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Form 1
Combined Science
Chemistry
Separation

Mixing
 Two or more substances can be mixed together to form a mixture.

 This happens whether the substances have dissolved or not.

 A mixture can also be formed when two different solid substances

are mixed together, for example:

o Iron fillings and sulphur powder.

o A mixture of maize and pumpkin seeds.

 Scientists can mix dry substances alone, dry and liquid substances
and as well as liquid substances together.

 Examples of substances that can be mixed together are:

o Sand and gravel to give sand and gravel mixture (dry

substances).

o Iron and sulphur to give iron and sulphur mixture (dry

substances).

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o Salt and water to give water and salt solution (dry and liquid
substances).

o Sugar and water to give water and sugar solution (dry and
liquid substances).

o Water and oil to give oil and water mixture (liquid

substances).

Dissolving
 To dissolve means to disappear in a liquid.

 There are many substances that dissolve in different liquids.

 Salt, sugar and potassium permanganate are examples of

substances that dissolve in water.

 Some substances dissolve fast whilst some dissolve slowly.

 The rate at which different substances dissolve in liquids is called

the reaction speed.

 The reaction speed can be increased by adding heat to the liquid

(water) as well as by stirring.

Solution
 A solution is formed when a substance completely dissolves in a
liquid.

 A simple example of a solution is water and salt solution.

 Another example is water and sugar solution.

 solute + solvent = solution

Solvent
 A solvent is a liquid that allows other substances to dissolve in it.

 Water is an example of a solvent because it allows other

substances such as salt and sugar to dissolve.

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Solute
 A solute is a substance that dissolves in a solvent, for example
salt.

Soluble and insoluble substances

 A soluble substance is one that dissolves in a solvent.

 Salt and sugar are examples of soluble substances because they

dissolve in water.

 An insoluble substance is one that does not dissolve.

 Some examples of insoluble substances are sand, gravel and

mealie- meal.
Fig
2.1.1:

Salt solution

 Solutions can be clear or coloured.

 An example of a clear solution is water and salt solution.

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 An example of a coloured solution is water and potassium

permanganate solution.

 (As the coloured substance dissolve in water, water takes the

colour of the dissolving substances).
Fig
2.1.2:

Coloured solution formation

Suspension
 A suspension is a mixture of solid particles in a liquid.

 The particles may not dissolve completely and they are visible in
the liquid.

 Some particles may settle down.

Fig
2.1.3:

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Differences between a solution and a suspension

Soluble and insoluble substances

Experiment 2.1.1: To Identify What Substances Dissolve In Water

Materials

Water, spatula, stirring rod, beakers, salt, sand, sugar,

chalk powder, potassium permanganate, cooking oil,
mealie-meal and sulphur

Procedure

1. Put an equal amount of each substance into separate beakers

(using a spatula).

2. Add an equal volume of clear water into each beaker.

3. Gently stir the mixtures using a rod.

4. Wash the stirring rod before using it to stir in another beaker.

5. Allow the mixtures to settle for a few minutes.

Expected Observations

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 There are some substances that dissolve completely in water, for

example salt, sugar and potassium permanganate.

 Other substances do not dissolve in water, that is, sand, chalk

powder, mealie-meal and sulphur.

 These substances form what is called a suspension.

 Cooking oil behaves differently in water. Oil is less dense than

water so it will settle on top of the water.

 Not all substances are soluble in water.

Methods of separation
 When a mixture has been formed, we may be able to separate the
different substances that makes up the mixture.

 We need to identify the different physical materials that have been

mixed together.

 There are several methods of separating mixtures.

 The method for separating mixtures can be chosen basing on the

physical properties of the components to be separated.

 Separating mixtures requires physical methods.

 Mixtures are easy to separate.

Hand picking
 We use hand picking to separate a mixture of solid materials or dry
mixture.

 The bigger the substances in a mixture and the difference in

colour, the easier they are to separate.

 An example where hand picking can be used is when separating

bean seeds from a mixture of bean seeds and stones, polystyrene
beads from a mixture of polystyrene beads and buttons.

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Fig
2.1.4:

Handpicking

Magnetism
 Some materials can be separated from others using a magnet, for
example iron.

Experiment 2.1.2: To Identify Materials That Can Be Separated By Using A

Magnet.

Materials

Bar of magnet, iron fillings, sulphur and a beaker or

container (or non-metal plate as shown in the diagram).

Procedure

1. Put iron filings in a beaker or container.

2. Add sulphur powder.

3. Mix gently.

4. Bring the magnet closer to the mixture.

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5. Observe what happens.

Fig
2.1.5:

Separation by magnetism

Expected Observations

 Iron filings get attracted to the magnet.

 Sulphur powder remains in the container.

Conclusion

 Magnetism method of separation can be used when there is a

substance that gets attracted to a magnet and others do not.

Winnowing
 This is a method in which the mixture is thrown up into the air and
lighter particles (chaff) are blown away by wind leaving heavier
grain (maize or wheat).
Fig
2.1.6:

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Winnowing

Sieving
 A sieve is used to separate smaller things from larger ones.

 A sieve is a frame with a wire mesh which has very small holes.

 The smaller particles will drop out through the small holes under
the sieve.
Fig
2.1.7:

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Sieving

Filtration
 Insoluble substances can be easily separated from a liquid by
method of filtration.

