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On the Outer Fringe of the Human World:: Phenomenological Perspectives on

Anthropomorphic Cave Paintings in Norway

Chapter · May 2012

DOI: 10.2307/j.ctvh1djk4.9

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 An Offprint from
Caves in Context
The Cultural Significance of Caves and Rockshelters
in Europe

Edited by
Knut Andreas Bergsvik and Robin Skeates

ISBN 978-1-84217-474-6

© Oxbow Books 2012

www.oxbowbooks.com
 Contents

List of contributors.............................................................................................................................................................. v
Preface................................................................................................................................................................................. vii

Chapter 1: Caves in context: an introduction ...............................................................................................................1

Knut Andreas Bergsvik and Robin Skeates

The British Isles and Scandinavia

Chapter 2: From Assynt to Oban: some observations on prehistoric cave use in western Scotland . ...............10
Clive Bonsall, Catriona Pickard and Graham A. Ritchie
Chapter 3: Mesolithic caves and rockshelters in Western Norway . .......................................................................22
Knut Andreas Bergsvik and Ingebjørg Storvik
Chapter 4: Rockshelters in central Norway: long-term changes in use, social organization
and production . ..........................................................................................................................................39
Anne Haug
Chapter 5: On the outer fringe of the human world: phenomenological perspectives
on anthropomorphic cave paintings in Norway.....................................................................................48
Hein Bjartmann Bjerck

Iberia and France

Chapter 6: On the (l)edge: the case of Vale Boi rockshelter (Algarve, Southern Portugal)..................................65
Nuno Bicho, João Cascalheira and João Marreiros
Chapter 7: The use of caves and rockshelters by the last Neandertal and first Modern Human
societies in Cantabrian Iberia: similarities, differences, and territorial implications........................82
Javier Ordoño
Chapter 8: La Garma (Spain): long-term human activity in a karst system.........................................................101
Pablo Arias and Roberto Ontañón
Chapter 9: Shedding light on dark places: Deposition of the dead in caves and cave-like
features in Neolithic and Copper Age Iberia .......................................................................................118
Estella Weiss-Krejci
Chapter 10: The Bronze Age use of caves in France: reinterpreting their functions
and the spatial logic of their deposits through the chaîne opératoire concept ..................................138
Sébastien Manem

The Central Mediterranean

Chapter 11: Caves in Context: the late medieval Maltese scenario..........................................................................153

Keith Buhagiar
Chapter 12: Caves in need of context: prehistoric Sardinia .....................................................................................166
Robin Skeates
Chapter 13: Discovery and exploratory research of prehistoric sites in caves and rockshelters
in the Barbagia di Seulo, South-Central Sardinia . ...............................................................................188
Giusi Gradoli and Terence Meaden

Chapter 14: Notes from the underground: caves and people in the Mesolithic and Neolithic Karst . .............199
Dimitrij Mlekuž

Central and Eastern Europe

Chapter 15: Cave Burials in Prehistoric Central Europe ..........................................................................................212

Jörg Orschiedt
Chapter 16: Late Caucasian Neanderthals of Barakaevskaya cave: chronology,
palaeoecology and palaeoeconomy . ......................................................................................................225
Galina Levkovskaya, Vasiliy Lyubin and Elena Belyaeva
Chapter 17: Interstratification in layers of unit III at Skalisty rockshelter
and the origin of the Crimean final Palaeolithic ..................................................................................254
Valery A. Manko
 Contributors

Pablo Arias João Cascalheira

Instituto Internacional de Investigaciones Prehistóricas de FCHS – University of Algarve
Cantabria Campus de Gambelas
(Unidad Asociada al CSIC) 8005-139 Faro
Edificio Interfacultativo de la Universidad de Cantabria Portugal
Av. de Los Castros s/n [email protected]
39005 Santander
Javier Ordoño Daubagna
Spain
Department of Geography, Prehistory and Archaeology
[email protected]
University of País Vasco – Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea
Elena Belyaeva c/o Tomás y Valiente s/n
Russian Academy of Sciences 01006 Vitoria-Gasteiz (Álava)
Institute of History of Material Culture Spain
Dvortsovaya nab., 18 [email protected]
St.-Petersburg
M. Giuseppina Gradioli
191186 Russia
COMET Valorizzazione Risorse Territoriali and ISSEP
[email protected]
Sardinia
Knut Andreas Bergsvik Via Pitzolo 20
University of Bergen 09126 Cagliari
Department of Archaeology, history, Cultural Studies Sardinia
and Religion Italy
P.O. Box 7805 [email protected]
5020 Bergen
Anne Haug
Norway
Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU)
[email protected]
Museum of Natural History and Archaeology
Nuno Bicho NO-7491 Trondheim
FCHS – University of Algarve Norway
Campus de Gambelas [email protected]
8005-139 Faro
Galina M. Levkovskaya
Portugal
Russian Academy of Sciences
[email protected]
Institute of History of Material Culture
Hein Bjartmann Bjerck Dvortsovaya nab., 18
Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) St.-Petersburg
Museum of Natural History and Archaeology 191186 Russia
NO-7491 Trondheim [email protected]
Norway
Vasiliy Lyubin
[email protected]
Russian Academy of Sciences
Clive Bonsall Institute of History of Material Culture
University of Edinburgh Dvortsovaya nab., 18
School of History, Classics, and Archaeology St.-Petersburg
Old High School 191186 Russia
Infirmary Street [email protected]
Edinburgh EH1 1LT
Sébastien Manem
United Kingdom
Institute of Archaeology
[email protected]
University College London
Keith Buhagiar 31-34 Gordon Square
University of Malta, London WC1H 0PY
Department of Classics and Archaeology United Kingdom
Msida MSD 2080 [email protected]
Malta
[email protected]
Valery Manko Catriona Pickard
Institute of Archaeology University of Edinburgh
National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine School of History, Classics, and Archaeology
12 Geroiw Stalingradu ul. Old High School
Kyiv Infirmary Street
Ukraine Edinburgh, EH1 1LT
[email protected] United Kingdom
[email protected]
João Marreiros
FCHS – University of Algarve Graham A. Ritchie
Campus de Gambelas University of Edinburgh
8005-139 Faro School of History, Classics, and Archaeology
Portugal Doorway 4, Teviot Place
[email protected] Edinburgh, EH8 9AG
United Kingdom
G. Terence Meaden
Oxford University Robin Skeates
Archaeology Section Durham University
Department of Continuing Education Dept of Archaeology
Rewley House South Road
1 Wellington Square Durham, DH1 3LE
Oxford, Oxfordshire United Kingdom
OX1 2JA [email protected]
United Kingdom
Ingebjørg Storvik
[email protected]
University of Bergen
Dimitrij Mlekuž Department of Archaeology, history, Cultural Studies, and
Ghent University Religion
Faculty of Arts and Philosophy P.O. Box 7805
Department of Archaeology and ancient history of Europe 5020 Bergen
Sint-Pietersnieuwstraat 35 UFO Norway
9000 Gent [email protected]
Belgium
Estella Weiss-Krejci
[email protected]
University of Vienna
Roberto Ontañón Department of Social and Cultural Anthropology
Instituto Internacional de Investigaciones Prehistóricas de Universitätsstraße 7
Cantabria A–1010 Wien
(Unidad Asociada al CSIC) Austria
Edificio Interfacultativo de la Universidad de Cantabria [email protected]
Av. de Los Castros s/n
39005 Santander
Spain
[email protected]
Jörg Orschiedt
University Hamburg
Archaeological Institute
Edmund-Siemers-Allee 1, Fluegel West
20146 Hamburg
[email protected]
 Preface

