indicated.
25. f (x) = 6 x , x=2
SOLUTION Let f (x) = 6 x . Then f (2) = 36, f " (x) = 6 x ln 6 and f " (2) = 36 ln 6. The equation of the tangent line is
therefore y = 36 ln 6(x − 2) + 36.
27. s(t) = 39t , t = 2
SOLUTION Let s(t) = 39t . Then s(2) = 318 , s" (t) = 39t 9 ln 3, and s" (2) = 318 · 9 ln 3 = 320 ln 3. The equation of the
tangent line is therefore y = 320 ln 3(t − 2) + 318 .

29. f (x) = 5 x x=1

2 −2x
,
Let f (x) = 5 x −2x+9 . Then f (1) = 58 . f " (x) = ln 5 · 5 x (2x − 2), so f " (1) = ln 5(0) = 0. Therefore, the
2 2 −2 x+9
SOLUTION
equation of the tangent line is y = 58 .
76 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

31. s(t) = ln(8 − 4t), t = 1

SOLUTION Let s(t) = ln(8 − 4t). Then s(1) = ln(8 − 4) = ln 4. s" (t) = −4
8−4t
, so s" (1) = −4/4 = −1. Therefore the
equation of the tangent line is y = −1(t − 1) + ln 4.
33. R(z) = log5 (2z2 + 7), z = 3
SOLUTION Let R(z) = log5 (2z2 + 7). Then R(3) = log5 (25) = 2,

4z 12
R" (z) = and R" (3) =
(2z2 + 7) ln 5 25 ln 5
The equation of the tangent line is therefore
12
y= (z − 3) + 2
25 ln 5

35. f (w) = log2 w, w= 1

8

SOLUTION Let f (w) = log

42 w. Then
! "
1 1
f = log2 = log2 2−3 = −3
8 8

f " (w) = 1
w ln 2
, and
! "
1 8
f" =
8 ln 2

The equation of the tangent line is therefore

! "
8 1
y= w− −3
ln 2 8

In Exercises 37 44, find the derivative using logarithmic differentiation as in Example 5.

37. y = (x + 5)(x + 9)
SOLUTION Let y = (x + 5)(x + 9). Then ln y = ln((x + 5)(x + 9)) = ln(x + 5) + ln(x + 9). By logarithmic differentiation

y" 1 1
= +
y x+5 x+9
or
! "
1 1
y" = (x + 5)(x + 9) + = (x + 9) + (x + 5) = 2x + 14
x+5 x+9

39. y = (x − 1)(x − 12)(x + 7)

SOLUTION Let y = (x − 1)(x − 12)(x + 7). Then ln y = ln(x − 1) + ln(x − 12) + ln(x + 7). By logarithmic differentiation,

y" 1 1 1
= + +
y x − 1 x − 12 x + 7
or

y" = (x − 12)(x + 7) + (x − 1)(x + 7) + (x − 1)(x − 12) = 3x2 − 12x + 79

x(x2 + 1)
41. y = √
x+1
(
x( x2 +1)
SOLUTION Let y = √ . Then ln y = ln x + ln(x2 + 1) − 12 ln(x + 1). By logarithmic differentiation
x+1

y" 1 2x 1
= + 2 −
y x x + 1 2(x + 1)
so
! "
x(x2 + 1) 1 2x 1
y" = √ + 2 −
x + 1 x x + 1 2(x + 1)
 S E C T I O N 3.9 Derivatives of General Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 77

#
x(x + 2)
43. y =
(2x + 1)(3x + 2)
$
x(x+2)
SOLUTION Let y = (2x+1)(2x+2)
. Then ln y = 12 [ln(x) + ln(x + 2) − ln(2x + 1) − ln(2x + 2)]. By logarithmic differenti-
ation
! "
y" 1 1 1 2 2
= + − −
y 2 x x + 2 2x + 1 2x + 2
so
# ! "
1 x(x + 2) 1 1 2 1
y =
"
· + − −
2 (2x + 1)(2x + 2) x x + 2 2x + 1 x + 1

In Exercises 45
3 50, find
4 the derivative
5 2 using either method of Example 6.

45. f (x) = x3x

SOLUTION Method 1: x3x = e3x ln x , so

d 3x
x = e3x ln x (3 + 3 ln x) = x3x (3 + 3 ln x)
dx
Method 2: Let y = x3x . Then, ln y = 3x ln x. By logarithmic differentiation
y" 1
= 3x · + 3 ln x
y x
so

y" = y(3 + 3 ln x) = x3x (3 + 3 ln x)

x
47. f (x) = xe
x x
SOLUTION Method 1: xe = ee ln x
, so
! x " ! x "
d ex x e x e
x = ee ln x + e x ln x = xe + e x ln x
dx x x
x
Method 2: Let y = xe . Then ln y = e x ln x. By logarithmic differentiation
y" 1
= e x · + e x ln x
y x
so
! " ! x "
ex x ex e x
y =y
"
+ e ln x = x + e ln x
x x

49. f (x) = xcos x

SOLUTION Method 1: xcos x = ecos x ln x , so

d cos x % cos x & % cos x &

x = ecos x ln x − sin x ln x = xcos x − sin x ln x
dx x x
Method 2: Let y = xcos x . Then ln y = cos x ln x. By logarithmic differentiation
y" 1
= cos x · + ln x(− sin x)
y x
so
% cos x & % cos x &
y" = y − sin x ln x = xcos x − sin x ln x
x x

In Exercises 51 x74, calculate the derivative.

f( )
51. y = sinh(9x)
d
SOLUTION sinh(9x) = 9 cosh(9x)
dx
78 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

53. y = cosh2 (9 − 3t)

d
SOLUTION cosh2 (9 − 3t) = 2 cosh(9 − 3t) · (−3 sinh(9 − 3t)) = −6 cosh(9 − 3t) sinh(9 − 3t)
dt
√
55. y = cosh x +
2 1
d √ 1
SOLUTION cosh x + 1 = (cosh x + 1)−1/2 sinh x
dx 2
coth t
57. y =
1 + tanh t
d coth t − csch2 t(1 + tanh t) − coth t(sech2 t)
SOLUTION =
dt 1 + tanh t (1 + tanh t)2
59. y = sinh(ln x)
d cosh(ln x)
SOLUTION sinh(ln x) =
dx x
61. y = tanh(e x )
d
SOLUTION tanh(e x ) = e x sech2 (e x )
dx
√
63. y = sech( x)
d √ 1 √ √
SOLUTION sech( x) = − x−1/2 sech x tanh x
dx 2
65. y = sech x coth x
d d
SOLUTION sech x coth x = csch x = − csch x coth x
dx dx
67. y = cosh−1 (3x)
d 3
SOLUTION cosh−1 (3x) = √
dx 9x2 − 1
69. y = (sinh−1 (x12 ))3
d 2x
SOLUTION sinh−1 (x2 ) = √
dx x4 + 1
x
71. y = ecosh
−1

! "
d cosh−1 x 1
e = ecosh x √
−1
SOLUTION
dx x2 − 1
73. y = tanh−1 (ln t)
d 1
SOLUTION tanh−1 (ln t) =
dt t(1 − (ln t)2 )

In Exercises 75 77,−1prove the formula.