 For example, sand can be separated from water through this

method.

Experiment 2.1.3: To Separate Sand Particles From Water

Materials

Collecting tin, filter paper, funnel, water and sand

mixture

Procedure

1. Make a mixture of water and sand.

2. Place a collecting tin on a level place.

3. Put a funnel on the tin and put the filter paper as shown in the
diagram below.

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4. Gently stir the mixture and pour it into the tin through the filter
paper.

5. Make sure all the water pass through the filter and drain into the
collecting tin.
Fig
2.1.8:

Filtration process

Expected Observations

 Water collects into the collecting as droplets from the filter paper.

 Sand/residue remains on the filter paper.

 Clear water is collected in the collecting tin

Heating and evaporation

 This method can be used to separate a solute from its solvent for
example, separating salt from a water and salt solution.

Experiment 2.1.4: To Separate Salt From A Water And Salt Solution

Materials

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Burner, boiling tin or beaker, evaporating dish, 100ml of

water, 20g of salt, stand, wire gauze

Procedure

1. Prepare a water and salt solution in an evaporation dish.

2. Put some water in the beaker and place it on a stand.

3. Add heat (burner) under the stand.

4. Place the evaporation dish on top of the beaker.

5. Allow the set up to heat for several minutes until all the water has
evaporated.

6. Observe what happens.

Fig
2.1.9:

Setup to separate salt and water from their solution

Expected Observations

 Salt remains in the evaporation dish.

Conclusion

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 A soluble can be separated from its solvent by heating and

evaporation method.

Decanting
 Decanting is a method used by scientists to separate liquid
mixtures with different densities.

 The lighter one will be on the top and the heavier one at the
bottom.

 Examples of liquids with different densities are cooking oil and

water.

 When cooking oil is poured into a container with water, it does not
mix with water but rather floats at the top.

 This means that water and oil do not form a uniform mixture and
therefore, they are called immiscible liquids.

 Immiscible liquids can be separated using the decanting method.

 This means that you pour the liquid on the top into another
container leaving the other one at the bottom.

 Decanting can also mean to allow a mixture of solid and liquid to

settle and then separate the two by densities.
Fig
2.1.10:

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Decanting method

Separation-Exercise 1

Answer the following questions. For each question there are four possible answers. Choose the one
you consider correct.

1) One of the following is a solute. Which one is it? Water

Stones
Mealie-meal
Salt

2) When oil and water are mixed, oil settles on top. The mixture can be separated by __________.
sieving
filtering
decanting
evaporating

3) A mixture can be defined as_________. chemical combination of two substances

only two substances combined together
two or more substances physically combined
two liquids combined together

4) Sharon's mother has got sand mixed with cooking salt. The best way of separating the two will be
for her to__________. add enough water to dissolve the sand and then pour it through a piece of
cloth
add enough water to dissolve the salt, pour it through a fine cloth and leave the salty water in the
sun
add enough water, stir thoroughly and leave in the sun

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shake the mixture in a bag made of fine cloth

5) From the list of mixtures below, which one is also a solution? Water and sand
Water and oil
Iron filings and sulphur
Salt and water

6) In filtration, what name is given to the liquid component that goes through the filter paper?
Filtrate
Evaporation
Distillate
Residue

7) Which is the best process to obtain salt from a solution of salt and water? Sieving
Filtration
Evaporation
Density

8) A substance which allows chemicals to be dissolved in it is called _________. soluble

a solution
a solvent
a solute

9) Which statement is correct about separation of mixtures? Winnowing uses the property of
density of particles to separate mixtures.
Sieving uses magnetism as a property to separate substances.
Magnetism uses colour as a property to separate mixtures.
Filtration uses density as a property to separate mixtures.

10) How do you separate iron filings from a mixture of iron and sulphur? Using a magnet
By adding water
By filtering
By distillation
Separation-Exercise 2

Answer the following questions. Each correct answer is equivalent to one mark.
For questions 1-3, Write down one word that matches the description.

1) A substance which can completely dissolve in a liquid.

2) Liquid which allows substances to dissolve in it.

3) A substance that does not dissolve in a liquid.

4) When oil is poured into a tin with water it floats at the top. This is because oil is less
__________.

5) ____________ is a method used to separate salt and water mixture.

6) From the type of mixtures, flour and water mixture is an example of a __________.

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7) When separating oil from water we use the __________method.

8) Maize seeds can be separated from a gravel and maize seeds mixture by a method called
__________.

9) A mechanic has accidentally dropped some small nails in the sand. What method can he use to
quickly get them back?

10) A farmer can use a method called _________ when separating wheat from chaff.

Matter
Matter exists as solid, liquid and gas.

Solid state
Fig
2.2.1:

Arrangement of particles in a solid.

Properties
 The particles are tightly and closely packed.

 They have very low kinetic energy.

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 They cannot be compressed since the particles are already closely

packed.

 They vibrate about their position.

 They have a definite shape. The shape only change when a strong
force is applied.

 They have a definite volume.

Fig
2.2.2

Example of a solid

Liquid state
Fig
2.2.3

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Arrangement of particles in a liquid.

Properties
 The particles are not closely packed as in solids.

 They have more kinetic energy than in solids.

 They have limited movement.

 They do not have a definite shape. They take the shape of the
container into which they are poured.