Caves and rockshelters are found all over Europe, and of caves used as residential or burial places compare
have frequently been occupied by human groups, from to that of houses or megalithic monuments? Are caves
prehistory right up to the present day. Some appear connected to other culturally significant places in the
to have only traces of short occupations, while others landscape through the movement of people and things
contain deep cultural deposits, indicating longer and as part of rites of passage? When do caves become
multiple occupations. Above all, there is great variability marginal places? How have caves and cave dwellers
in their human use, both secular and sacred. The aim of been represented through the history of archaeology?
this book, then, is to explore the multiple significances of Are there recognizable patterns of cave-use that vary
these natural places in a range of chronological, spatial, according to basic economic and cultural differences?
and cultural contexts across Europe. For example, do hunter-gatherers use caves differently
The majority of the chapters published here were from farmers, or do egalitarian societies use them in
originally presented in a conference session on ‘Caves in different ways to hierarchical groups? To what extent
Context: The Economical, Social, and Ritual Importance are they situated adjacent to natural resources, hunting
of Caves and Rockshelters’, held at the 14th Annual grounds, pastures or farmland?
Meeting of the European Association of Archaeologists Methodological issues were also brought up:
in Malta in September 2008. This session was organized Why have archaeological archives relating to cave
by Knut Andreas Bergsvik, and the discussant was archaeology been neglected? What is the significance
Robin Skeates. of cave names? Why are caves still relevant today?
The session was well attended and there was a great How does European cave archaeology compare to
deal of discussion on the subject. Several key questions that practiced in other parts of the world?
were raised, and many of them were related to caves Because of the interest and lively discussion
themselves. How uniform or diverse are the categories generated by the presented papers, we decided to ask
‘cave’ and ‘rockshelter’? To what extent should we the session participants to expand and elaborate their
separate ‘economic’, ‘social’, and ‘ritual’ aspects of cave contributions into articles for this volume, in order to
use? How do caves’ internal and external environments benefit a wider audience. The result is this anthology,
change over time? What kinds of caves are not selected which will primarily be of interest to archaeologists,
for human use? In what ways do people transform and to cave archaeologists in particular. However, it
natural caves? What do people do in caves, what do is also of relevance to other scholars working in the
caves mean to those people, and what do caves do to related fields of speleology, earth sciences, landscape
them? How are practices such as dwelling, production, studies, and anthropology, which together comprise
and ritual performance experienced in caves by the thriving inter-disciplinary field of cave studies.
different kinds of person through all of their senses? We would like to acknowledge the generous funding
What numbers of people are involved in different provided by the Department of Archaeology, History,
cave activities? In what different ways are the light Cultural Studies and Religion at the University of
and dark zones of caves used? Bergen which facilitated the publication of this volume.
Other questions dealt with the relationships between We would also like to thank Clare Litt, Julie Gardiner
caves and the outside world. What kinds of materials and Sam McLeod of Oxbow Books for their support in
do people bring into caves? How does the architecture seeing this volume through from start to finish.

Knut Andreas Bergsvik and Robin Skeates

Bergen and Durham, July 2011
 Chapter 5
On the Outer Fringe of the Human World:
Phenomenological Perspectives on Anthropomorphic
Cave Paintings in Norway

Hein Bjartmann Bjerck

Norwegian cave paintings are confined to eleven localities, all located in North Norway, and seem to date
to the Bronze Age. The majority of the paintings are strikingly similar red stickmen, suggesting a common
tradition. This paper focuses on the context of these images, in making explicit the conspicuous sensory
world of the caves, and discusses the phenomenological implications of the relation between paintings and
caves. Paradoxically, scientific conformity seems to have overpowered even the most forceful caves: traditional
recording (plans, sections, flash photos) bring forth things never observed by the peoples of the past, and
omit the subjective impressions that are essential to understand the embodied experience of caves. Very likely,
embodied experiences were imperative in the images’ cultural context, and in the cosmological and ritual
meanings of caves. Most things that characterize the world of humans (life, light, motion, colours, change,
sounds and odours) do not exist in caves. This dichotomy, and the fact that most caves do not have a definite
termination (only points where the human body cannot pass), nourish a notion of caves as connections to
realms beyond the reach of humans.

Introduction and also the fact that the cave painting phenomenon
Along the rugged coast of Norway there is a large appears to be limited to a specific region indicates
number of coastal caves – impressive formations that the paintings belong to a common tradition of
which have probably provoked interest, enticed rituals and world view.
and frightened inhabitants of the region as well as My first encounter with the red stickmen, in
travellers, through all times. The most famous of 1992, was by chance. I had been invited to Røst by
these is the gigantic and spectacular tunnel-shaped geologist Jacob Møller at Tromsø Museum. Møller had
hole right through the prominent mountain of been researching coastal caves in North Norway for
Torghatten near Brønnøysund (Johansen 2008; Møller many years (Møller 1985; Møller et al. 1992), and had
and Fredriksen 2009). Some of the caves are several exciting results from a cave named Helvete (‘Hell’) on
hundreds of metres deep, with roof heights up to Trenyken, on the outer edge of the Lofoten archipelago.
50m (Fig. 5.1). In a few of these caves, probably Shell samples from beach sediments covering the
during the Bronze Age, simple line drawings of interior floor had been dated to as early as 33,000
people (stickmen) were painted in red. All of the BP (uncalibrated), which meant that the cave was a
known Norwegian localities (and as far as I know in unique archive with great potential for shedding light
Fennoscandia) are found in North Norway, between on late Pleistocene trends and events which in almost
Lofoten and Namdalen. In total, eleven localities have all other places had been lost during ice movements
been documented, with a combined total of around and fluctuations in relative sea level. The aim of our
100 figures (Fig. 5.2). The uniformity of the figures, visit was to take advantage of this rare opportunity to
their connection with and placing within the caves, track evidence of possible Late Glacial hunters.
 5. Phenomenological Perspectives on Anthropomorphic Cave Paintings in Norway 49