l ( )
d
75. (sech x) = − sech x tanh x
dx
! " ! "! "
d d 1 1 1 sinh x
SOLUTION sech x = =− sinh x = − = − sech x tanh x
dx dx cosh x cosh2 x cosh x cosh x
d 1
77. cosh−1 t =
1 √ 2 for t > 1
dt =t − 1
SOLUTION Let x = cosh−1 t. Then t = cosh x and

dx dx 1
1 = sinh x or =
dt dt sinh x
Thus, for t > 1,
d 1
cosh−1 t =
dt sinh(cosh−1 t)
Now, for t ≥ 1, note
d' ( 1 t d √2
sinh(cosh−1 t) = cosh(cosh−1 t) √ = √ = t −1
dt t2 − 1 t2 − 1 dt
 S E C T I O N 3.9 Derivatives of General Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 79

√
so the functions sinh(cosh−1 t) and t2 − 1 differ by a constant; substituting t = 1 we find that the constant is 0. Therefore,
for t ≥ 1,
√
sinh(cosh−1 t) = t2 − 1

and
d 1 1
cosh−1 t = = √
dt sinh(cosh−1 t) t2 − 1

79. Over rough uneven terrain, the log wind profile from Example 3 is expressed as

ln(h/0.4)
v = v0
ln(h0 /0.4)

With v0 = 10 m/s at h0 = 10 m, determine v and dv/dh at h = 60.

SOLUTION Let v0 = 10 m/s, h0 = 10 m, and

ln(h/0.4) ln(h/0.4) 10
v = v0 = 10 = ln(h/0.4)
ln(h0 /0.4) ln(10/0.4) ln 25

Then
dv 10 1 1 10
= · · =
dh ln 25 h/0.4 0.4 h ln 25

Thus,
10 10
v(60) = ln(60/0.4) = ln 150 ≈ 15.5664 m/s
ln 25 ln 25
and
)
dv )) 10
) = ≈ 0.0518 m/s per m
dh )h=60 60 ln 25

ah − 1
81. In Exercise 46 in Section 2.3 and Exercises 41 and 42 in Section 2.5, similarities between lim h
and ln a were
h→0
investigated. Here, it is established that they are equal. Let f (x) = a x . We have f " (x) = (ln a)a x . Set up and simplify the
h
expression for lim f (x + h)h − f (x) , and use the resulting evxpression
= v0 to show that lim a h− 1 = ln a.
h→0 h→0

SOLUTION
ith v Let f (x) = ha x =Then
10 m/s 10 m
f (x + h) − f (x) a x+h − a x a x ah − a x ah − 1
f " (x) = lim = lim = lim = a x lim
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
But, f (x) = (ln a)a , from which it follows that
" x

ah − 1
lim = ln a
h→0 h

83. Show that for any constants M, k, and a, the function

! ! ""
1 k(t − a)
y(t) = M 1 + tanh
2 2

y" * y+
satisfies the logistic equation: =k 1− .
y M
SOLUTION Let
! ! ""
1 k(t − a)
y(t) = M 1 + tanh
2 2

Then
! ! ""
y(t) 1 k(t − a)
1− = 1 − tanh
M 2 2
80 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

and
! " ! ! ""
y(t) 1 k(t − a)
ky(t) 1 − = Mk 1 − tanh2
M 4 2
! "
1 k(t − a)
= Mk sech2
4 2
Finally,
! " ! "
1 k(t − a) y(t)
y" (t) = Mk sech2 = ky(t) 1 −
4 2 M

85. The Palermo Technical Impact Hazard Scale P is used to quantify the risk associated with the impact of an asteroid
colliding with the earth:
d
! "
pi E 0.8
P = log10
0.03T
where pi is the probability of impact, T is the number of years until impact, and E is the energy of impact (in megatons
of TNT). The risk is greater than a random event of similar magnitude if P > 0.
(a) Calculate dP/dT , assuming that pi = 2 × 10−5 and E = 2 megatons.
(b) Use the derivative to estimate the change in P if T increases from 8 to 9 years.
SOLUTION
(a) Observe that
! " ! "
pi E 0.8 pi E 0.8
P = log10 = log10 − log10 T
0.03T 0.03
so
dP 1
=−
dT T ln 10
(b) If T increases to 26 years from 25 years, then
)
dP )) 1
∆P ≈ ) · ∆T = − · (1 yr) = −0.017
dT )T =25 (25 yr) ln 10

Further Insights and Challenges

87. For x > 0 and any real number n, xn = en ln x . Show that e
d n ln x
dx
= nxn−1 , thereby proving the power rule for all
) S (as long as x > 0).
exponents
SOLUTION xn x))
Let x > 0 and n be any real number. Then )g = en ln x , so that
+
d n d n ln x d n n
x = e =ben ln x (n ln x) = en ln x · = xsn · = nxn−11
dx dx dx x x

3.10 Related Rates

Preliminary Questions
v = 3 and y = x2 , what is
1. If dx dy
when x = −3, 2, 5?
dt dt
SOLUTION Let y = x . Then
2

dy dx
= 2x
dt dt
dx
Given dt
= 3, it follows that
)
dy ))
) = 2(−3)(3) = −18
dt ) x=−3
)
dy ))
) = 2(2)(3) = 12
dt ) x=2
)
dy ))
) = 2(5)(3) = 30
dt ) x=5
 S E C T I O N 3.10 Related Rates 81

dy
2. If dx
dt
= 2 and y = x3 , what is dt
when x = −4, 2, 6?
SOLUTION Let y = x . Then
3

dy dx
= 3x2
dt dt
dx
Given dt
= 2, it follows that
)
dy ))
) = 3(−4)2 (2) = 96
dt ) x=−4
)
dy ))
)) = 3(2)2 (2) = 24
dt x=2
)
dy ))
) = 3(6)2 (2) = 216
dt ) x=6

3. Assign variables and restate the following problem in terms of known and unknown derivatives (but do not solve it):
How fast is the volume of a cube increasing if its side increases at a rate of 0.5 cm/s?
SOLUTION Let s and V denote the length of the side and the corresponding volume of a cube, respectively. Determine
dV ds
dt
if
= 0.5 cm/s.
dt
, -
4. What is the relation between dV/dt and dr/dt if V = 43 πr3 ?
dV
SOLUTION Applying the general power rule, we find dt
= 4πr2 dr
dt
.

In Questions 5 and 6, water pours into a cylindrical glass of radius 4 cm. Let V and h denote the volume and water level,
respectively, at time t.

5. Restate this question in terms of dV/dt and dh/dt: How fast is the water level rising if water pours in at a rate of
2 cm3 /min?
dh dV
SOLUTION Determine dt
if dt
= 2 cm3 /min.
6. Restate this question in terms of dV/dt and dh/dt: At what rate is water pouring in if the water level rises at a rate of
1 cm/min?
dV dh
SOLUTION Determine dt
if dt
= 1 cm/min.

Exercises
In Exercises 1 and 2, consider a rectangular bathtub whose base is 18 ft2 .

1. How fast is the water level rising if water is filling the tub at a rate of 0.7 ft3 /min?
dV dh
SOLUTION Let h be the height of the water in the tub and V be the volume of the water. Then V = 18h and = 18 .
dt dt
Thus
dh 1 dV 1
= = (0.7) ≈ 0.039 ft/min
dt 18 dt 18

3. The radius of a circular oil slick expands at a rate of 2 m/min.

(a) How fast is the area of the oil slick increasing when the radius is 25 m?
(b) If the radius is 0 at time t = 0, how fast is the area increasing after 3 min?