 The particles can slide past one another.

 They have a definite volume.

 They cannot be compressed since the particles are still very close
to each other.
Fig
2.2.4:

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Example of a liquid: water coming from tap.

Gas state
Fig
2.2.5:

Arrangement of particles in a gas.

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 The particles are widely spaced.

 They have more kinetic energy than solids and liquids.

 They have free space to move about.

 Gases have no definite shape since the particles are too spaced
and have no force of attraction for them to have a shape.

 Gases do not have a definite volume. They fill up all the available
space.

 They can be compressed. The particles can be moved as close to

each other as possible since they have free space between them.
Fig
2.2.6:

Example of a gas: air

Fig
2.2.7:

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Properties of different states of matter

Experiment 2.2.1: Demonstrating Arrangement Of Particles

Materials

Polystyrene balls and a Card box tray

Procedure
1. Pack all the polystyrene balls in a corner of the box.

2. Draw the model. It represents the way which particles are packed
together in a solid.

3. Shake the box gently tipping it slightly to one corner.

4. Make a drawing of the model. It shows the way particles are

arranged in a liquid.

5. Shake the box harder.

6. Draw the model of the particles. It shows particles arrangement in

a gas.
Fig
2.2.8:

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Arrangement of particles

Experiment 2.2.2: Compressing air

Materials
Pump

Procedure

1. Push the plunger to press the air until it cannot move.

2. Release the plunger.

Fig
2.2.9:

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Compressing air in a syringe

Expected Observations
 The plunger will move compressing the gas particles close
together.

 When you release it the plunger will move back to its position as
the gas particles occupy the space available.

Change of state
 Matter can be changed from one form to another by adding or
removing heat energy.

 Particles in a solid are arranged in a regular way giving them a

fixed shape and volume. Particles touch one another and vibrate
without moving away from their fixed positions.

 Adding heat energy to a solid changes it into a liquid. This is

called melting.

 The particles will no longer be in a fixed position and have more

movement, that is, they have gained energy. Movement energy is
also known as kinetic energy.
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 Particles in a liquid are not arranged in a regular way and still close
to each other. The particles can move over each other.

 When more energy is added to the liquid it boils and changes to a

gas. This is called evaporation.

 Boiling occurs within the liquid and evaporation occurs on the

surface.

 Particles in a gas are separated and move rapidly than in a liquid.

The particles have more kinetic energy than in a liquid. It will take
up all the space available.

 When energy is removed from the gas it changes back to a liquid.

This is called condensation.

 When energy is further removed the liquid will change to a solid.

This is called freezing.

 When a solid is heated and it changes straight to a gas, the process

is called sublimation, for example iodine grains.
Fig
2.2.10:

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Summary of changes of states of matter

Experiment 2.2.3: Demonstration Of Heating Ice Cubes

Materials

Beaker thermometer, Burner, Tripod stand, Stop watch,

Ice cubes.
Fig
2.2.11:

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Set up to melt ice

Procedure
1. Half fill a beaker with ice cubes.

2. Measure the temperature of the ice before heating.

3. Place the beaker on the burner and start recording temperature

after every 2 minutes.

4. Note the temperature at which ice starts melting into liquid. Record
the temperature. This is called the melting point.

5. Continue boiling the water until it boils.

6. Measure the temperature of the water until it boils. This is called

the boiling point.

7. Note the temperature at which water starts to evaporate. Record

the temperature. Make a table of results for the experiment.

8. Plot a line graph as shown below.

Fig
2.2.12:

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The heating curve

 The line curve you obtain is called a heating curve.

 The initial temperature is lower and it rises with increase in time.

Particles structure when ice is heated.

Fig
2.2.13:

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Ice block changing to water

Experiment 2.2. 4: Demonstrating Melting Process

Procedure
1. Put the candle in a candle stand.

2. Light the candle until it melts then leave the melted wax it to cool.

Observation questions

1. Is the melting of candle wax reversible?

2. Does the wax change into a new substance when heated?

Fig
2.2.14:

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Melting of candle wax

Expected Observation
 When candle wax is heated it changes its state from solid to liquid.

 When the liquid wax is left to cool it becomes solid wax again.

 Wax does not change into a new substance.

 Melting wax can be easily reversed by cooling it.

 Melting is a physical change because it can be easily reversed and

no new substance is formed in the melting process.

Experiment 2.2. 5: Demonstrating Sublimation

Materials

Iodine crystals, Test tube, Heater

Procedure

Warning: Iodine is a poisonous gas so this experiment should be carried out in a fume cupboard.

1. Put a small crystal of iodine in a test tube.

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2. Put ice in another test tube and place it above the test tube with
iodine.

3. Warm the test tube with iodine until a change is seen.

Fig
2.2.15:

Sublimation of iodine

Observation questions

1. What do you see when iodine is heated?

2. What do you see inside the basin and inside the filter funnel when
the iodine is cooled?

Expected Observations
 Purple fumes are observed from the heated beaker.

 Iodine crystals are observed on the test tube with ice.

 When iodine is heated it quickly changes to gas.

 The iodine gas has the same colour as the iodine crystals.

 When iodine is cooled, it returns to solid state.

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 There is no chemical change; only a physical change takes place.

Melting points of pure substance and of mixtures

Experiment 2.2. 6: To Determine The Effects Of Impurities On The Melting Point.