However, this was to be yet another example of field but rarely research in depth their significance for
studies that take a different direction to that originally people who lived a long time ago – people with a
planned. Within a few minutes of entering the cave different structure of intelligibility through which they
the light from our headlamps fell on red figures which understood the world.
had not been seen by anyone for a very long time. This criticism is important, but nevertheless it
The discovery was like a shooting star – unexpected, should not obscure the fact that the sensory element
undeserved and magnificent – and was accompanied in contextual relations is an important opening to a
by a desperate longing to experience such a discovery deeper understanding of the archaeological record. I
one more time. I subsequently visited many caves, believe that part of the problem is that most of the works
discovered more new localities with red stickmen, which have gained status as theoretical references
and also visited those already known about. The urge within this field have empirical starting points in British
for new discoveries moved from longing to addiction, landscapes where phenomenological relations seldom
and I allowed myself to be willingly drawn into the extend beyond the visual impressions surrounding
caves’ multiple sensory world. These impressions Neolithic monuments. The Scandinavian landscapes
played an important role in an article with strong are well known for their grandeur: deep fiords, roaring
phenomenological undertones that I wrote some waterfalls, coastal cliffs with pounding waves, mountain
years later (Bjerck 1995). The article thus became a peaks, glaciers and snow patches, rock falls and gigantic
part of a research tradition that has a more developed boulders, and everywhere – steep rock faces with
theoretical foundation in the work of Christopher Tilley cracks, crevasses, holes, ledges, and bedrock structures.
(e.g. 1994; 2004) and Julian Thomas (e.g. 1993; 1996) These formations will shape images of everything
(see also Brück 2005; Olsen 2010, 26–32). you can imagine – mythological creatures turned to
‘Phenomenology’ aims to describe the character of stone, faces, entrances, doors, paths, and remains from
human experience, specifically the ways in which we dramatic incidents. An example of the latter is the large
apprehend the material world through our intentional tunnel through Torghatten – that is part of the legend
intervention in our surroundings (Brück 2005, 46). about the trolls’ rivalry over the beautiful ‘Lekamøya’
Joanna Brück (2005) presents a critical retrospective view (mythological princess, today a rock formation), and
of this research tradition in her article ‘Experiencing an arrow that was shot right trough the hat of one
the past? The development of a phenomenological of the fighting trolls. In fact, these shapes constitute
archaeology in British prehistory’. Brück emphasizes witnesses that prove these legends to be ‘real’. See
the main criticism by raising the question of how we for yourself: here is the hat, and there is the hole, and
can know whether the phenomenological relations over there – the princess herself turned to stone. The
we focus on today were regarded as meaningful majority of these shapes and phenomena are constants
in the distant past. A further objection is that most through time, and hence were part of past peoples’
studies point out phenomenological relations between surroundings. How these elements were integrated
archaeological traces and physical environments, in past world views we do not know. My point here
is that the grandeur of the Scandinavian landscapes
and land shapes, and all things and phenomena herein
constitute a wide and varied basis for strong sensory
impressions and an exceptionally large repertoire of
phenomenological lines to follow. Joakim Goldhahn’s
(2002) work on audio-visual perspectives related to
rivers and rock art is thought provoking, as are Knut
Helskog’s (1999) analysis of ‘the shore connection’ and
the works of Tore Slinning (2005) and Antti Lahelma
(2005) on rock paintings, together with my own work
on cave paintings (Bjerck 1995). The latter brings me
directly to the main criticism of the phenomenological
approach. As I shall elaborate in the following, I think
that sensory impressions related to entering, being
in, and departing from caves are so profound and
diverse that it is possible to advance beyond Brück’s
Figure 5.1: Coastal caves at Sanden, Værøy in Lofoten. The cave with core criticism – and explore how sensory impressions
paintings is situated to the left, outside the frame of the photograph may have evoked meaning in past peoples’ notion of
(see Fig. 5.8). Photo H. Bjerck. ‘being in the world’.
50 Hein Bjartmann Bjerck

Figure 5.2: Map of the eleven cave painting localities in Norway, all situated in along the c. 500km long coast between Namdalen and
Lofoten, Nord-Trøndelag and Nordland counties. To the left, a schematic presentation of the layout of selected caves (plan), including
placement of paintings and the light – dark division.

Facts about Norwegian cave paintings: caves, The paintings

figures, artefacts, and dating The cave paintings are part of a far larger group
In the following, I will refer to the caves by their of painted rock art known from the whole of the
Norwegian names. The ending hula (or hola, håle) Fennoscandian area (Gjessing 1936; Simonsen 1958;
means ‘the cave’, (i.e. Solsemhula is ‘the Solsem Slinning 2005; Taskinen 2006; Andreassen 2008). Apart
cave’). Heller (or hammer) means ‘rockshelter’, but from technique, the relation between rock carvings and
the distinction between caves and rockshelters is painted rock art is unclear. The latter have survived the
not consistent in local names (e.g. Kollhellaren is a ravages of time on more or less protected rock surfaces,
proper cave). Some caves have separate names (e.g. and have probably existed in far greater numbers than
Fingalshola), while others are related to place names are known today. The rock paintings comprise a wide
(e.g. Bølakointa, literally ‘the Bøla cunt’). Names also range of motifs, including human figures, animals,
refer to supernatural beings (e.g. ‘trolls’: troill, rise), or boats, and geometric figures, and appear to date to
include labels such as ‘church’ (kirke) and ‘hell’ (helvete), the Neolithic and Bronze Age (as discussed below).
which underline long traditions in perceiving caves There are many examples of painted rock art on or
as powerful and mystic places. near prominent rock formations which apparently
 5. Phenomenological Perspectives on Anthropomorphic Cave Paintings in Norway 51

support the notion of links between the depictions, Helvete reported by Norsted (2006, 32–33). There are
landscapes and world view (Hesjedal 1994; Lahelma no stickmen in Skåren Monsen, where a long-horned
2005; Slinning 2005). animal is accompanied by four indeterminate figures.
In addition to their special context, the cave paintings This cave also contains the only carved rock art recorded
have a strikingly restricted repertoire of motifs: more in the Norwegian caves – a ‘halo’, without traces of
than 90 per cent are characteristic red ‘stickmen’, 25– paint, on a large rock in the cave’s outer part exposed
40cm tall, with a simple line for the body connected to to natural light (for details, see Sognnes 1983; 2009;
a round head and splayed arms and legs (Figs 5.3–5.4). Bjerck 1995; Norsted 2006, 2010). The only paintings
However, there are also other motifs. For example, in found in a karst cave (Resholå) (Berglund 1993) have
Helvete there is also a considerably larger figure with characteristics that indicate a different tradition to that
antenna-like horns, outstretched arms with life-size of the depictions in the coastal caves.
hands, legs with knees, and feet with soles. Nearby
is a painting of a single hand related to field of red
colour that may represent a similar but more weathered Associated archaeological finds
figure. There are also zoomorphic figures (Skåren Very few archaeological artefacts have been found
Monsen, Fingalshola), and a few geometric figures, e.g. in the caves with paintings. However, there are
the 2.6m and 3.3m long crossing lines in Solsemhula interesting exceptions. Beneath the innermost paintings
(Fig. 5.3), and the around 20m long horizontal line in in Fingalshola ‘palette stones’ and lumps of pigment

