MATEC Web of Conferences 364, 02006 (2022) https://doi.org/10.

1051/matecconf/202236402006
ICCRRR 2022

Assessing The Mechanical And Durability Performance Of

Concrete Made Using Recycled Clay Masonry Rubble Bricks
(CMRB) As Coarse Aggregates
Janina P Kanjee1,*, Thoba Sikhakhane1, and Omphile Tejane1
1School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg

Abstract. The South African construction industry is currently faced with mounting
construction waste and overflowing landfills. Consequently, the feasibility of using of clay
masonry rubble brick (CMRB) as a partial replacement for natural coarse aggregate in concrete
was investigated. Three concrete mixes were made using a water-to-binder (w/b) ratios of 0.60. A
control mix as well as a mix containing 50% and 100 % replacement of coarse Andesite
aggregate with CMRB as coarse aggregate was tested. The compressive strength, shrinkage and
durability properties (with respect to oxygen permeability, water sorptivity and chloride
conductivity) were assessed. The results show that the incorporation 100% MCR brick as coarse
aggregate produced the lowest compressive strength result, the highest shrinkage rate and the
least resistance to gaseous ingress and chloride conductivity. The concrete mix containing 50%
MCR brick exhibited the least resistance to water absorption through capillary action. The
mechanical and durability properties of both concrete mix containing MCR brick was largely
affected by the porous nature of coarse masonry rubble. The results can be attributed to a
relatively high void ratio leading to the presence of more interlinked pathways within the CMRB
aggregate.

1. Introduction Sustainability is the desired goal within most

In developing countries the growing population has disciplines including the construction industry and many
driven an increase in the demand for commercial and researchers are finding new ways to reach this target.
housing infrastructure. In addition there is an increase in Using environmentally friendly constituents to produce
the number of demolished and/or abandoned houses concrete will help reach this goal. It is important to put
potentially resulting in tonnes of construction and careful consideration in the type of aggregates used in
demolition (C&D) waste being generated annually. concrete as they determine the dimensional stability and
Owing to the lack of guidelines on the re-use of C&D therefore strength of concrete. Their properties play a
waste in South Africa, the waste gets sent to landfill sites vital role in influencing the properties of concrete as they
or is illegally dumped, subsequently exacerbating the make up 75% of the mass and approximately 67% of
negative impacts that the built environment has on the volume of concrete, with coarse aggregates constituting
natural environment[1]. a third of that volume. Changes in coarse aggregate can
In a bid to create a more sustainable construction therefore significantly change the strength and durability
industry, circular economy has placed emphasized on the of concrete.
need to mitigate these negative impacts on the Various waste materials have been researched as
environment. This has led to an accompanying rise in viable replacements of natural andesite aggregates.
research that looks to reuse such waste material. Waste These include, but are not limited to, rubber obtained
material is exploited in a manner that both reduces cost from the waste produced by rubber-tyre industry [7 & 8]
and cleans the environment [2]. recycled plastic i.e. high-density polyethylene sourced
One way in which to incorporate C&D waste from municipal waste [9], glass to produce a composite
material in future construction projects is to use it as referred to as glascrete [10] and masonry rubble [3].
aggregates in mortar [2] and/or concrete. Aggregates This study forms part of a larger project in which
constitute 60 to 80% of the volume of concrete, the feasibility of using clay masonry rubble bricks as
supplementing or completely replacing the natural aggregates in concrete was investigated. Clay masonry
material already in use with reused and recycled rubble bricks were selected in particular owing to the
synthetic or waste material would reduce the demand for vast quantity of the material that has been discarded.
natural aggregates [3-6].

*
Corresponding author: [email protected]
© The Authors, published by EDP Sciences. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
MATEC Web of Conferences 364, 02006 (2022) https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/202236402006
ICCRRR 2022

This paper focuses on the viability of replacing

coarse aggregates with masonry rubble from demolished
buildings and its effects on the mechanical properties of
fresh and hardened concrete. The properties that are
investigated include workability, compressive strength,
drying shrinkage, and durability. Due to a restricted
study timeframe, properties that require a longer testing
duration (more than 3 months) such as creep were not
investigated.
2. Methodology
The following section outlines the experimental
approach used to assess the mechanical and durability Fig. 2: “Cleaned” clay masonry bricks crushed into smaller
aggregate fractions.
properties of concrete made using recycled CMRB as
coarse aggregates. 100
19 mm Andesite stone
2.1. CMRB as coarse aggregates 90

80
2.1.1. Sourcing clay masonry rubble bricks
70

CMRB aggregates were derived from clay masonry 60

bricks collected from an illegal dump site located in 50

Johannesburg South, South Africa (Fig.1). 40

30
Cumulative % p assing

20

10

0
1 10
Particle Size (mm )