Materials
Naphthalene (moth balls), Thermometer, Boiling tube, Clamp stand or tongs, Burner,
Candle wax

Procedure
1. Put about 2cm depth of crushed naphthalene into a boiling tube.

2. Clamp the tube in the stand or hold it firmly with the tongs.

3. Warm the boiling tube and naphthalene, stirring the solid with the
thermometer.

4. Stop heating as soon as the naphthalene has melted. Remove the

burner.

5. Allow the liquid to cool, leaving the thermometer in the

naphthalene and watching the temperature.

6. Record the temperature value which remains constant for some

time as the liquid solidifies.

7. Repeat instructions 1 to 6 using candle wax.

8. Repeat instructions 1 to 6 using a mixture of candle wax and

naphthalene.

Observations questions

1. What are the temperatures at which naphthalene, wax and the

mixture melt?

2. What effect does candle wax have on the melting point on

naphthalene?

The heating curve

Heating curves show how the temperature changes as a
substance is heated up.
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Fig 2.2.16

Diagram showing heating curve of ice

Explanation
 During heating, the temperature gradually rises and then reaches a
point where it remains the same for some time, at the melting
point.

 At this point the temperature remains constant until all the ice has
melted.

 At that point there is both the solid and the liquid state.

 After that the temperature rises again until it reaches the boiling
point, where it remains constant for some time.

 The temperature remains constant until all the liquid has turned
into gas.

 The mixture contains both the liquid and the gaseous state.

 After that the temperature rises again.

Cooling curve

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 Cooling curves show how the temperature changes as a substance

is cooled down.

 Just like heating curves, cooling curves have horizontal flat parts
where the state changes from gas to liquid, or from liquid to solid.
Fig
2.2.17

The cooling curve

 Water vapour can be cooled by removing heat energy.

 The gas will change to a liquid.

 Further cooling will cause particles to come close together forming

a solid.

 The line curve obtained is called a cooling curve.

 The initial temperature is higher and lowers as time increases.

Solubility
 Solubility is the ability of a substance to dissolve in a solvent.

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 The solute is the minor component in a solution which dissolves in

a solvent.

 A solvent is the liquid in which a solute dissolves to produce the

solution.

 A solution is the resultant uniform mixture of the solute and the

solvent.

Factors Affecting Solubility

 Basically solubility increases with temperature.

 In gases the solubility is proportional to pressure.

 Stirring increases the speed of dissolving.

 The particle size of the solute: the smaller the particle size the
more soluble it becomes.

 Polarity: like dissolves like – a solute will dissolve best in a solvent

that has a similar chemical structure to itself.

Experiment 2.2. 7: To Show How Temperature Affects Solubility

Materials

 Water

 Two beakers

 Burner

 Spatula

 Measuring cylinder

 Potassium permanganate

Method
1. Measure [Math Processing Error]100cm3 of water and pour it
equally in the two beakers as shown on the diagram below.

2. Label the beakers A and B.

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3. Heat the water in beaker B until it boils.

4. Add a spatula of potassium permanganate to both the beakers at

the same time.

5. Observe the diffusion of the purple colour in the two beakers and
observe how long it takes for the potassium permanganate to
dissolve in each beaker.
Fig
2.2.18:

Setup to demonstrate solubility of substances at different temperatures

Expected Observations

The potassium permanganate in beaker B dissolves

faster.

Conclusion

The higher the temperature the faster the rate of

solubility

Experiment 2.2.9: To Show If Stirring Has An Effect On Solubility

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Materials

 Two plastic cups

 Measuring cylinder

 Salt

 Teaspoon

 Water

Method
1. Measure [Math Processing Error]100cm3 and share it equally in the
two beakers and label the beakers A and B as shown on the
diagram.

2. Add 2 level teaspoons of salt to each beaker.

3. Stir using a stirrer/spoon in the beaker A.

Fig
2.2.19:

Set up to demonstrate the effect of stirring on solubility

Observation

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 The salt in beaker A dissolves quickly.

Conclusion

 Stirring speeds up solubility of substances.

 Energy is lost during condensation and freezing.

Fig
2.2.20:

Copper sulphate crystals

Fig
2.2.21:

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Dissolving copper crystals in water

Experiment 2.2.9: To Show If Particle Size Has An Effect On Solubility

Materials

 Two beakers

 Two glass rods

 Water

 Fine salt

 Coarse salt

 Clock

 Measuring cylinder

Procedure
1. Measure equal volumes of water using a measuring cylinder and
putt it in two beakers labelled A and B.

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2. In beaker A, put a known quantity of coarse salt and in beaker B

put the same quantity of fine salt.

3. Stir both beakers and record the time taken for the salt to dissolve
in each beaker.
Fig
2.2.22:

Coarse salt
Fig
2.2.23:

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Fine salt

Observations

The salt in beaker B dissolves faster than the salt in

beaker A.

Explanation

Smaller particles have a smaller surface area. This means

more salt particles will quickly fill up spaces between
water molecules thereby dissolving faster. The small
particles easily diffuse into water.

Elements, mixtures and compounds

Elements
 An element is a substance made up of identical atoms.

 The atoms of different elements are different from each other.

 Each element is made up of only one type of atom.