SOLUTION Let r be the radius of the oil slick and A its area.
dA dr
(a) Then A = πr2 and = 2πr . Substituting r = 25 and dr = 2, we find
dt dt dt

dA
= 2π (25) (2) = 100π ≈ 314.16 m2 /min
dt

(b) Since dr
dt
= 2 and r(0) = 0, it follows that r(t) = 2t. Thus, r(3) = 6 and

dA
= 2π (6) (2) = 24π ≈ 75.40 m2 /min
dt
82 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

In Exercises 5 8, assume that the radius r of a sphere is expanding at a rate of 30 cm/min. The volume of a sphere is
V = 43 πr3 and its surface area is 4πr2 . Determine the given rate.

5. Volume with respect to time when r = 15 cm

dr d
SOLUTION As the radius is expanding at 30 centimeters per minute, we know that dt
= 30 cm/min. Taking dt
of the
equation V = 43 πr3 yields
! "
dV 4 dr dr
= π 3r2 = 4πr2
dt 3 dt dt

Substituting r = 15 and dr
dt
= 30 yields

dV
= 4π(15)2 (30) = 27000π cm3 /min
dt

7. Surface area with respect to time when r = 40 cm

SOLUTION Taking the derivative of both sides of A = 4πr2 with respect to t yields dA
dt
= 8πr dr
dt
. dr
dt
= 30, so

dA
= 8π(40)(30) = 9600π cm2 /min
dt

9. A conical tank (as in Example 2) has height 3 m and radius 2 m at the base. Water flows in at a rate of 2 m3 /min.
How fast is the water level rising when the level is 1 m and when the level is 2 m?
SOLUTION Let V denote the volume of the water in the tank in m3 , and let h denote the height of the water in the
tank in m. Now, the volume of water in the tank can be calculated as the difference between the volume of the tank and
the volume of the conical space in the tank above the water. The volume of the conical tank is 13 π(2)2 (3) = 4π, and the
volume of the conical space is 13 πr2 (3 − h), where r and 3 − h are the base radius and the height, respectively, of the
conical space. Note that the triangles highlighted in the figure below are similar; therefore, 3 −r h = 23 . Thus, r = 2(33− h) , so
! "2
1 2(3 − h) 4
V = 4π − π (3 − h) = 4π − π(3 − h)3
3 3 27

Differentiating with respect to t, we obtain

! "
dV 4 dh 4 dh
= 0 − π(3(3 − h)2 ) − = π(3 − h)2
dt 27 dt 9 dt

32 h

3 r

dV dh
Substituting 2 for dt
and then solving for dt
yields

dh 9
=
dt 2π(3 − h)2
When the water level is 1 m, the water level is rising at a rate of
)
dh )) 9 9
) = = ≈ 0.3581 m/min
dt )h=1 2π(2)2 8π
when the water level is 2 m, the water level is rising at a rate of
)
dh )) 9 9
)) = = ≈ 1.4324 m/min
dt h=2 2π(1)2 2π

In Exercises 11 14, refer to a 5 m ladder sliding down a wall, as in Figures 5 and 6. The variable h is the height 3of the
nk l 2 h he h 8 r 4m tt b t fl 3 / i
ladder’s top at time
dh t, and x is the distance from the wall to the ladder’s bottom.

11. Assume the bottom slides away from the wall at a rate of 0.8 m/s. Find the velocity of the top of the ladder at t = 2 s
if the bottom is 1.5 m from the wall at t = 0 s.
 S E C T I O N 3.10 Related Rates 83

SOLUTION Let x denote the distance from the base of the ladder to the wall, and h denote the height of the top of the
ladder from the floor. The ladder is 5 m long, so h2 + x2 = 52 . At any time t, x = 1.5 + 0.8t. Therefore, at time t = 2, the
base is x = 1.5 + 0.8(2) = 3.1 m from the wall. Furthermore, we have
dh dx dh x dx
2h + 2x = 0 so =−
dt dt dt h dt
√
Substituting x = 3.1, h = 52 − 3.12 and dx
dt
= 0.8, we obtain

dh 3.1
=−√ (0.8) ≈ −0.632 m/s
dt 52 − 3.12

13. Suppose that h(0) = 4 and the top slides down the wall at a rate of 1.2 m/s. Calculate x and dx/dt at t = 2 s.
SOLUTION Let h and x be the height of the ladder’s top and the distance from the wall of the ladder’s bottom, respec-
tively. After 2 seconds, h = 4 + 2 (−1.2) = 1.6 m. Since h2 + x2 = 52 ,
√
x = 52 − 1.62 = 4.737 m
dh dx dx h dh
Furthermore, we have 2h + 2x = 0, so that =− . Substituting h = 1.6, x = 4.737, and dh
= −1.2, we find
dt dt dt x dt dt

dx 1.6
=− (−1.2) ≈ 0.405 m/s
dt 4.737

15. The radius r and height h of a circular cone change at a rate of 2 cm/s. How fast is the volume of the cone increasing
when r = 10 and h = 20?
SOLUTION Let r be the radius, h be the height, and V be the volume of a right circular cone. Then V = 13 πr2 h, and
! "
dV 1 dh dr
= π r2 + 2hr
dt 3 dt dt

When r = 10, h = 20, and dr

dt
= dh
dt
= 2, we find

dV π* 2 + 1000π
= 10 · 2 + 2 · 20 · 10 · 2 = ≈ 1047.20 cm3 /s
dt 3 3

17. A man of height 1.8 m walks away from a 5-m lamppost at a speed of 1.2 m/s (Figure 10). Find the rate at which
his shadow is increasing in length.

x y

FIGURE 10

SOLUTION Since the man is moving at a rate of 1.2 m/s, his distance from the light post at any given time is x = 1.2t.
Knowing the man is 1.8 meters tall and that the length of his shadow is denoted by y, we set up a proportion of similar
triangles from the diagram:
y 1.2t + y
=
1.8 5
Clearing fractions and solving for y yields

y = 0.675t

Thus, dy/dt = 0.675 meters per second is the rate at which the length of the shadow is increasing.
19. At a given moment, a plane passes directly above a radar station at an altitude of 6 km.
(a) Thel plane’s
d ’ speed
gh ? is 800 km/h. How fast is the distance between the plane and the station changing half a minute
later?
(b) How fast is the distance between the plane and the station changing when the plane passes directly above the station?
84 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

SOLUTION Let x be the distance of the plane from the station along the ground and h the distance through the air.
(a) By the Pythagorean Theorem, we have

h2 = x2 + 62 = x2 + 36
dh dx dh x dx
Thus 2h = 2x , and = . After half a minute, x = 12 × 601 × 800 = 203 kilometers. With x = 20
,
dt dt dt h dt 3

#
! "2
20 1√ 2√
h= + 36 = 724 = 181 ≈ 8.969 km
3 3 3
dx
and dt
= 800,
dh 20 3 8000
= √ × 800 = √ ≈ 594.64 km/h
dt 3 2 181 181
(b) When the plane is directly above the station, x = 0, so the distance between the plane and the station is not changing,
for at this instant we have
dh 0
= × 800 = 0 km/h
dt 6