Fig. 3: Grading profile for 19 mm Andesite stone

2.2. Concrete mix design

Three concrete mixes with 0, 50 and 100% replacement
of the coarse CMRB aggregate were then designed with
a w/b ratio of 0.6. The details of these mix designs are
summarized in the Table 1.
Fig. 1 Clay masonry rubble bricks collected at an illegal
dump site in Johannesburg South. Table 1: Concrete proportions in kg/m3
The CMRB were subject to mechanical crushing a 0% 50% 100%
to produce particle size and grading characteristics that Constituents
CMRB CMRB CMRB
were comparable to the control 19mm coarse Andesite PC (CEM I 52.5 R) 301 301 301
aggregates used in this study. FA 129 129 129
2.1.2. Mechanical crushing and grading of CMRB Sand Content (Andesite) 799 799 799
Stone Content (Andesite) 1050 525 0
Excess mortar was removed from the CMRB (using a Stone Content (CMRB) 0 525 1050
hammer and chisel) such that approximately less than Water 259 259 259
5% of mortar was present prior to crushing the bricks. Admixture 0 0 0
The “cleaned” rubble shown in Fig. 2 was crushed using
a hammer into sizeable pieces which classified as either
2.2.1. Preparation of CMRB aggregates prior to
fine or coarse aggregates in accordance with SANS 1083
[11]. The coarse aggregates with nominal sizes between casting
4.75 mm and 19 mm were selected, with the inclusion of Prior to casting, the crushed CMRB aggregates were
finer particles to match the particle size fractions prepared according to a modified method adapted from
obtained for the 19mm Andesite coarse aggregate De Venny [3]. Due to their high porosity (absorption),
aggregate grading profile, in accordance with SANS the crushed CMRB aggregates greater than 6.2 mm were
201: 2008[12]. first weighed, soaked in water for 30 minutes, removed
The grading profile as seen in Fig 3, was used to from water, weighed once more, and set to dry for 1 hour
determine the amount of masonry rubble aggregate prior to their inclusion in the concrete mix. The
required to produce a grading profile comparable (in aggregates were further laid on a flat surface and
terms of fraction size and mass,) to that produced using covered in a layer of paper towel to absorb any excess
natural 19mm Andesite coarse aggregate (as described in moisture present on the surfaces of the aggregates (Fig.
SANS 1083).

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MATEC Web of Conferences 364, 02006 (2022) https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/202236402006
ICCRRR 2022

4). This process ensured that the crushed masonry The oxygen permeability index (OPI) test was
aggregates remained surface-dry when added into the conducted according to SANS:3001-CO3-2 [17]. The
concrete mix. water sorptivity test was conducted in accordance to the
Durability Index Manual [18]. The chloride conductivity
test was conducted according to SANS:3001-CO3-3
[19].
3. Results and discussion
The investigation into the mechanical and durability
properties of concrete made using CMBR as coarse
aggregates was conducted over a period of three months.
The results are outlined and further discussed below.
3.1. Fresh concrete properties
Fig. 4 Crushed CMRB soaked in water and subsequently
laid out to dry. 3.1.2. Slump test

2.3. Fresh concrete properties The slump tests results in Fig. 6, showed a general trend,
as the percentage of CMBR increased there was a
2.3.1. Slump tests decrease in the workability of the concrete.
200
To measure the workability of fresh concrete, slump
180
tests were conducted in line with SANS 5862-1:2006
[13]. 160

140
2.4. Hardened concrete properties
Slump (mm)

120
2.4.1. Compressive strength tests 100

80
The 100 mm concrete cubes were tested in accordance to
60
SANS:5863[14]. The cubes were loaded using a cube
press-foot machine which had a maximum loading 40

capacity of 2 000 KN. The compressive strength tests 20

were performed at 14 and 28 days. 0
0% CMRB 50% CMRB 100% CMRB
2.4.2. Drying shrinkage
Fig. 6: Slump results for concrete made using 0, 50 and 100%
Drying shrinkage was conducted according to SANS CMRB as coarse aggregate
6085 [15], using 200 × 100 × 100 mm concrete prisms.
Three specimens were prepared for each concrete mix. It can be seen that even after pre-soaking the CMBR
aggregates for 30 minutes prior to incorporation them in
2.5. Durability test concrete mixture, the high porosity rubble absorbed
some of the mixing water leading to the decrease in the
Three durability index (DI) tests the oxygen permeability
workability, hence a decrease in slump. Thus the higher
test, water sorptivity test and chloride conductivity test
the percentage of replacement of coarse CMRB
were performed. These tests measure the resistance of
aggregates, the less workable the concrete produced.
the cover concrete to the transportation of ions and fluids
through the concrete thus affecting deterioration. The 3.2. Hardened concrete properties
tests produce reliable indices for the characterization of
concretes. 3.2.1. Compressive strength
The DI test specimens were prepared in accordance
with SANS 3001: CO3-1[16], as seen in Fig. 5. 35
Compressive strength (MPa)