Compounds

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 A compound is a substance formed when two or more elements

are chemically combined together.

 Compounds contain two or more different types of atoms.

 Magnesium oxide- one atom magnesium combined with one atom

oxygen.

Examples Of Compounds
 Carbon dioxide – one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms
combined.

 Water – two atoms of hydrogen combined with one atom of

oxygen.

 Carbon monoxide – one atom of oxygen and one atom of carbon.

 Sulphuric acid- two atoms of hydrogen combined with one atom of

sulphur and four toms of oxygen.

 There are two types of compounds namely covalent and ionic

compounds.

Molecules
 A molecule is the smallest particle in a chemical element or
compound.

 Molecules are made up of atoms that are held together by chemical

bonds.

 A molecule can be made up of two or more atoms.

Fig
2.2.24:

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Molecule of identical atoms (oxygen)

Fig
2.2.25:

Molecules of different atoms (water)

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 A water molecule is made up of two hydrogen atoms and one atom

of oxygen.
Fig
2.2.26:

Carbon dioxide molecule

A carbon dioxide molecule is made up of two oxygen atoms and one
atom of carbon.

Mixtures
 A mixture is a substance formed by two or more elements or
compounds without any chemical change.

 Mixtures can be composed of solids, liquids or gases.

 In a mixture each substance maintains its properties and is easily

separated by physical means.

Examples of mixtures

1. Oil and water mixture

2. Iron and sulphur mixture

3. Sand and gravel mixture

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4. Salt water

5. Concrete
Fig
2.2.27:

Mixture of iron filings and sulphur

Difference between mixtures and compounds

MIXTURES COMPO

FORMATION Formed by physical means. Formed

PROPERTIES Each substance maintains its properties. Propert

Can be easily separated into its components by physical Elemen

SEPARATION
means. means.

NEW SUBSTANCES No new substances formed. New su

MELTING AND BOILING

Melt and boil over a range of temperature. Have fix
POINTS

Experiment 2.2.10: To Make A Mixture And Compound Of Iron And Sulphur.

Materials

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 Iron filings

 Powdered Sulphur

 Clamp stand

 Mixing bowl

 Boiling tube

 Stand

 Burner

 Magnet

Procedure
1. Put amounts of iron filings and powdered sulphur in a mixing
bowl.

2. Mix the iron filings and powdered sulphur gently.

3. Bring the magnet near the mixture.

Fig
2.2.28:

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Separating Iron and sulphur mixture

Fig
2.2.29:

Heating a mixture of iron and Sulphur

1. Put all the mixture in the boiling tube and place it on a stand.

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2. Heat the mixture with the burner on the stand.

3. Stop heating as soon as the mixture starts to glow.

4. When the boiling tube has cooled down hold a magnet near the
solid residue.

Observation questions

 How do the iron filings look like in the mixture before heating?

 What happens when a magnet is brought near the mixing bowl?

 What does heating do to the mixture?

 Does the new substance attract to the magnet?

 What name is given to the new substance?

Observations and conclusions

 Iron filings are visible in the mixture since there is no chemical

reaction at the time of mixing. They can be easily separated using
a magnet.

 Heating causes a chemical reaction changing the properties of

substances making the new formed solid substance different from
the original mixture. It makes the mixture to glow red.

 The new substance cannot be attracted by the magnet.

 A compound of iron and sulphur called iron sulphide is formed

when iron filings and sulphur powder are heated together.

 A lot of heat energy is given off when a compound is formed.

Chemical reactions
 A chemical reaction is a process that involves rearrangement of the
molecular or ionic structure of a substance to form a new
substance.

 Heat is given out or taken in when a chemical reaction occurs to

form a compound.
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 Substances combined together in a reaction are called reactants

and the result is called the product.

Word Equations
1. Iron + sulphur → iron sulphide

2. Sodium + chlorine → sodium chloride

3. Magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide

Metals And Non-Metals

 Presently, only about 80 metals are known to man.

 Though the non-metals are only 22 in number, they are the major
constituents of the earth, air and oceans.

 Metals are on the left side of the periodic table while non-metals
are on the right.

 At room temperature, over half of the non-metals are gases,

except bromine, which is a liquid.

 The most abundant non-metal in the earth's crust is oxygen,

followed by silicon. These are the two major constituents of earth.

 Hydrogen and oxygen are the two major constituents of the

oceans.

Properties Of Metals And Non-Metals

 The simplest way to distinguish metals from non-metals is
through the distinctly different physical and chemical properties.

Physical properties of metals

Experiment 2.3.11: To Investigate The Physical Properties Of Metals And Non-
Metals

Materials

 Iron nail

 Sodium

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 Copper

 Calcium

 Aluminium

 Zinc

 Tin

 Magnesium

 Carbon

 Sulphur

 Iodine

 1.5 v cell

 Connecting wires

 Lamp

 Sand paper or wire wool

Procedure

 Draw a table in the form shown below, where you will fill in your
physical observations. The other information is already provided in
the table.