21. A hot air balloon rising vertically is tracked by an observer located 4 km from the lift-off point. At a certain moment,
the angle between the observer’s line of sight and the horizontal is π5 , and it is changing at a rate of 0.2 rad/min. How
fast is the balloon rising at this moment?
SOLUTION Let y be the height of the balloon (in miles) and θ the angle between the line-of-sight and the horizontal.
y
Via trigonometry, we have tan θ = . Therefore,
4
dθ 1 dy
sec2 θ · =
dt 4 dt
and
dy dθ
= 4 sec2 θ
dt dt
dθ π
Using dt
= 0.2 and θ = 5
yields

dy 1
= 4 (0.2) ≈ 1.22 km/min
dt cos2 (π/5)

23. A rocket travels vertically at a speed of 1200 km/h. The rocket is tracked through a telescope by an observer located
T
16 km from the launching pad. Find the rate at which the angle between the telescope and the ground is increasing 3 min
l
after liftoff.
SOLUTION Let y be the height of the rocket and θ the angle between the telescope and the ground. Using trigonometry,
we have tan θ = 16y . Therefore,

dθ 1 dy
sec2 θ · =
dt 16 dt
and
dθ cos2 θ dy
=
dt 16 dt
1 1
After the rocket has traveled for 3 minutes (or 20
hour), its height is 20
× 1200 = 60 km. At this instant, tan θ = 60/16 =
15/4 and thus
4 4
cos θ = √ = √
152 + 42 241
Finally,
dθ 16/241 1200
= (1200) = ≈ 4.98 rad/hr
dt 16 241

25. A police car traveling south toward Sioux Falls, Iowa, at 160 km/h pursues a truck traveling east away from Sioux
Falls at 140 km/h (Figure 12). At time t = 0, the police car is 20 km north and the truck is 30 km east of Sioux Falls.
Calculate the rate at which the distance between the vehicles is changing:
 S E C T I O N 3.10 Related Rates 85

(a) At time t = 0
(b) 5 min later

160 km/h

Sioux Falls

140 km/h
x
FIGURE 12

SOLUTION Let y denote the distance the police car is north of Sioux Falls and x the distance the truck is east of Sioux
Falls. Then y = 20 − 160t and x = 30 + 140t. If # denotes the distance between the police car and the truck, then

#2 = x2 + y2 = (30 + 140t)2 + (20 − 160t)2

and
d#
= 140(30 + 140t) − 160(20 − 160t) = 1000 + 45200t
#
dt
√ √
(a) At t = 0, # = 302 + 202 = 10 13, so
√
d# 1000 100 13
= √ = ≈ 27.735 km/h
dt 10 13 13

(b) At t = 5 minutes = 1
12
hour,
#
! "2 ! "2
1 1
#= 30 + 140 · + 20 − 160 · ≈ 42.197 km
12 12
and
d# 1000 + 45200 ·
1
12
= ≈ 112.962 km/h
dt 42.197

27. In the setting of Example 5, at a certain moment, the tractor’s speed is 3 m/s and the bale is rising at 2 m/s. How far
is the tractor from the bale at this moment?
SOLUTION From Example 5, we have the equation

x dx
dt dh
√ =
x2 + 4.52 dt
where x denotes the distance from the tractor to the bale and h denotes the height of the bale. Given
dx dh
=3 and =2
dt dt
it follows that
3x
√ =2
4.52 + x2
√
which yields x = 16.2 ≈ 4.025 m.
29. Julian is jogging around a circular track of radius 50 m. In a coordinate system with its origin at the center of the track,
Julian’s x-coordinate is changing at a rate of −1.25 m/s when his coordinates are (40, 30). Find dy/dt at this moment.
SOLUTION We have x2 + y2 = 502 , so
dx dy dy x dx
2x + 2y = 0 or =−
dt dt dt y dt
Given x = 40, y = 30 and dx/dt = −1.25, we find
dy 40 5
= − (−1.25) = m/s
dt 30 3
86 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

In Exercises 31 land 32,e assumet that

l the
k pressure
i P t(in kilopascals)
ll p th and volume
ti V (in
1 cubic
2 centimeters)
5 (Fi 1 of an expanding
gas are related by PV b = C, where b and C are constants (this holds in an adiabatic expansion, without heat gain or
l
loss).

(c) dPw/dt ifr b =i 1.2, P

31. Find x = 8 kPa, V = 100 cmw
2
, and dV/dt = 20p cm3 /mi
thn.
SOLUTION Let PV b = C. Then

dV dP
PbV b−1 + Vb =0
dt dt
and
dP Pb dV
=−
dt V dt

Substituting b = 1.2, P = 8, V = 100, and dV

dt
= 20, we find

dP (8) (1.2)
=− (20) = −1.92 kPa/min
dt 100

33. The base x of the right triangle in Figure 15 increases at a rate of 5 cm/s, while the height remains constant at h = 20.
= θ changing when x = 20?
How fast is the angle

20

x
FIGURE 15
x
SOLUTION We have cot θ = , from which
20
dθ 1 dx
− csc2 θ · =
dt 20 dt
and thus

dθ sin2 θ dx
=−
dt 20 dt

We are given dx
dt
= 5 and when x = h = 20, θ = π4 . Hence,
* +
dθ sin2 π4 1
=− (5) = − rad/s
dt 20 8

35. A particle travels along a curve y = f (x) as in Figure 16. Let L(t) be the particle’s distance from the origin.
 
dL  x + tf (x)of " (x)
k e p
 dx
(a) Show that = 2  t if the particle’s location at time t is P = (x, f (x)).
dt  x2 + f (bx)2  dt
√
(b) Calculate L" (t) when x = 1 and x = 2 if f (x) = 3x2 − 8x + 9 and dx/dt = 4.

y
y = f (x)

2
P

x
O 1 2
FIGURE 16
 S E C T I O N 3.10 Related Rates 87

SOLUTION
(a) If the particle’s location at time t is P = (x, f (x)), then
!
L(t) = x2 + f (x)2

Thus,
! "  
dL 1 2 dx dx  x + f (x) f " (x)  dx
= (x + f (x) )
2 −1/2
2x + 2 f (x) f (x)
"
=  ! 
dt 2 dt dt x2 + f (x)2 dt
√
(b) Given f (x) = 3x2 − 8x + 9, it follows that

3x − 4
f " (x) = √
3x2 − 8x + 9

Let’s start with x = 1. Then f (1) = 2, f " (1) = − 21 and

! "
dL 1−1
= √ (4) = 0
dt 12 + 22
√ √
With x = 2, f (2) = 5, f " (2) = 2/ 5 and

dL 2+2 16
= $ (4) =
dt √ 3
2 2 + 52

Exercises 37 and 38 refer to the baseball diamond (a square of side 90 ft) in Figure 17.