30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0% 50% 100% 0% 50% 100%
CMRB CMRB CMRB CMRB CMRB CMRB
14 Days 28 Days

Fig. 7: Compressive strength of concrete made using 0, 50 and

Fig. 5: DI Disc preparation from a 100 mm concrete cube [16] 100% CMRB as coarse aggregate at 14 and 28 days

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MATEC Web of Conferences 364, 02006 (2022) https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/202236402006
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In general the compressive strength is observed to 3.2.2. Drying shrinkage

decrease as the replacement percentage of CMRB
aggregates increases as seen in Fig. 7, confirming work Fig. 10 illustrates the cumulative average microstrain for
done by Khalaf [20] and Zong et al. [21]. This results is concrete made using 0, 50 and 100% CMRB as coarse
attributed to the high stiffness of the Andesite aggregate aggregate over a 30 day period. The 100% CMRB mix
relative to the CMRB aggregates. had highest cumulative strains that were 0.01% and 15%
30
greater than those in 50% and 0% CMRB mix,
respectively.
Compressive strength (MPa)

25 800

20 700

600

Microstrain (x10-6)
15
500
10
400
0% CMRB
5 50% CMRB 300
100% CMRB 0% CMRB
200
0
50% CMRB
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
100
Time (Days) 100% CMRB
0
Fig. 8: Strength development of concrete made using 0, 50 and 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
100% CMRB as coarse aggregate Time (days)
Fig. 10: Accumulative shrinkage for concrete made using 0, 50
The compressive strength of 50% and 100% and 100% CMRB as coarse aggregate
CMRB concretes are approximately 35 and 41 % lower
than the strength of the control mix at 14 days, The accumulative shrinkage observed highlights
respectively (Fig. 8). This is a significant decrease in the the influence that crushed masonry aggregates have on
compressive strength compared to the control mix which the ability of the concrete to resist excessive volume
highlights the significant influence the type of changes due to a loss of moisture. Shrinkage of a given
aggregates has on compressive strength. A similar trend concrete depends on the cement paste furthermore the
in strength gain is observed from day 14 to 28, albeit at a addition of aggregates increases the dimensional stability
decreasing rate. of a concrete [22]. From the results obtained and work
The differences in compressive strength results are done by Adam et al (2001) [23] and Adamson [24], the
further explained by examining the broken surfaces of inclusion of CMRB aggregates decreases the
the crushed concrete cubes at 28 days as shown in Fig. 9. dimensional stability of a concrete, owning to the
porosity of the aggregate. This, like in the compressive
strength tests, is a result of the porous, highly absorptive
and brittle nature of the crushed masonry aggregate.
These aggregates are less dense due to the increased
amount of voids present, within which fluids may be
trapped. This therefore implies that concrete made with
CMRB will lose more water in addition to that lost by
the cement paste.
Fig. 9: Broken surfaces of concrete containing 100% CMRB
3.3. Durability
Concrete containing 0% CMRB showed a
relatively high amount of the Andesite aggregates to be The durability of concrete can be measured by the
intact and failure had occurred along the Interfacial oxygen permeability index, water sorptivity and chloride
Transition Zone (ITZ). In contrast, concrete containing conductivity tests. All three durability indices were
50 and 100% CMBR showed a number of cracks obtained to determine the overall durability of concrete
running through the CMBR aggregates. This indicate incorporating coarse CMRB aggregates.
that the load traversed through some of the recycled 3.3.1. Oxygen Permeability Index
CMBR aggregates, as this was the path of less
resistance, resulting in failure. The Oxygen Permeability Index (OPI) is indirectly
As such, this observation implies that the ITZ is proportional to permeability. The value of OPI indicates
stronger than a large majority of the masonry rubble the resistance of a given concrete to the ingress of gases.
aggregates but weaker than andesite aggregate in the A high value of the OPI corresponds to a high resistance
concrete matrix. For a concrete matrix containing 0% to gaseous ingress.
CMRB aggregates failure is thus governed by the A general trend can be observed in Fig. 11, the OPI
strength of the ITZ and hardened cement paste. In value decreases with an increase in replacement of
concrete with 50 and 100% CMRB aggregates, failure is CMBR aggregates. An increase in the amount of CMBR
mostly controlled by the strength of CMRB aggregates used therefore implies an increased susceptibility to gas
and the ITZ. movement within the concrete. This is as a result of the
highly porous characteristic of masonry rubble which
encourages the movement of fluids within its skeletal