ELEMENT APPEARANCE AND LUSTRE MALLEABLE? DUCTILE CONDUCTS EL

Iron nail Yes Yes Yes Yes

Copper Yes Yes

Calcium Yes Yes Yes Yes

Aluminium Yes Yes Yes Yes

Zinc Yes Yes Yes Yes

Tin Yes Yes Yes Yes

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Magnesium Yes Yes Yes Yes

Bromine Yes Yes Yes Yes

Carbon Black solid No No No

Sulphur Yellow powder No No No

Iodine Dark grey shiny crystals No No No

1. Observe the appearance of the metals and non-metals. Clean the

surfaces of the solid substances using a sandpaper of wire wool
and observe the appearance again.

2. Place the solid materials on a block of iron, one by one, and strike
4-5 times with a hammer. Take note of any change in shape. If the
material can change shape and deform into a sheet, it is malleable.

3. Consider how many of the materials can be found in the form of

wires. The ability of a material to be drawn into wires is called
ductility.

4. Set up an electrical circuit as below and bridge it with each of the

materials. Take note of whether or not the bulb will light up.
Fig
2.2.30:

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Testing for conductivity

1. Set up an experiment to test for heat conductivity for each of

the materials as illustrated below:
Fig
2.2.31:

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Testing for heat conduction

1. Record how long it takes for the wax to melt and release the pin.
For metals, this time will be short, while non- metals will take
longer.

Expected Observations
Table 2.2.3: Observed properties of metals and non -
metals.

ELEMENT APPEARANCE AND LUSTRE MALLEABLE? DUCTILE CONDUCTS

Iron nail Grey solid, shines when polished Yes Yes Yes

Copper Brown, shiny solid Yes Yes Yes

Calcium Grey solid Yes Yes Yes

Aluminium Shiny, silvery solid Yes Yes Yes

Zinc Grey solid. Shines when polished Yes Yes Yes

Tin Shiny silvery solid Yes Yes Yes

Magnesium Shiny silvery solid Yes Yes Yes

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Bromine Brown gas No No No

Carbon Black solid No No No

Sulphur Yellow powder No No No

Iodine Dark grey shiny crystals No No No

Conclusion
 Generally metals are solids at room temperature (except for
mercury which is a liquid). They have a shiny lustre. They are good
conductors of heat and electricity.

 Using the above observations and additional conclusions from

experiments, the following distinctions between metals and non-
metals can be listed:

Table 2.2.4: Comparing physical properties of metals and

non- metals

PROPERTIES METALS NON-META

Most are g
Hardness and Hard and strong (except for potassium and sodium which are
small perce
strength soft and mercury, which is a liquid at room temperature).
brittle.

Lustre Shiny; lustre increases when polished. A few solid

Malleable. Can be beaten or rolled into thin sheets for

Malleability Not mallea
example, aluminium, copper and zinc.

Ductility They can be drawn into thin wires. Not ductile

Conduction of heat Generally, metals are good conductors of heat and electricity
Poor condu
and electricity due to the free sea of electrons.

Generally, metals are heavy, with high densities. Lithium, Non-metal

Density
however has a low density, below some non-metals few macro-

Metals usually have high melting and boiling points. Tungsten Most non-m
Melting and boiling
has the highest melting point. Alkali metals, however, have low temperatur
points
melting and boiling points some solid

Table 2.2.5: States and the state symbols

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STATE STATE SY

Solid (s)

Liquid (l)

Gas (g)

aqueous (dissolved in water) (aq)

Elements of the periodic table and their symbols

 Elements in the periodic can be represented by symbols and it is
these symbols that are used in writing the chemical equations.

 The formulae of compounds are written using the symbols of the

elements.

 The symbols of the first twenty elements will be considered and

given below:

1. H – Hydrogen

2. He – Helium

3. Li – Lithium

4. Be – Beryllium

5. B – Boron

6. C – Carbon

7. N – Nitrogen

8. O – Oxygen

9. F – Fluorine

10. Ne – Neon

11. Na – Sodium

12. Mg – Magnesium

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13. Al - Aluminium

14. Si – Silicon

15. P – Phosphorus

16. S – Sulphur

17. Cl – Chlorine

18. Ar – Argon

19. K – Potassium

20. Ca- Calcium

The periodic table of elements

 The periodic table is a chart containing information about the
elements that make up all matter.

 An element is a substance made up of only one type of atom.

 Atoms are made up of protons, neutrons and electrons.

 The periodic table has rows and columns, the rows represent
periods and the columns represent groups.

 There are eight groups in the periodic table.

Fig
2.2.32:

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Model of the periodic table

 Elements in the same group behave similarly because they are

similar.

 The elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number

which is equal to proton number.

 Metals are found on the left side and non-metals at the right side
of the periodic table.
Fig
2.2.33:

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The periodic table of elements

Groups (Vertical Arrangement)

 Elements in the periodic table are arranged in groups and periods.

 Groups comprise of elements with the same number of electrons in

the outer shell.

 These elements are arranged in columns.

 For the first 20 elements there are 7 groups from group 1 to 8.

 Elements in group 1 have one electron in the outer shell.

 The number of outer electrons increases by a single unit from

group 1 to 8, which has 8 outer electrons.

 Lithium, sodium and potassium are in one group and they all have
one electron in the outer shell.

 Oxygen and sulphur are also in one column and they have 6
electrons in their outer shell.

 The number of shells increases down the groups.

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Periods (Horizontal Arrangement)

 The elements with the same number of electron shells are
arranged in the same rows called periods.

 The periodic table has a total of 7 periods.

 The same period is occupied by metals and non- metal elements.