Figure 5.3: A selection of stickmen from three different caves adjusted to the same scale, demonstrating both regional similarities and
local styles in size and proportions. More than 90 per cent of the Norwegian cave paintings are stickmen similar to these. Drawing from
Solsemhula from Sognnes (1983), Kollhellaren after Hauglid et al. 1991, Sanden. Reproduced from Bjerck (1995).
52 Hein Bjartmann Bjerck

of the same type as used in the depictions were flute respectively (Lund 1987; Bjerck 1995). Given the
found (Marstrander 1965, 159). A collection of grey cave’s special acoustics, this interpretation is worth
seal (Halichoerus gryphus) bones – comprising skull consideration (cf. Waller 1993, 2002; Lahelma 2007,
fragments, teeth, claws, and small joints from the 131). Even the weakest sounds become amplified in
flippers, with frequent cut marks indicating that a such a space, and the fact that sounds might have been
whole animal was butchered at the spot – has been strange and incomprehensible may have been more
reported from the innermost dark zone in Helvete important than clarity and volume.
(Bjerck 1995).
In Solsemhula (Petersen 1914; Sognnes 1983; 2009)
a c. 20cm deep cultural layer containing around Age
1500 bones from fish, birds and mammals (seal, Some of the objects from Solsemhula have been
goat, sheep, ox, horse) has been excavated. A few radiocarbon dated: a shell (Patella vulgata) (1870–1560
human bones were also recovered, of both adults and cal BC), a whalebone artefact (790–410 cal BC), and
children. Theodor Petersen interpreted the cultural a sheep (or goat) bone with cut marks (390–120
layer as remnants of a dwelling site – which, when cal BC) (Sognnes 1983, 2009). A seal vertebra from
considering the cave’s inaccessibility and the lack of Helvete is dated to 1600–1400 cal BC (Bjerck 1995).
lithic waste, is not very likely (cf. Gjessing 1936, 14; The radiocarbon dates and general agreement on the
Sognnes 2009). From the innermost part of the cave stylistic dating of stickmen suggests that the cave
(with the paintings), Petersen collected a beautiful paintings date to the Bronze Age (e.g. Gjessing 1936;
arrowhead of polished slate, a seal bone with cut Marstrander 1965; Sognnes 1983, 2009; Hesjedal 1994).
notches, a seagull long bone with a drilled hole and One should, however, be cautious about connecting
an obliquely cut end, and a great auk amulet made the radiocarbon dated artefacts to the paintings. The
from an ox bone (Sognnes 1983, fig. 8). It has been many-sided functional and ritual potential of caves
speculated that the notched seal bone and the long may have resulted in varied activities that were not
bone are sound instruments, a type of guiro and fipple related in time or tradition. It is very unlikely that the
tradition of painting red stickmen in caves lasted as
long as the 1500 year period suggested by the dates.
One indication of this is the presence of local styles.
The stickmen from Sanden have large round heads
and are generally larger and slimmer than the figures
from the nearby caves Kollhellaren and Helvete, which
are smaller and have comparatively broader strokes
(Fig. 5.3). Thus, the different localities seem to reveal
individual expressions within a common practise,
indicating that this cave painting tradition was rather
short lived. In my opinion, only future direct dating
of the paintings may clarify their exact age.

Caves and the placement of paintings

All known cave paintings are from coastal caves which
have been formed at weak zones in the rock (faults,
folds, intrusions) by marine erosion during several ice
ages in the Pleistocene (Møller et al. 1992). This origin
is clearly evident from how the caves lie in relation to
the Late Pleistocene marine limit, and also from the
fact that many have rounded and smooth polished
walls, as well as remains of beach sediments on the
floor in the interior (Fig. 5.10).
Figure 5.4: Figure in Brusteinshola, painted on white mineral The topographical location of figures within the
precipitate on the ceiling of the inner chamber (see Figs. 5.5 and caves varies (cf. Bjerck 1995 for details). The paintings
5.6). With very few exceptions, all the paintings seem to be made in the southernmost caves (Bølakointa, Fingalshola
by six rough strokes: a round head, body, splayed arms, and legs. and Solsemhula) lie in the innermost dark spaces – in
Photo H. Bjerck. common with the animal figures in Skåren-Monsen.
 5. Phenomenological Perspectives on Anthropomorphic Cave Paintings in Norway 53

Figure 5.5: Section and plan of Brusteinshola, including a close-up of the inner dark chamber with stickmen. All the paintings are made on
the ceiling of the cave (see Fig. 5.6), except the three stickmen on the erected stone slab by the horizontal fissure surrounding the chamber.
54 Hein Bjartmann Bjerck

20 other caves in the same area, all with satisfactory

conditions for preservation (indicated by smooth
polished walls and floors with beach debris), without
being able to detect paintings. Many of these are even
bigger and more impressive than caves where paintings
are recorded, and it is difficult to understand the code
for selecting caves for this practise. This would be
interesting to explore in more detail. However, how
much emphasis one can attribute to my set of negative
data is uncertain: it is reported that the painting in
Bølakointa was impossible to see in the light from a
normal headlamp (such as that which I have used) – it
is only visible in strong bluish light, which enhances
faint red colour (Ragnar Vennatrø pers. comm.).

Figure 5.6: Martinus Hauglid (who discovered the paintings Research history: cave paintings without caves
here) and myself studying two of the stickmen on the ceiling of
The red stickmen have very likely been observed,
Brusteinshola. Photo T. Ueland.
forgotten and rediscovered many times since they were
painted some 2000–3000 years ago. The discovery of
the paintings in Solsemhula in 1912 was the first to
In Fingalshola there are also figures linked to a enter the present archaeological record (Petersen 1914).
pronounced narrowing of the cave that also marks the Thereafter, almost 50 years passed until the next find
transition zone between light and dark. This is similar was reported – from Fingalshola (Marstrander 1965).
to Refsvikhola, Sanden and Helvete, where paintings Since 1980 yet more localities have been reported:
are linked to a combination of narrowing in the cave Skåren-Monsen near Brønnøysund (Sognnes 1983;
and the twilight zone. Hjertøya is a small cave without 2009), Kollhellaren on the outer edge of the Lofoten
dark zones, and is the only site where cave paintings archipelago (Hauglid et al. 1991), Troillhåle in Vevelstad
are exposed to daylight. (Johansen 1988; Berglund 1993), Helvete on Trenyken,
The placing of the figures in Brusteinshola is of the caves at Sanden on Værøy and Nordvika on
particular interest (Fig. 5.5). The large and tunnel- Hjertøya near Bodø, Brusteinshola (Bjerck 1995),
shaped outer part of the cave is open and light. The and most recently Bølakointa in Flatanger (Vennatrø
innermost chamber (around 20 by 20m) is dark and 2005, 93) and Bukkhammarhula in Lofoten (Norsted
low, below head height. At the highest part of the 2006).
roof (1.6m), there is a somewhat disorderly group of The studies of the Norwegian cave paintings
seven human figures (Fig. 5.6). The cave ‘ends’ in a represent a journey through almost 100 years of
horizontal fissure, where the roof height decreases research history. It is astonishing to see how the
to 20–30cm. Here, three stickmen are painted on a shifting research focus and theoretical paradigms have
flagstone, and two more on the roof just above. The directed what has been documented and discussed.
flagstone is supported by other rocks, and it appears The paintings in Solsemhula were without parallel in
that the people who painted the three figures also Norway when they were found in 1912. Nevertheless,
placed the stone precisely in this position. That the paintings are not the main theme in Theodor
someone actively arranged the setting in order to Petersen’s article on the discovery, but rather the finds’
place the figures exactly at this spot emphasizes the significance for the discussion of ‘the relationship
significance of this particular place. It is clear that the between the Arctic and Scandinavian Stone Age, the
cave continues beyond this point, but human beings slate culture and the flint culture’ (Petersen 1914, 25).
are unable to venture any further than this. The paintings are first mentioned towards the end of
Petersen’s article, mainly as a curious discovery of a
religious annex to what he interpreted as a dwelling
Caves without paintings area. Sverre Marstrander’s (1965) work on Fingalshola
Apart from the recent discoveries in Bølakointa and highlights the paintings and discusses similar images
Bukkhammarhula, I have visited all known Norwegian in a cross-regional context, their dating, and the cave’s
cave painting localities (Fig. 5.2). I have also examined culture-historical context. However, the ritual meaning
 5. Phenomenological Perspectives on Anthropomorphic Cave Paintings in Norway 55