Second base

15 ft/s 90 ft

s First base

20 ft/s
Home plate

FIGURE 17

37. A baseball player runs from home plate toward first base at 20 ft/s. How fast is the player’s distance from second
base changing when the player is halfway to first base?
SOLUTION Let x be the distance of the player from home plate and h the player’s distance from second base. Using
the Pythagorean Theorem, we have h2 = 902 + (90 − x)2 . Therefore,
! "
dh dx
2h = 2 (90 − x) −
dt dt

and
dh 90 − x dx
=−
dt h dt
√
We are given dx
dt
= 20. When the player is halfway to first base, x = 45 and h = 902 + 452 , so

dh 45 √
=−√ (20) = −4 5 ≈ −8.94 ft/s
dt 90 + 45
2 2

39. The conical watering pail in Figure 18 has a grid of holes. Water flows out through the holes at a rate of kA m3 /min,
where k√is a constant and A is the surface area of the part of the cone in contact with the water. This surface area is
A = πr h2 + r2 and the volume is V = 13 πr2 h. Calculate the rate dh/dt at which the water level changes at h = 0.3 m,
assuming that k = 0.25 m.
88 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

0.15 m

0.45 m

FIGURE 18

SOLUTION By similar triangles, we have

r 0.15 1 1
= = so r = h
h 0.45 3 3
Substituting this expression for r into the formula for V yields
! "2
1 1 1 3
V= π h h= πh
3 3 27
From here and the problem statement, it follows that
dV 1 dh √
= πh2 = −kA = −0.25πr h2 + r2
dt 9 dt
Solving for dh/dt gives
dh 9 r √
= − 2 h2 + r2
dt 4h
When h = 0.3, r = 0.1 and
dh 9 0.1 √ 2
=− 0.3 + 0.12 = −0.79 m/min
dt 4 0.32

Further Insights and Challenges

41. A roller coaster has the shape of the graph in Figure 20. Show that when the roller coaster passes the point (x, f (x)),
the vertical velocity of the roller coaster is equal to f " (x) times its horizontal velocity.

s a (x, f (x))

FIGURE 20 Graph of f as a roller coaster track.

SOLUTION Let the equation y = f (x) describe the shape of the roller coaster track. Taking dtd of both sides of this
equation yields dy
dt
= f " (x) dx
dt
. In other words, the vertical velocity of a car moving along the track, dy
dt
, is equal to f " (x)
dx
times the horizontal velocity, dt .
43. As the wheel of radius r cm in Figure 21 rotates, the rod of length L attached at point P drives a piston back and
forth in a straight line. Let x be the distance from the origin to point Q at the end of the rod, as shown in the figure.
(a) Use the Pythagorean Theorem to show that

L2 = (x − r cos θ)2 + r2 sin2 θ 1

(b) Differentiate Eq. (1) with respect to t to prove that

% dx dθ & dθ
2(x − r cos θ) + r sin θ + 2r2 sin θ cos θ =0
dt dt dt
 S E C T I O N 3.10 Related Rates 89

(c) Calculate the speed of the piston when θ = π

2
, assuming that r = 10 cm, L = 30 cm, and the wheel rotates at 4
revolutions per minute.

Piston moves
r P back and forth
L

x
FIGURE 21

SOLUTION From the diagram, the coordinates of P are (r cos θ, r sin θ) and those of Q are (x, 0).
(a) The distance formula gives
$
L= (x − r cos θ)2 + (−r sin θ)2

Thus,

L2 = (x − r cos θ)2 + r2 sin2 θ

Note that L (the length of the fixed rod) and r (the radius of the wheel) are constants.
(b) From (a) we have
! "
dx dθ dθ
0 = 2 (x − r cos θ) + r sin θ + 2r2 sin θ cos θ
dt dt dt

(c) Solving for dx/dt in (b) gives

dx r2 sin θ cos θ dt rx sin θ dθ

dθ
dθ dt
= − r sin θ =
dt r cos θ − x dt r cos θ − x

With θ = π2 , r = 10, L = 30, and dθ

dt
= 8π,
* +
dx (10) (x) sin 2 (8π)
π
= = −80π ≈ −251.33 cm/min
dt (10) (0) − x

45. A cylindrical tank of radius R and length L lying horizontally as in Figure 22 is filled with oil to height h.
(a) Show that the volume V(h)
t i of oil in the tank is
! ! " "
h √
V(h) = L R2 cos−1 1 − − (R − h) 2hR − h2
R
√
(b) Show that dV
dh
= 2L h(2R − h).
(c) Suppose that R = 1.5 m and L = 10 m and that the tank is filled at a constant rate of 0.6 m3 /min. How fast is the
height h increasing when h = 0.5?

FIGURE 22 Oil in the tank has level h.

90 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

SOLUTION

(a) From Figure 22, we see that the volume of oil in the tank, V(h), is equal to L times A(h), the area of that portion of
the circular cross section occupied by the oil. Now,

R2 θ R2 sin θ
A(h) = area of sector − area of triangle = −
2 2

where θ is the central angle of the sector. Referring to the diagram below,

√
θ R−h θ 2hR − h2
cos = and sin =
2 R 2 R

/2
R
R−h

2hR − h2

Thus,

! "
−1 h
θ = 2 cos 1 −
R
√
θ θ (R − h) 2hR − h2
sin θ = 2 sin cos = 2
2 2 R2

and
! ! " "
h √
V(h) = L R2 cos−1 1 − − (R − h) 2hR − h2
R

(b) Recalling that d

dx
cos−1 u = − √ 1 du
,
1−x2 dx

! ! ! "" +"
dV d h d * √
=L R2 cos−1 1 − − (R − h) 2hR − h2
dh dh R dh
 
 −1 √ (R − h)2 
= L −R !

 + 2hR − h − √
2 
1 − (1 − (h/R))2 2hR − h2
! "
R2 √ R2 − 2Rh + h2
=L √ + 2hR − h2 − √
2hR − h2 2hR − h2
! 2 "
R + (2hR − h ) − (R − 2Rh + h2 )
2 2
=L √
2hR − h2
! " ! "
4hR − 2h2 2(2hR − h2 ) √
=L √ =L √ = 2L 2hR − h2
2hR − h 2 2hR − h2

dV dV dh dh 1 dV
(c) = , so = . From part (b) with R = 4, L = 30 and h = 5,
dt dh dt dt dV/dh dt

dV ! √
= 2(30) 2(5)(4) − 52 = 60 15 ft2
dh

Thus,

√
dh 1 15
= √ (10) = ≈ 0.043 ft/min
dt 60 15 90
 Chapter Review Exercises 91

CHAPTER REVIEW EXERCISES

In Exercises 1 4, refer to the function f whose graph is shown in Figure 1.

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
x
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
FIGURE 1

1. Compute the average rate of change of f (x) over [0, 2]. What is the graphical interpretation of this average rate?
SOLUTION The average rate of change of f (x) over [0, 2] is

f (2) − f (0) 7 − 1
= = 3.
2−0 2−0
Graphically, this average rate of change represents the slope of the secant line through the points (2, 7) and (0, 1) on the
graph of f (x).
f (0.7 + h) − f (0.7)
3. Estimate 7 +h = 0.3
0for this difference quotient greater than or less than f " (0.7)?
− . Is 7)
h
and x
SOLUTION 1. r h = 0.3,
Fo

f (0.7 + h) − f (0.7) f (1) − f (0.7) 2.8 − 2 8

= ≈ =
h 0.3 0.3 3
Because the curve is concave up, the slope of the secant line is larger than the slope of the tangent line, so the value of
the difference quotient should be larger than the value of the derivative.

(a) using the limit definition and find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of f at
In Exercises 5 8, compute ff " (1
x = a.

5. f (x) = x2 − x, a=1
SOLUTION Let f (x) = x2 − x and a = 1. Then

f (a + h) − f (a) (1 + h)2 − (1 + h) − (12 − 1)

f " (a) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
1 + 2h + h2 − 1 − h
= lim = lim(1 + h) = 1
h→0 h h→0

and the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) at x = a is

y = f " (a)(x − a) + f (a) = 1(x − 1) + 0 = x − 1

7. f (x) = x−1 , a=4

SOLUTION Let f (x) = x−1 and a = 4. Then

f (a + h) − f (a) 4 − (4 + h)
1 1
−
f " (a) = lim = lim 4+h 4
= lim
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 4h(4 + h)
−1 1 1
= lim =− =−
h→0 4(4 + h) 4(4 + 0) 16
and the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) at x = a is

1 1 1 1
y = f " (a)(x − a) + f (a) = − (x − 4) + = − x +
16 4 16 2
92 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

In Exercises 9 12, compute dy/dx using the limit definition.