Matter-Exercise 1

Answer the following questions. For each question there are four possible answers. Choose the one
you consider correct.

1) The symbol for Lithium is __________. Li

L
Lt
Lm

2) Which of the following is the odd one out? Sugar dissolves in water.
Ice melts when heated.
Water freezes when cooled.
Iron turns pink in copper sulphate solution.

3) Which statement is true about an element? It has molecules of the same kind.
It has molecules of different kinds.
It has atoms of the same kind.
It has atoms of different kinds.

4) Which non-metal can be good conductor of electricity? Iodine

Carbon
Nitrogen
Sulphur

5) The symbol for Helium is __________. Hlm

Hlu
Hm
He

6) What is the smallest unit of an element? Atom

Compound
Particle
Molecule

7) The melting point of benzene is 5˚C and its boiling point is 80˚C. In what state does it exist at
60˚C? Liquid
Solid
Vapour
Gas

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8) The symbol for Oxygen is __________. O

O2
Ox
Oxy

9) Which state of matter has the least kinetic energy? Liquid water
Boiling water
Melting wax
Frozen water

10) The symbol for Sodium is __________. So

Sd
Na
Ne
Matter-Exercise 2

Answer the following questions. Each correct answer is equivalent to one mark.

1) A liquid that allows other substances to be dissolved in it is called a _________.

2) A molecule can be made up of two or more _________.

3) Solvent + solute ⟶ __________

4) Below is a graph showing temperature change of ice.

What process is labelled point A?

5) What state of matter is shown by the diagram below?

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6) On the periodic table of elements, metals are found on the ________ side.

7) The line drawn on the line graph below is called the __________ curve.

8) The tabular arrangement of elements in order of increasing proton number is called the
___________ table.

9) A substance made up of identical atoms is called a(n) __________.

10) A substance that dissolve in a liquid is called a ____________.

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Acids Basis Salts

Identifying acids and bases
 Substances for daily use can be classified as acids, bases and salts.

 Generally, any substance can either be acidic, basic or neutral

depending on their action on litmus paper.

 Litmus paper is a very cheap natural indicator that turns red in

acids and blue in bases.

 Substances that do not affect the colour of litmus paper are said to
be neutral.

 Litmus is a water-soluble mixture of different dye types extracted

from lichens. We use it in laboratories to find out whether
solutions are acidic, alkaline or neutral.

Properties of Acid
 Tastes sour

 Ability to change blue litmus paper red

 React with bases to form salt and water

 Releases hydrogen ions in water solutions

 Has a pH less than 7

Examples: hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, carbonic

acid, acetic acid (vinegar), citric acid (found in the juice
of citrus fruits). If red litmus paper is immersed in any
acid like hydrochloric acid, no change is observed.

Properties of Base
 Tastes bitter.

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 Slippery in nature.

 Ability to change blue litmus paper red.

 React with acids to form salt and water.

 Releases hydroxide ions in water solutions.

 Has a pH greater than 7.

Examples: sodium hydroxide (caustic soda), bicarbonate

of soda (baking soda), agricultural lime.

Examples of everyday acids and bases

Fig
2.3.1:

Everyday acids and bases on the pH scale

 As the diagram above shows, pure water is neutral; especially

distilled water that has no salts.

 As we move from 7 to the left of the scale, the acids become

stronger; as we move from 7 to the right of the scale the bases
also become stronger.

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 For instance, the acid found in the stomach is strong; on the other
hand, bleach and some strong detergent cleaners are strong bases

Activity: Identifying Acids And Bases Using Red And Blue Litmus

Apparatus and solutions:

Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Caustic soda (NaOH), agricultural

lime, lemon juice, copper sulphate ( CuSO4CuSO4), tap
water, blue and red litmus paper, beaker.

Procedure:

1. Pour about 50-75mls of hydrochloric acid (HCl) into a beaker.

2. Dip the red and blue litmus into the acid and observe the changes.

3. Rinse the beaker thoroughly with distilled water and pour the next
test solution.

4. Record the observations in Table 2.3.1 using the following

guidelines:

Table 2.3.1: Guidelines to use in interpreting

observations

RED LITMUS BLUE LITMUS

ACIDIC SOLUTION Stays Red Turns Red

NEUTRAL SOLUTION Stays Red Stays Blue

ALKALINE SOLUTION Turns Blue Stays Blue

Fig
2.3.2:

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Dipping red and blue litmus papers into the solutions

Expected observations

Table 2.3.2: Colour changes of blue or red litmus

SOLUTION DIP RED LITMUS DIP BLUE LITMUS

Litmus paper remains

HYDROCHLORIC ACID Litmus turns red
red

CAUSTIC SODA (SODIUM Litmus remains

Litmus turns blue
HYDROXIDE) blue

Litmus remains
AGRICULTURAL LIME Litmus turns blue
blue

LEMON JUICE Litmus remains red Litmus turns red

Litmus remains
COPPER SULPHATE Litmus turns red
blue

Litmus remains
TAP WATER (ASSUMING ITS PURE) Litmus remains red
blue

Acids-bases-and-salts-Exercise 1

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Answer the following questions. For each question there are four possible answers. Choose the one
you consider correct.