Figure 5.7: Photo from the mouth of Troillhåle. The paintings are made in a narrow chamber in the side of the main cave. To enter the
chamber, one has to crawl through the lower horizontal opening, which is around 1m high. Photo: H. Bjerck.

of the site is first touched upon only in the very last before the ‘post-processual’ reorientation; 80 years
paragraph of the almost 20 pages long article: after the first cave paintings entered the archaeological
‘Everything indicates that it is the wish, or perhaps more record. In his article on the new discovery in Troillhåle,
correctly the need, to come into contact with nature’s Arne B. Johansen (1988) pointed out the exclusivity in
immense powers, which has been the cause of the visits the placing of the paintings – inaccessible, concealed,
to the cave. We can also imagine with what awe and in dark confined spaces, and only visible to a few (Fig.
horror the shaman, or whatever we will label him, has 5.7). Anders Hesjedal (1990, 208–213; 1994, 13–14) has
approached the cave’s innermost and darkest part, where elaborated similar thoughts, emphasizing that the cave’s
he, through ceremonies and paintings of magical pictures, characteristics may have been important for both rites
intended to secure the powers’ help for success in hunting of passage and rituals related to communication with
and trapping.’ (Marstrander 1965, 163, my translation) supernatural forces.
The works of Petersen and Marstrander fall within Against the backdrop of my own impressions
the ‘cultural archaeology’ research tradition, whereas from the caves (see below), I am left surprised by
Kalle Sognnes’ work in the wake of the discovery in the enormous mental forces embedded in scientific
Skåren-Monsen in the early 1980s bears the hallmark conformity. All researchers have connected the
of the contemporary ‘processual’, functionalist research depictions to ritual actions, but always within the
tradition (Sognnes 1983). Caves and depictions are rigid frames of what contemporary academic discourse
thoroughly described, focussing on parallels, age, and has defined as interesting and acceptable. The strong
the culture-historical context of the caves. In fact, the sensory impressions of the paintings’ context are
discussion is more focussed on subsistence patterns more or less absent – not because they have not been
outside the caves than the meaning of the paintings within. experienced, but because they were not deemed valid
The first studies that actually pinpoint the peculiarities within a research tradition built on objective and
of the paintings’ context – the cave – were not developed quantifiable data. With our backs to the dark we have
56 Hein Bjartmann Bjerck

measured cave floors and roof heights, drawn plans Archaeology has well-established traditions for
and sections, and recorded positions of paintings. recording the physical dimensions of caves, but
Yet all must have noticed that there is more. All have apart from the mandatory stippled line marking the
groped for erasers or tape measures on dark cave dripline at a cave’s mouth; the wide repertoire of
floors, but none seem to have seen the darkness itself. sensory dimensions is seldom included. Information
For how could Theodor Petersen have measured the on light (and dark), scents and temperature, and how
density of darkness in Solsemhula? Would not Sverre – in combination – they affect people who submit
Marstrander have been regarded as frivolous and themselves to a cave’s embrace is difficult to document,
weak if he had elaborated on how he imagined the and are normally omitted. Paradoxically, the meticulous
shaman’s ‘awe and horror’ in the innermost chamber recordings of plans and sections reproduce something
in Fingalshola? Why (and how) should Kalle Sognnes that was never observed by people in the past, and fail
document the goose pimples on his forearms, or the to reproduce what people actually saw in here: the cave
frequency of raised hairs on his neck when standing opening filled with glaring daylight, darkness, and
before the paintings in Skåren-Monsen? On what scale fragments of the cave’s walls, ceiling and floor in the
could I have measured the extent of my own feeling of flickering light of a flaming torch (see Figs 5.9–5.10).
being far from home when in the depths of Helvete? One may agree that these sensory phenomena rarely

Figure 5.9: The mouth of Kollhellaren, seen from inside. The

Figure 5.8: The mouth of the impressive cave at Sanden is nearly dimensions of the cave are breathtaking – note the person standing
blocked by a large talus formation. The present entrance (marked) between the two boulders on top of the rockfall formation at the
is less than 2m high. Photo H. Bjerck. mouth of the cave. Photo H. Bjerck.
 5. Phenomenological Perspectives on Anthropomorphic Cave Paintings in Norway 57

constitute entities with defined limits that may be this comprehensive set of data be an all-encompassing
recorded with a solid line on a piece of paper. The basis for the understanding of how sensory impressions
position of a cave’s twilight zone may vary with the are perceived, mediated, combined, and processed
position of the sun (cf. Sognnes 2009, 85), but this through the filter of cultural references and past
does not mean that the light–dark dichotomy or other experiences in the human brain?
sensory impressions are irrelevant (see Lewis-Williams Without claiming any general validity for the
2002, 214–227; Waller 2002; Clottes 2003). outcome, I would like to explore another line of
But how do you do this? How do you detect highly reasoning, namely the conglomerate of impressions
subjective phenomenological relations in an objective from my own visits to the realm of cave paintings.
manner? Of course, all this may be objectified and Like Tilley (1994), I believe that the size and shape
broken down to things that may be measured by of my body are similar to that of the people who
light meters, thermometers, humidity detectors, sonar made the paintings, as are our senses and basic
signals, and echo sounders (e.g. Waller 1993; Hamilton physical surroundings. I will therefore elaborate on
et al. 2006), but would this multitude of objective my own embodied experiences and references in
recordings ensure a true and complete picture of the order to provide peepholes into the phenomenology
sensory surroundings of cave paintings? And would of cavescapes.