9. y = 4 − x2
SOLUTION Let y = 4 − x2 . Then

dy 4 − (x + h)2 − (4 − x2 ) 4 − x2 − 2xh − h2 − 4 + x2
= lim = lim = lim(−2x − h) = −2x − 0 = −2x
dx h→0 h h→0 h h→0

1
11. y =
2−x
1
SOLUTION Let y = . Then
2−x
1 1
dy 2−(x+h)
− 2− x (2 − x) − (2 − x − h) 1 1
= lim = lim = lim =
dx h→0 h h→0 h(2 − x − h)(2 − x) h→0 (2 − x − h)(2 − x) (2 − x)2

In Exercises 13 16, express the limit as a derivative.

√
1+h−1
13. lim
h→0 h
√
SOLUTION Let f (x) = x. Then
√
1+h−1 f (1 + h) − f (1)
lim = lim = f " (1)
h→0 h h→0 h

sin t cos t
15. lim
t→πt−π
SOLUTION Let f (t) = sin t cos t and note that f (π) = sin π cos π = 0. Then

sin t cos t f (t) − f (π)

lim = lim = f " (π)
t→π t−π t→π t−π

17. Find f (4) and f " (4) if the tangent line to the graph of f at x = 4 has equation y = 3x − 14.
SOLUTION
θ
The equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) at x = 4 is y = f " (4)(x − 4) + f (4) = f " (4)x + ( f (4) −
4 f " (4)). Matching this to y = 3x − 14, we see that f " (4) = 3 and f (4) − 4(3) = −14, so f (4) = −2.
19. Is (A), (B), or (C) the graph of the derivative of the function f shown in Figure 3?
y

y = f (x)
1 2
x
−2 −1

y y y

−1 1
x x
−2 1 2 −2 −1 2 −1
x
−2 1 2

(A) (B) (C)

FIGURE 3

SOLUTION The graph of f has four horizontal tangent lines on [−2, 2], so the graph of its derivative must have four
x-intercepts on [−2, 2]. This eliminates (B). Moreover, f is increasing at both ends of the interval, so its derivative must
be positive at both ends. This eliminates (A) and identifies (C) as the graph of f " .
21. Sketch the graph of a continuous function f if the graph of f " appears as in Figure 5 and f (0) = 0.
y

x
1 2 3 4

FIGURE 5
 Chapter Review Exercises 93

SOLUTION Examine Figure 5. For x < 1, f " (x) = 1, so that the graph of f must be a line with slope 1. Because f (0) = 0,
it follows that f (x) = x for x < 1. For x ≥ 1, f " is zero and then steadily increases, indicating that the graph of f must
“emerge” from the point (1, 1) with zero slope and then curve upward. One possible graph of f is shown below.
y

10
8
6
4
2
x
−3 1 2 3 4

23. A girl’s height h(t) (in centimeters) is measured at time t (in years) for 0 ≤ t ≤ 14:

52, 75.1, 87.5, 96.7, 104.5, 111.8, 118.7, 125.2,

ft h
131.5, 137.5, 143.3, 149.2, 155.3, 160.8, 164.7

(a) What is the average growth rate over the 14-yr period?
(b) Is the average growth rate larger over the first half or the second half of this period?
(c) Estimate h" (t) (in cm/yr) for t = 3, 8.
SOLUTION
(a) The average growth rate over the 14-year period is
164.7 − 52
= 8.05 cm/year
14
(b) Over the first half of the 14-year period, the average growth rate is
125.2 − 52
≈ 10.46 cm/year
7
which is larger than the average growth rate over the second half of the 14-year period:
164.7 − 125.2
≈ 5.64 cm/year
7
(c) For t = 3,
h(4) − h(3) 104.5 − 96.7
h" (3) ≈ = = 7.8 cm/year
4−3 1
for t = 8,
h(9) − h(8) 137.5 − 131.5
h" (8) ≈ = = 6.0 cm/year
9−8 1

In Exercises 25 and 26, use the following table of values for the number A(t) of automobiles (in millions) manufactured
in the United States in year t.

t 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976

A(t) 6.55 8.58 8.83 9.67 7.32 6.72 8.50

25. What is the interpretation of A" (t)? Estimate A" (1971). Does A" (1974) appear to be positive or negative?
SOLUTION Because A(t) measures the number of automobiles manufactured in the United States in year t, A" (t) mea-
sures the rate of change in automobile production in the United States. For t = 1971,
A(1972) − A(1971) 8.83 − 8.58
A" (1971) ≈ = = 0.25 million automobiles/year
1972 − 1971 1
Because A(t) decreases from 1973 to 1974 and from 1974 to 1975, it appears that A" (1974) would be negative.
d x
27. Which
Giv of the following
whicis equal
A) to 2 F?
dx
1 x
(a) 2 x (b) (ln 2)2 x (c) x2 x−1 (d) 2
ln 2
94 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

SOLUTION The derivative of f (x) = 2 x is

d x
2 = 2 x ln 2
dx
Hence, the correct answer is (b).

In Exercises 29 80, compute the derivative.

!
29. y = 3x5 − 7x2 + 4
SOLUTION Let y = 3x5 − 7x2 + 4. Then

dy
= 15x4 − 14x
dx

31. y = t−7.3
SOLUTION Let y = t−7.3 . Then

dy
= −7.3t−8.3
dt

x+1
33. y =
x2 + 1
x+1
SOLUTION Let y = . Then
x2 + 1

dy (x2 + 1)(1) − (x + 1)(2x) 1 − 2x − x2

= =
dx (x2 + 1)2 (x2 + 1)2

35. y = (x4 − 9x)6

SOLUTION 4t − y9 = (x4 − 9x)6 . Then
Let

dy d
= 6(x4 − 9x)5 (x4 − 9x) = 6(4x3 − 9)(x4 − 9x)5
dx dx

37. y = (2 + 9x2 )3/2

SOLUTION Let y = (2 + 9x2 )3/2 . Then

dy 3 d
= (2 + 9x2 )1/2 (2 + 9x2 ) = 27x(2 + 9x2 )1/2
dx 2 dx

z
39. y = √
=1 − z
z
SOLUTION Let y = √ . Then
1−z
√ * +
dy 1 − z − z − 2 √11−z 1 − z + 2z 2−z
= = =
dz 1−z (1 − z)3/2 2(1 − z)3/2

√
x4 + x
41. y =
x2
SOLUTION Let
√
x4 + x
y= = x2 + x−3/2
x2
Then
dy 3
= 2x − x−5/2
dx 2
 Chapter Review Exercises 95

5 $
√
43. y = = x + x+ x
5 $ √
SOLUTION Let y = x+ x+ x. Then

! $ " ! $ "
dy 1 √ −1/2 d √
= x+ x+ x x+ x+ x
dx 2 dx
! $ " ! "
1 √ −1/2 1* √ +−1/2 d * √ +
= x+ x+ x 1+ x+ x x+ x
2 2 dx
! $ "−1/2 ! ! ""
1 √ 1* √ +−1/2 1
= x+ x+ x 1+ x+ x 1 + x−1/2
2 2 2