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MATEC Web of Conferences 364, 02006 (2022) https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/202236402006
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structure. Such concrete is prone to carbon dioxide 7.0

ingress of which may lead to carbonation induced

Chloride Conductivity (mS/cm)

corrosion within the concrete. 6.0

5.0
10.4
4.0
10.2

10 3.0
OPI (log scale)

9.8 2.0

9.6 1.0

9.4
0.0
0% CMRB 50% CMRB 100% CMRB
9.2
Fig. 13: Chloride conductivity for concrete made using 0, 50
9
0% CMRB 50% CMRB 100% CMRB and 100% CMRB as coarse aggregate
Fig. 11: OPI for concrete made using 0, 50 and 100% CMRB A linear relationship is also presented in Fig. 14
as coarse aggregate
which indicates that an increase in porosity is directly
3.3.2. Water sorptivity index proportional to an increase in CCI. This corresponds to
the increasing percentage of replacement of Andesite
Ingress of moisture in concrete by capillary suction is with CMBR aggregate. As a result, the percentage of
obtained using this index. A higher value of WSI implies crushed masonry aggregate required for a given value of
a decreased resistance to the ingress of liquids in a given CCI may be determined indirectly.
concrete specimen. 7.0

16
Chloride conductivity (mS/mm)

6.0

5.0
14
Water Sorptivity (mm/√h)

4.0
12
3.0

10 2.0
0% CMRB
1.0 50% CMRB
8
100% CMRB
0.0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0
6
Porosity %
Fig. 14: CCI plotted against the corresponding porosity of
4 concrete made using 0, 50 and 100% CMRB as coarse
0% CMRB 50% CMRB 100% CMRB
aggregate
Fig. 12: Water sorptivity for concrete made using 0, 50 and
100% CMRB as coarse aggregate This property is of particular importance in regions
where the risk of chloride induced steel corrosion are
It is observed in Fig. 12 that 50% CMBR mix has high. As such, the use of CMBR increases the likelihood
the highest WSI value, which seems like an anomaly as of chloride induced steel corrosion [25]. The higher the
the 100 % CMBR mix would be anticipated to have the amount of crushed masonry rubble used, the higher the
higher WSI value owning to porous nature of the CMRB chances of steel compromise. It is therefore not
aggregate. recommended to use masonry rubble as aggregates in
3.3.3. Chloride conductivity index such regions.

Chloride Conductivity Index (CCI) indicates the 4. Conclusion

resistance of concrete to the ingress of chloride. A higher
The effects of replacing coarse Andesite aggregate with
CCI value suggests a decreased resistance to chloride
coarse CMBR aggregate on the mechanical properties of
ingress.
fresh and hardened concrete was assessed in this study.
As seen in Fig.13 CCI values increases as the
Three concrete mixes were investigated: 0% CMBR (the
replacement of Andesite with CMRB aggregate
control mix), 50% CMBR and 100% CMBR. In
increases, which verifies research presented by Adamson
addition, to avoid the absorption of water required for
[24]. This is due to the highly porous property of CMRB
hydration, the masonry rubble aggregate was prepared
aggregates. The resistance of 0% CMBR mix is
further by pre-soaking and drying until surface dry
approximately 79% and 83% greater than the resistance
conditions were reached. The properties tested include:
of 50% and 100%CMBR mix, respectively.
workability, compressive strength, drying shrinkage and
South African durability index of each concrete mix
produced. The results are summarized below:

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MATEC Web of Conferences 364, 02006 (2022) https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/202236402006
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- The slump results obtained indicate that the higher The testing of other replacement levels below 50% may
the percentage of replacement of CMRB aggregates, be considered to confirm work done by Zong [21] who
the less workable the concrete mixture. Despite recommended a replacement level of 30%.
having pre-soaked the aggregates before mixing the Lastly, from the research presented in this study, Mix
concrete. 50% is recommended for used as low strength concrete
- The compressive strength decreased as the utilised in low-cost housing and/or 1 story building
replacement percentage of CMRB aggregates where foundations do not need to be excessively strong,
increases for a given concrete mixture. This result is pavement kerbs, pedestrian footpaths, strip footings for
attributed to the highly porous nature of CMRB free standing walls. These buildings would have to be
aggregate relative to coarse Andesite aggregate. situated within inland regions not susceptible to
This observation is based on the increased frequency excessive moisture exposure. This ensures that the
of cracks present in concrete containing coarse embedded reinforcement does not experience chloride
CMRB aggregates compared to concrete containing attacks leading chloride induced steel corrosion
coarse Andesite aggregate, thus decreasing the promoted by excessive fluid ingress.
dimensional stability of the concrete.
- Analysis of drying shrinkage was done over a period References
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