Figure 5.10: From the central part of Helvete, looking towards the c. 30m high formation of rock falls in the mouth of the cave (note the
person standing here). In the inner part, the cave floor is covered by beach sediments that are dated to around 30,000 BP. The paintings
are located on the rock face to the left. Photo H. Bjerck.
58 Hein Bjartmann Bjerck

Sensing caves damp shirt feels unpleasant. When you listen, it is the
From a distance, most caves are conspicuous and lack of sound that strikes you. The cave’s own sounds
unfamiliar formations – big holes in the normal world are only distant dripping and the distorted directionless
of mountains and rock faces. On coming closer, the echoes of daily life outside the cave. There is a silence
breathtaking dimensions of large caves evoke a feeling that amplifies and adds an unfamiliar reverberation to
of being small and inferior. Many of the coastal caves sounds from your own body and movements.
are more or less blocked by rock debris at their mouths All in all, it is the absence of everything that hits you
(Figs. 5.8–5.9). From there, you may look down and – the absence of movement, colours, smells, and sounds
into the eerie cavescape. To advance, you often have to which we are used to in the life and day outside. The
overcome enormous rockfalls which make many caves cave is monotonous, silent, unmoving, and unseen
difficult to reach without ropes or ladders. The full – the opposite of the living world. There is no day,
‘effect’ of the cave is not experienced before you have no winter, no summer, and nothing that grows. The
reached the point where the light shifts to darkness. You cave extends beyond life, and beyond time. On the
have moved from broad daylight to muted reflections floor there are remains of dead animals and birds,
from matt rock walls. The mouth of the cave is almost cadavers with hair and feathers, but without any
unnatural green with lush ferns, wide-bladed grass swarms of flies or crawling maggots. Leaning against
and wet moss. Inside there is a dim interplay of colour, the wall is a young bird, with its upward pointing beak
with alternating stripes of rock mineral precipitates optimistically open, contrasting with its matt black eyes
– white, yellow, red, brown, black, and grey. Further in, without the brightness of life (Fig. 5.11). Life has left
there are only the smoothest rock surfaces, which shine it, but it is still sitting there. How long has it sat there?
faintly (Fig. 5.10). Between the faint reflections there It is not easy to tell, because time does not seem to
is the darkest black, with endless space for anything exist here in the conspicuous absence of motions and
that cannot tolerate daylight. You breathe in a slight life. What is present is a kind of baseline for being,
odour of earth, mould and dust – damp and cool, like a including what is beyond life, before and after.
refrigerator which has not been opened for a (very) long As you penetrate the darkness of the cave, you
time or a newly opened sack of (unwashed) potatoes, encounter branches leading upwards, downwards,
which triggers a childhood memory of the depths of to the side, or beneath gigantic rocks. Regardless of
your grandmother’s cellar. About now, you also notice which route you choose to follow you eventually reach
the cold and the fine hairs rising on your forearms. Both a point where you cannot go further. Yet at the same
breath and speech become visible in fleeting mists, your time you observe that these points are not the cave’s

Figure 5.11: Dead bird, leaning against the wall in Helvete. Photo: H. Bjerck.
 5. Phenomenological Perspectives on Anthropomorphic Cave Paintings in Norway 59

end. It is just too cramped for us humans to be able to your reset senses are suddenly bombarded by all
press further in. A child could squeeze a little further, the ordinary things that filled them and your brain
but even the smallest child would (probably) shortly to a degree that borders on invisibility prior to the
reach a point where the physical embrace of the cave time spent in the dark void. It is a strange feeling to
would set a limit – at least for humans. Thus, caves be surprised by all normal things: the lazy sound of
are not confined spaces; it is the human body which bumble bees, the smell of the sea and bird excrement,
restricts how far we can go, not the cave. Within lies grass and flowers, the warmth of a summer day, the
the never-ending dark, and all that belongs to it. Here, abundance of movement and colour, swarms of insects
the night hides when the day rules, and from here the against the bright, red and yellow flowers that nod in
darkness and stillness seep out when the sun sets. the wind, and the blinking reflection of sunlight from
Sometimes I have entered this world of darkness the surface of the deep blue sea – the living everyday
alone, or remained behind alone to finish taking things we always see but hardly notice.
notes or measurements. It is hard to admit, but such
occasions are always accompanied by flashes of
indefinable apprehension. The comfort you may find
in the ray of light from the headlamp is disturbed by Caves as ritual landscapes
the pressure of the darkness that is always behind you Compared to the general picture of Norwegian rock
– shadows seem to advance from all parts that are not art traditions (e.g. Lødøen and Mandt 2010), and
lit up. The shaky well-being you may find in the beam despite some variations, one may conclude that no
of light is disrupted by the fact that it also makes you other group of rock art is so uniform in technique,
very visible, vulnerable, a highlighted eye-catcher for design and format as the cave paintings. Similarly
nameless things you are not able to see. It is ten times striking is the characteristic placing of the paintings
the uneasy feeling of being the ‘target’ in the child’s themselves, linked to dark caves, in a specific region.
game where all the others try to get closer each time This implies that the paintings are related to a common
you turn your back on them, and you wait for the practice, rooted in a common tradition in rituals and
uneasy moment when you are touched by the winner. worldview. Hence, it is reasonable to believe that the
It is tempting to slip away from this by switching off interface between the placement of paintings and the
the light, and entering a state of a peaceful nothingness phenomenology of caves has the potential to reveal
that normally is not reached by living persons without aspects of the ontological backdrop for this ritual
the use of strong mind altering drugs. It is like being practice.
dead or unborn. In general terms, caves are silent and static –
On several occasions I have experienced the paralysing the chaotic complexity of movements and sensory
anxiety which today is known as ‘claustrophobia’. For impressions in the day life outside is absent. In this
me it is like a sudden horrible stench – one that is not lies the possibility to arrange, control and manipulate
noticeable until it is too late, after you have inhaled it sensory impressions. Séances can be directed with
and it is inside you. This may occur when you reach endless combinations of light, voices, noise, stench
the deep and narrow parts of the cave, where it is and scent. One may show or conceal the location and
not possible to go any further forward and the way origin of sensory impressions. In other words, a cave
back is blocked by the others who are following. It is a ‘black box’, an ideal work platform for priests,
is like being seven years old, head first in a sleeping shamans, and necromancers (and also illusionists
bag, only to realize that your older playmate is not and theatre directors), where participants may be
going to let you out. At times you have to crawl, and directed towards intended sentiments and moods that
you suddenly realize that you cannot get further and will enable them to experience and understand the
there is no space to turn around. Even if these waves complexity of symbols and cultural references that
of anxiety may be accompanied by the conviction that constitute a ritual (Turner 1968, 2; Doty 1986, 81).
there is really nothing to fear, this suffocating feeling A telling example is the séance described by Knud
of dread inexplicably remains, seemingly coming from Rasmussen (1921, 15), where the shaman’s control
outside and inside simultaneously. Perhaps humans over what the participants see and hear is decisive.
long ago also recognized, named, and had their own The séance itself is a bombardment of sound and
explanation for this phenomenon? Did they sense this movement in absolute darkness (within a winter
as something coming from within themselves – or as house), where different spirits are recognized through
entities in the cave itself? certain movements and acoustic images. Equally
However, the most profound embodied experience important is the relation between what the participants
is perhaps when you re-enter life and the light outside: saw prior to the ceremony and what they see when the
60 Hein Bjartmann Bjerck