45. y = tan(t−3 )
SOLUTION Let y = tan(t−3 ). Then

dy d
= sec2 (t−3 ) t−3 = −3t−4 sec2 (t−3 )
dt dt

47. y = sin(2x) cos2 x

SOLUTION Let y = sin(2x) cos2 x = 2 sin x cos3 x. Then

dy
= −6 sin2 x cos2 x + 2 cos4 x
dx

t
49. y =
in t
1 + sec
t
SOLUTION Let y = . Then
1 + sec t
dy 1 + sec t − t sec t tan t
=
dt (1 + sec t)2

8
51. y =
1 + cot θ
8
SOLUTION Let y = = 8(1 + cot θ)−1 . Then
1 + cot θ
dy d 8 csc2 θ
= −8(1 + cot θ)−2 (1 + cot θ) =
dθ dθ (1 + cot θ)2

53. y = cos(x1000)
SOLUTION Let y = cos(x100 ). Then

dy d
= − sin(x100 ) x100 = −100x99 sin(x100 )
dx dx

55. f (x) = 9e−4x

d −4x
SOLUTION 9e = −36e−4x
dx
57. g(t) = e4t−t
2

d 4xt−t2
e
2
SOLUTION = (4 − 2t)e4t−t
dt
59. f (x) = ln(4x2 + 1)
d 8x
SOLUTION ln(4x2 + 1) = 2
dx 4x + 1
61. G(s) = (ln(s))2
d 2 ln s
SOLUTION (ln s)2 =
ds s
96 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

63. f (θ) = ln(sin θ)

d cos θ
SOLUTION ln(sin θ) = = cot θ
dθ sin θ
65. h(z) = sec(z + ln z)
! "
d 1
SOLUTION sec(z + ln z) = sec(z + ln z) tan(z + ln z) 1 +
dz z

67. f (x) = 7−2x

d −2x , -, -
SOLUTION 7 = − 2 ln 7 7−2x
dx
69. g(x) = tan−1 (ln xy)
d 1 1
SOLUTION tan−1 (ln x) = ·
dx 1 + (ln x)2 x
71. f (x) = ln(csc−1 x)
d 1
SOLUTION ln(csc−1 x) = − √
dx |x| x2 − 1 csc−1 x
73. R(s) = sln s
SOLUTION Rewrite
* +ln s
R(s) = eln s = e(ln s)
2

Then
dR 1 2 ln s ln s
= e(ln s) · 2 ln s · = s
2

ds s s
* +
Alternately, R(s) = sln s implies that ln R = ln sln s = (ln s)2 . Thus,

1 dR 1 dR 2 ln s ln s
= 2 ln s · or = s
R ds s ds s

75. G(t) = (sin2 t)t

SOLUTION Rewrite
* 2 +t
G(t) = eln sin t = e2t ln sin t

Then
dG % cos t &
= e2t ln sin t 2t · + 2 ln sin t = 2(sin2 t)t (t cot t + ln sin t)
dt sin t

Alternately, G(t) = (sin2 t)t implies that ln G = t ln sin2 t = 2t ln sin t. Thus,

1 dG cos t
= 2t · + 2 ln sin t
G dt sin t
and
dG
= 2(sin2 t)t (t cot t + ln sin t)
dt

77. g(t) = sinh(tt 2 )

d
SOLUTION sinh(t2 ) = 2t cosh(t2 )
dt
79. g(x) = tanh−1 (e x )
d 1 ex
SOLUTION tanh−1 (e x ) = e x
=
dx 1 − (e x )2 1 − e2x
81. For which values of α is f (x) = |x|α differentiable at x = 0?
 Chapter Review Exercises 97

SOLUTION Let f (x) = | x|α . If α < 0, then f (x) is not continuous at x = 0 and therefore cannot be differentiable at
x = 0. If α = 0, then the function reduces to f (x) = 1, which is differentiable at x = 0. Now, suppose α > 0 and consider
the limit
f (x) − f (0) | x|α
lim = lim
x→0 x−0 x→0 x

If 0 < α < 1, then

|x|α | x|α
lim = −∞ while lim =∞
x→0− x x→0+ x

and f " (0) does not exist. If α = 1, then

|x| |x|
lim = −1 while lim =1
x→0− x x→0+ x
and f " (0) again does not exist. Finally, if α > 1, then
|x|α
lim =0
x→0 x
so f (0) does exist.
"

In summary, f (x) = |x|α is differentiable at x = 0 when α = 0 and when α > 1.

In Exercises 83 88, use the following

2 table of values to calculate the derivative of the given function at x = 2:

x f (x) g(x) f " (x) g" (x)

2 5 4 −3 9
4 3 2 −2 3

83. S (x) = 3 f (x) − 2g(x)

SOLUTION Let S (x) = 3 f (x) − 2g(x). Then S " (x) = 3 f " (x) − 2g" (x) and

S " (2) = 3 f " (2) − 2g" (2) = 3(−3) − 2(9) = −27

f (x)
85. R(x) =
(
g(x)
SOLUTION Let R(x) = f (x)/g(x). Then

g(x) f " (x) − f (x)g" (x)

R" (x) =
g(x)2
and
g(2) f " (2) − f (2)g" (2) 4(−3) − 5(9) 57
R" (2) = = =−
g(2)2 42 16

87. F(x) = f (g(2x))

SOLUTION Let F(x) = f (g(2x)). Then F " (x) = 2 f " (g(2x))g" (2x) and

F " (2) = 2 f " (g(4))g" (4) = 2 f " (2)g" (4) = 2(−3)(3) = −18

89. Find the points on the graph of f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + x + 4 where the tangent line has slope 10.
SOLUTION Let f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + x + 4. Then f " (x) = 3x2 − 6x + 1. The tangent line to the graph of f will have slope
10 when f (x) = 10. Solving the quadratic equation 3x2 − 6x + 1 = 10 yields x = −1 and x = 3. Thus, the points on the
"

graph of f where the tangent line has slope 10 are (−1, −1) and (3, 7).
91. Find a such that the tangent lines to y = x3 − 2x2 + x + 1 at x = a and x = a + 1 are parallel.
SOLUTION Let f (x) = x3 − 2x2 + x + 1. Then f " (x) = 3x2 − 4x + 1 and the slope of the tangent line at x = a is
f (a) = 3a − 4a + 1, while the slope of the tangent line at x = a + 1 is
" 2

f " (a + 1) = 3(a + 1)2 − 4(a + 1) + 1 = 3(a2 + 2a + 1) − 4a − 4 + 1 = 3a2 + 2a

In order for the tangent lines at x = a and x = a + 1 to have the same slope, we must have f " (a) = f " (a + 1), or

3a2 − 4a + 1 = 3a2 + 2a

The only solution to this equation is a = 16 .

98 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

In Exercises 93 98, calculate y"" .

93. y = 12x3 − 5x2 + 3x

SOLUTION Let y = 12x3 − 5x2 + 3x. Then

y" = 36x2 − 10x + 3 and y"" = 72x − 10

√
95. y = 2x +2 3
√
SOLUTION Let y = 2x + 3 = (2x + 3)1/2 . Then

1 d 1 d
y" = (2x + 3)−1/2 (2x + 3) = (2x + 3)−1/2 and y"" = − (2x + 3)−3/2 (2x + 3) = −(2x + 3)−3/2
2 dx 2 dx

97. y = tan(x2 )

SOLUTION + y = tan(x2 ). Then

Let

y" = 2x sec2 (x2 ) and

! "
d
y"" = 2x 2 sec(x2 ) sec(x2 ) + 2 sec2 (x2 ) = 8x2 sec2 (x2 ) tan(x2 ) + 2 sec2 (x2 )
dx

= 99 104, compute dy .
In Exercises
dx

99. x3 − y3 = 4

SOLUTION Consider the equation x3 − y3 = 4. Differentiating with respect to x yields

dy
3 x2 − 3y2 =0
dx

Therefore,

dy x2
= 2
dx y

101. y = xy22 + 2x22

SOLUTION Consider the equation y = xy2 + 2x2 . Differentiating with respect to x yields

dy dy
= 2xy + y2 + 4x
dx dx

Therefore,

dy y2 + 4x
=
dx 1 − 2xy

103. y = sin(x + y)
x
SOLUTION Consider the equation y = sin(x + y). Differentiating with respect to x yields
! "
dy dy
= cos(x + y) 1 +
dx dx

Therefore,

dy cos(x + y)
=
dx 1 − cos(x + y)
 Chapter Review Exercises 99

dy d2 y
In Exercises 105 and 106 compute dx
and dx2
.

105. x2 − 4y2 = 8
SOLUTION Let x2 − 4y2 = 8. Then

dy dy x
2x − 8y =0 so =
dx dx 4y
Moreover,
dy x 2
d2 y 4y(1) − x(4 dx ) 4y − y 4y2 − x2 −8 1
= = = = =− 3
dx 2 16y2 16y2 16y3 16y3 2y

107. In Figure 7, for the three graphs on the left, identify f , f " , and f "" . Do the same for the three graphs on the right.
y y

x x

FIGURE 7

SOLUTION First consider the plot on the left. Observe that the green curve is nonnegative whereas the red curve is
increasing, suggesting that the green curve is the derivative of the red curve. Moreover, the green curve is linear with
negative slope for x < 0 and linear with positive slope for x > 0 while the blue curve is a negative constant for x < 0 and
a positive constant for x > 0, suggesting the blue curve is the derivative of the green curve. Thus, the red, green, and blue
curves, respectively, are the graphs of f , f " and f "" .
Now consider the plot on the right. Because the red curve is decreasing when the blue curve is negative and increasing
when the blue curve is positive and the green curve is decreasing when the red curve is negative and increasing when the
red curve is positive, it follows that the green, red, and blue curves, respectively, are the graphs of f , f " , and f "" .

In Exercises 109 114, use logarithmic

! differentiation to find the derivative.
(x + 1)3
109. y =
(4x − 2)2
(x + 1)3
SOLUTION Let y = . Then
(4x − 2)2
! "
(x + 1)3
ln y = ln = ln (x + 1)3 − ln (4x − 2)2 = 3 ln(x + 1) − 2 ln(4x − 2)
(4x − 2)2
By logarithmic differentiation,
y" 3 2 3 4
= − ·4= −
y x + 1 4x − 2 x + 1 2x − 1
so
! "
(x + 1)3 3 4
y" = −
(4x − 2)2 x + 1 2x − 1

111. y = e(x−1) e(x−3)

2 2

x y = e(x+−1) e(x−3) . Then

2 2
SOLUTION Let
, 2- , 2-
ln y = ln e(x−1) e(x−3) = ln e(x−1) +(x−3) = (x − 1)2 + (x − 3)2
2 2

By logarithmic differentiation,
y"
= 2(x − 1) + 2(x − 3) = 4x − 8
y
so

y" = 4e(x−1) e(x−3) (x − 2)

2 2
100 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

e3x (x − 2)2
113. y =
(x + 1)2
e3x (x − 2)2
SOLUTION Let y = . Then
(x + 1)2
! "
e3x (x − 2)2
ln y = ln = ln e3x + ln (x − 2)2 − ln (x + 1)2
(x + 1)2
= 3x + 2 ln(x − 2) − 2 ln(x + 1)

By logarithmic differentiation,
y" 2 2
=3+ −
y x−2 x+1
so
! "
e3x (x − 2)2 2 2
y= 3 + −
( x + 1)2 x−2 x+1

115. How fast does the water level rise in the tank in Figure 9 when the water level is h = 4 m and water pours in at
20 m3 /min?=

36 m

8m

10 m
24 m
FIGURE 9

SOLUTION When the water level is at height h, the length of the upper surface of the water is 24 + 32 h and the volume
of water in the trough is
! "
1 3 15
V = h 24 + 24 + h (10) = 240h + h2
2 2 2

Therefore,
dV dh
= (240 + 15h) = 20 m3 /min.
dt dt
When h = 4, we have
dh 20 1
= = m/min
dt 240 + 15(4) 15

117. Chloe and Bao are in motorboats at the center of a lake. At time t = 0, Chloe begins traveling south at a speed of
50 km/h. One minute later, Bao takes off, heading east at a speed of 40 km/h. At what rate is the distance between them
increasing at t = 12 min?
SOLUTION Take the center of the lake to be origin of our coordinate system. Because Chloe travels at 50 km/h = 56
km/min due south, her position at time t > 0 is (0, 56 t); because Bao travels at 40 km/h = 23 km/min due east, her position
at time t > 1 is ( 23 (t − 1), 0). Thus, the distance between the two motorboats at time t > 1 is
5
4 25 1√ 2
s= (t − 1)2 + t2 = 41t − 32t + 16
9 36 6
and
ds 41t − 16
= √
dt 6 41t2 − 32t + 16
At t = 12, it follows that
ds 476
= √ ≈ 1.066 km/min
dt 6 5536
 Chapter Review Exercises 101

119. In Figure 10, x is increasing at 2 cm/s, y is increasing at 3 cm/s, and θ is decreasing such that the area of the triangle
has the constant value 4 cm2 .
(a) How fast is θ decreasing when x = 4, y = 4?
(b) How fast is the distance between P and Q changing when x = 4, y = 4?

y Q

FIGURE 10

SOLUTION
(a) The area of the triangle is
1
A= xy sin θ = 4
2
Differentiating with respect to t, we obtain
dA 1 dθ 1 dx 1 dy
= xy cos θ + y sin θ + x sin θ =0
dt 2 dt 2 dt 2 dt
When x = y = 4, we have 12 (4)(4) sin θ = 4, so sin θ = 12 . Thus, θ = π
6
and
√ ! " ! "
1 3 dθ 1 1 1 1
(4)(4) + (4) (2) + (4) (3) = 0
2 2 dt 2 2 2 2

Solving for dθ/dt, we find

dθ 5
= − √ ≈ −0.72 rad/s
dt 4 3
(b) By the Law of Cosines, the distance D between P and Q satisfies

D2 = x2 + y2 − 2xy cos θ

so
dD dx dy dθ dy dx
2D = 2x + 2y + 2xy sin θ − 2x cos θ − 2y cos θ
dt dt dt dt dt dt
With x = y = 4 and θ = π6 ,
#
√ $
3 √
D= 42 + 42 − 2(4)(4) =4 2− 3
2
Therefore,
20
√ √
dD 16 + 24 − √3 − 12 3 − 8 3
= $ ≈ −1.50 cm/s
dt √
8 2− 3

A light moving at 0.8 m/s approaches a man standing 4 m from a wall (Figure 11). The light is 1 m above the
ground. How fast is the tip P of the man’s shadow moving when the light is 7 m from the wall?