lights are lit afterwards: the shaman, with his arms tied It is not surprising that caves are often reported to
behind his back, in a helpless state, with drumsticks be central in such rites, and puberty rites in particular
lying between his feet and the drum, and the dry, stiff (Turner 1977; Eliade 1964, 41). Caves are a physical
hide across the entrance which will make a noise when separation, a place to be away from everything else.
someone (or something) passes through. They have qualities which can symbolize contrast-
The ability to control sensory impressions is equally filled stages of rites of passage – places out of life
widely practised in present-day rituals. Many of and time, without movements, colours, weather,
the caves’ characteristics have parallels in churches scents, and sounds. These are places where it is easy
today – impressive, separated from everyday life, to imagine physical and mental ordeals. With simple
with heavy doors, door handles at face height, keys arrangements, ordeals may easily be increased to
which need both hands to turn them – all elements levels of sheer horror – bodily and spiritual stress
intended to impose a feeling of the visitor being which are likely to enhance the importance of the
‘small’ and overpowered. Coloured glass directs post-liminal status and provide a sweet feeling of self-
light to form particular images, but also obstructs the esteem and pride. I will also stress the emotional and
view outwards. Controlled acoustics give richness symbolic value of the return to the outside world after
and colour to the sound image linked to the ritual, a lengthy stay in a cave’s embrace – with ‘reset’ and
and spoken words acquire special meanings. At the highly receptive senses bombarded by movements,
same time, irregularities, the creak of the floor from scents, colours, contours, sounds – a cacophony of
someone arriving late, or inattentive chattering are life that can enhance a feeling of being new in the
amplified. The odour of stuffy air which has been world in the finale of the separation–transformation–
played through organ pipes, sung with, cried into, incorporation sequence. Thus, caves are a perfect
prayed with, coughed and yawned into. The placing place to emerge from, to re-enter the world with a
of items, people and functions, and all that is sensory new status.
are integrated in a liturgical whole which goes far There is yet another aspect that may hint at a
beyond the formal programme of a religious service. relation to rites of passage, especially rituals related
Thus, caves are suitable arenas for ritual activities, and to the child–adult transition. The liminal phase often
possess a range of phenomenological qualities with implies deprivation – stripping people who undergo
strong symbolic value for a variety of rituals (cf. More such rituals of property or social positions. In short,
and Myerhoff 1977, 4). they are all alike, naked, regardless of their former
roles or status (Turner 1969, 95). Thus, the strikingly
simple and uniform appearance of stickmen in the
Being new in the world: ‘rites de passage’ caves – from Leka to Lofoten – may well symbolize a
Anders Hesjedal (1990, 208–213) has suggested that the ritual ‘undressing’ and homogenizing of participants
Norwegian cave paintings may have been linked to in initiation rites.
‘rites of passage’ – ritual markings of major transitions
in a person’s life, both social and biological. Such rituals
are known from most human societies in one form or Osmotic membrane: connections to other
another (Van Gennep 1960 [1909]), such as the well- worlds
known sequence in the Western world: christening Characteristic stone formations, stone blocks, cliffs,
(birth), baptism (puberty), marriage (reproduction), mountains, islets, taluses, fissures, and caves are
and burial (death). Arnold Van Gennep characterized all often part of cosmologies, myths, and rites.
three stages that are commonly found in rites of Characteristics of such places can symbolize important
passage: separation, transformation and incorporation. aspects of myths and rituals: the connections and
The middle phase, the change itself – the liminal contrasts between people and nature, humans and
phase – is the core of the ritual. The liminal phase is a supernatural powers, individuals and society, past
threshold, a tunnel, a mixture of both and neither/nor, and future, and social and ethnic groups (Eliade 1964,
a state of oppositions – living and dead, adult and 51). This is well illustrated in Sami cosmology, where
child, animal and human. The liminal phase may last there is a clear relation between shamanistic rituals
for days or weeks, or be over in a matter of minutes. and characteristic shapes in the landscape (e.g. Manker
Humiliations and ordeals are often part of this phase, 1957; Anisimov 1963; Schanche 2000; Sveen 2003; Äikäs
a downfall in parallel with the construction of the et al. 2009). In fact, these shapes constitute important
post-liminal state. It is also common that the liminal elements in the notion of the three-tier world and
phase is marked by a separation from the remainder the axis mundi that seems to be central in Eurasian
of society (Turner 1977, 37). shamanistic cosmology. The location and motifs of
 5. Phenomenological Perspectives on Anthropomorphic Cave Paintings in Norway 61

rock art hint that this tradition has deep roots (e.g. caves as connections to other worlds. In fact, they
Helskog 1999; Goldhahn 2002; Lahelma 2005; Slinning may be seen as tangible evidence of the very existence
2005; Zvelebil 2008). of a dark world beneath. One is the fact that caves
David S. Withley’s (1992) study of rock art in are highly visible and impressive openings in the
California and Nevada is an excellent illustration of how world of humans, leading to eerie chambers that
rituals, motifs, and rock art locations may interrelate. impose a feeling of being out of place. Another
There, rock art was a living tradition well into historical characteristic is the fact that such chambers do not have
times, and extensive ethnographic material informs a definite, observable termination. On the contrary,
about the cultural context of sites and depictions. Rock further connections may be observed in the form of
art is linked to differing rituals, but places and images innumerable openings which eventually become so
all appear to be related to shamans – in fact, the names narrow that it is impossible for humans to proceed
of the sites are commonly variations of ‘Shaman’s place’. – an osmotic membrane which allows some beings to
Some localities have been important in puberty rites, pass through while others (humans) cannot. This adds
and ethnographic sources point to male and female further support to the sense of connection to places
symbols in geometric patterns. Nevertheless, most sites that people cannot normally reach.
are linked to places where shamans in ‘altered states This is enhanced by phenomenological aspects of
of consciousness’ (trance) were able to connect with the chambers with paintings – the lack of life and time,
supernatural worlds and beings. These powers are powerful metaphors underlining that you are on the
found ‘in the rock’, and it is not surprising that many outer fringe of the human world. The paintings are
rock art sites are found near caves and fissures which located at different places within the cavescapes – in the
symbolize lines of communication (Withley 1992, 91–92). twilight zones, by a marked narrowing in the passages,
Many of the motifs are linked to the connection with the where passages divide, or in the inner chambers.
supernatural. Lizards, snakes and bears – animals which Morphologically speaking, departing from plans and
frequently venture into fissures, cracks and caves – are sections of caves, the detailed locations of paintings
all part of our world and also the realms beneath. They seem chaotic and without any pattern that may hint at
were seen as important spiritual helpers or guardians meaning. Phenomenologically speaking, however, the
in passages between the worlds, or as assistants in location of paintings seem to come together in points
shamans’ efforts to make contact with supernatural of change, marking borders that seem to underline
powers (Withley 1992, 101). the importance of tangible transition zones within
In other parts of the world too, researchers have the caves – where you sense that you are leaving the
linked rock art and caves to shamanism (e.g. Lewis- world of humans – or that you are entering the outer
Williams 1982; 2002; Lewis-Williams and Dowson 1988; chambers of a world beyond.
Skeates 1991). However, we do not need to leave our
own Scandinavian tradition in order to find notions of
(mostly evil) supernatural powers that inhabit rocks.
There is no reason to doubt that these beliefs have Concluding remarks
deep roots in history. Very often the caves have names The subjective exploration of my experiences of
which indicate connections to the underworld, such as caves and stickmen is neither aimed at revealing the
Trollhola, Risehula, and Helvete. In many cases caves full meaning of past beliefs and rituals nor finding
are linked to stories which emphasize the unknown. the exact limits of the validity of phenomenological
These are stories which some of us actually wish to approaches. I do not know for sure that the caves were
believe in or at least which we love to pass on to new arenas for rites of passage or ritual markings of human
generations: presence at the fringes of the world of humans, i.e.
‘... and one day, a boy about your age heard faint barking whether the stickmen are guardians or helpers – or, for
from a cave on the distant island over there. Inside, he that matter, representations of human foetuses in the
found a dog, thin as a cat, naked as a pig, almost see- womb of an animated Mother Earth (see Figs. 5.9–5.10).
through, shivering, with a haunted look in his eyes. However, I believe that exploring how caves evoke
Had it not been for the collar, nobody would believe human senses, and how the human brain processes
this, but it was, beyond any doubt, the very dog that and mixes sentiments against a backdrop of highly
had disappeared three weeks earlier, in the very cave subjective personal memories and cultural references,
we are in now ...’. has the potential to reach beyond the more pessimistic
Departing from my own embodied engagement criticisms of the phenomenological approach, as
with cavescapes, it is easy to understand that these represented, for example, by the conclusion to Joanna
formations have the capacity to nourish beliefs of Brück’s review of this research tradition:
62 Hein Bjartmann Bjerck

‘Some writers have suggested that embodied engagement uneasiness may vary, however enough people are
with the landscape in the present provides an insight into likely to have experienced this to define and mediate
past experiences and interpretations of place. For the the phenomenon.
reasons outlined in this paper, however, I would argue Very likely, some of these features contributed to
that this cannot be the case. Nonetheless, phenomenology
the much wider array of rationales that constructed
can encourage us to think imaginatively about the social
the rituals that included painting red stickmen in
and political layout and landscape setting and in this it
has been very successful.’ (Brück 2005, 65) Norwegian caves. As all humans share carnal bodies in
a similar physical world, one should not be surprised
The ontological depths of past phenomenological that fundamental divisions similar to the axis mundi
relations have probably evaporated for good, as are the in Eurasian shamanism are found in the majority of
filters of cultural references and individual memories known cosmologies around the world. In the most
that all humans use to make meaning of sensory basic and simplistic form this is the World of Humans
impressions. Nonetheless, I share Tilley’s (2004) basic – the surface of the Earth that we trod and build our
assumption that we and the peoples of the past share houses on, and hunt, collect and harvest from. And
‘carnal bodies’, size, shape, and sensory organs – that then there is a World Above and a World Beneath
we engage with the same physical world and the same – both out of reach for living humans – ‘Heaven’
repertoire of phenomena – and that these factors may and ‘Hell’. This is why some trees are holy; as they
serve as ‘constants’ that constitute a relevant backdrop are a very tangible part of the human world, but are
for the interpretation of past actions, praxis and also rooted in and nourished by the underground,
beliefs. I also believe that phenomenological relations and stretch towards sky, sun, and heaven, above the
are imperative in forming the infinite assembly of human world. This is why churches have towers and
dichotomies that constitute past and present world crypts, why a variety of pyramids occur at different
views. With respect to the engagement with caves, times and places. This is why trolls are believed to
the cave painters are likely to have experienced and inhabit mountains and why they are petrified by the
ascribed meaning to the following: sunlight, why rituals and offerings are connected to
summits ... and to caves.
(1) the lack of life, colours, sounds, smells, movement,
With or without paintings, caves may very well
and time;
have been an important factor in this cosmological
(2) the fact that human senses fail to produce the
construction. I think the very tangible sensuous world
information we need to orient ourselves, move
of caves may have nourished the notion of a world
and detect danger;
axis and a number of associated dichotomies (light/
(3) the elusive termination of chambers and passages,
dark, warm/cold, good/bad, life/death). They are a
which evokes a feeling that there is more – which
place one may see for oneself – step by step the living
is beyond the reach of humans; and
world vanishes, to become replaced by nothingness
(4) the dichotomy between the caves’ realm of absence
– neither time nor life and movement – a dead world
and the ‘reinforced awareness’ of all ‘normal’
that may actually be seen and sensed by the living.
things in the world on returning from caves.
And furthermore, the elusive termination of caves
In addition to fascination, I believe that the engagement hint at their continuum to realms beyond the human
with caves induces a certain level of apprehension world.
on a scale ranging from uneasiness to shear fear. Today, the natural sciences have, to a large extent,
The loss of sensory control any human being will blocked off the mysteries of the underworld to many
experience here is per definition frightening. Your of us. We may still be enticed by the scary thrills from
eyes fail to provide the information you need to the deep, dark and the evil in feature films such as
move (do not even think of running) and to sense The ‘Abyss’ and ‘Descent’. However, the big mysteries
things (and threats) that surround you. Your ears fail in current cosmology – the realms beyond human
to detect the directions and provenience of sounds, reach and understanding, where beliefs and science
and you are not able to see what is making sounds. are equals – lie at the other end of the world axis:
Your nose is filled with an all-encompassing odour the universe. Yet do not worry: as you read these
of chilled decay – death, nothingness, and eternity. lines, our lone and brave messenger is under way.
The phenomenon ‘claustrophobia’ – the strange Since September 5th 1977, the unmanned space probe
and paralysing feeling that seems to percolate from Voyager has travelled in the same direction towards
narrow spaces, simultaneously coming from within the big and dark unknown, carrying ‘The Golden
and outside – may also have evoked a feeling of Record’, a valuable and varied cargo of information
being overpowered and out of place. The level of about humans, humanity, our position and physical
 5. Phenomenological Perspectives on Anthropomorphic Cave Paintings in Norway 63

surroundings – for whom it may concern (NASA Lahelma, A. (2005) Between the worlds. Rock art, landscape and
2010). This is the current outer fringe of the human shamanism in Subneolithic Finland. Norwegian Archaeological
realm – and NASA’s ‘cave painting’ on behalf of the Review 38(1), 29–47.
Lahelma, A. (2007) ‘On the back of a blue elk’: ethnohistorical
USA and planet Earth as a whole. sources and ‘ambiguous’ Stone Age rock art at Pyhänpää,
Central Finland. Norwegian Archaeological Review 40(2),
113–137.
Reference Lewis-Williams, J. D. (1982) The economic and social contexts of
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