1) When a teaspoon of baking soda is shaken in water, it produces a __________ solution. basic
acidic
orange
blue

2) Vinegar is a typical __________. salt

acid
base
neutral substance

3) Which of the following is NOT property of an acid? Sour taste.

pH less than 7.
Releases hydroxide ions in water.
Tastes bitter.

4) Which food can increase the acidity in the stomach acutely? Grapes
Eggs
Milk
Bananas

5) Agricultural lime is an example of __________. an acid

water
litmus
a base

6) Where do we find the action of acids in a human digestive system? Mouth

Rectum
Oesophagus
Stomach

7) An acid is any substance that ___________. is slippery in nature

turns red litmus paper blue
turns blue litmus paper red
has a bitter taste

8) Grapes are __________. acidic

basic
neutral
none of the above

9) When blue litmus paper is dipped into a copper sulphate (CuSO4) solution, the litmus
__________. remains blue
turns red
turns neutral
turns orange

10) Which of the following solutions is neutral? Water

Oven cleaner, a detergent

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Pure water
Eggs
Acids-bases-and-salts-Exercise 2

Answer the following questions. Each correct answer is equivalent to one mark.
State whether the substances with the observed properties are an Acid or a Base.
1) The juice from a fruit tastes sour.

2) A chemical bleach.

3) Vinegar is used as a preservative and seasoning for foods like fresh chips.

4) Algae causes water bodies to be slippery.

5) A chemical corrodes surfaces and reacts with metals and salts.

Industrial Processes

Production of peanut butter for subsistence

 Those that have visited their rural home, where groundnuts are
farmed, are familiar with the process of making peanut butter in
the village.

 The groundnuts are harvested manually (handpicking), dried over

the sun, shelled, roasted then ground into peanut butter.

 The freshly harvested peanuts are dried to get rid of the high
moisture content. To produce a good grade of peanut butter, these
peanuts have to be dry.

 At subsistence level shelling is done manually (using hands). The

people shelling the nuts can choose either to separate the shells
immediately by placing them in different containers/places (Fig
2.4.1) or they can place them in the same container (Fig 2.4.2).
Fig
2.4.1:

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Peanuts separated from shells during shelling

Fig
2.4.2:

Peanuts NOT separated from shells during shelling

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 The peanuts that are separated from their shells are not 100% free
from particles of the shells or even whole shells that get inside the
container by chance.

 To separate such chaff along with any dust or dirt, a simple

separation technique already discussed before in sec 2.1-
winnowing.

 Winnowing takes advantage of the differences in density of a

mixture of particles.

 When this mixture is exposed to a slightly windy breeze, the

lighter particles are carried away, while the denser (in this case,
peanuts and stones) fall back into the winnowing basket. Fig 2.4.1
shows a typical winnowing basket.

 In the second case of Fig 2.4.2, the winnowing basket is first

shaken vigorously, in a way that will also effect separation using
the force of gravity. After such shaking (horizontally), most of the
peanuts settle at the bottom, while the shells float on top.

 The shells can then be scooped out manually, taking care not to
lose any nuts in the process.

 The rest of the remaining mixture is then winnowed.

 After shelling, the peanuts are roasted in a pan on a fire and salted
using a small quantity of concentrated salt solution.

 The roasted peanuts are then crushed using the traditional mortar
and pestle (duri nemutswi/ ingiga lomgigo) then ground using
stones (guyo(huyo)/imbokodo).
Fig
2.4.3:

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The traditional mortar and pestle (mutswi neduri/ ingiga lomgigo) that can be used to
crush peanuts
Fig
2.4.4:

A smooth stone can be used to grind the crushed peanuts, giving them a smoother
finish as peanut butter. This can be repeated depending on the quality and texture
required.

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Small scale production of peanut butter

 Beyond the subsistence level, there is need to use of machinery to
speed up the process of making peanut butter and to handle fairly
large amounts of peanuts.

 Such machinery include:

o A shelling machine, driven manually or automatically through

an electric motor. Metallic rods hit against the dried
groundnuts forcing them to break apart. The nuts are
separated from the shells through sieves/ wire mesh.

o At small scale, roasting can still be done manually or

using ovens

o The peanut butter making machine then grinds the roasted

peanuts over a number of stages until the desired quality of
peanut butter is achieved.
Fig
2.4.5:

Small scale peanut butter shelling machine

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Fig
2.4.6:

Small scale peanut butter making machine

Large scale (commercial) production of peanut butter

 Producing large quantities of peanut butter for commercial
supplies requires industrial scale equipment.

 The flow diagram below, Fig 2.4.7, shows how peanut butter is
made at industrial scale.

 After harvesting, the peanuts are cleaned, shelled and graded for
size.

 They are then dry roasted in large ovens.

 They are transferred to cooling machines, where suction fans draw

cooling air over peanuts.

 Blanching takes place, that is, removal of the skins by heat or

water (the heat method has the advantage of removing the bitter
heart of the peanut).

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 The blanched peanuts are pulverised and ground with salt,

dextrose and hydrogenated oil stabiliser in a grinding machine.

 After cooling, the peanut butter is ready to be packaged.

Fig
2.4.7:

Industrial production of peanut butter from groundnuts

Production Of Oil From Peanut Butter

 Peanut oil, also known as groundnut oil, is a mild-tasting
vegetable oil derived from peanuts that also has a strong peanut
flavor and aroma.

 It is used both for general cooking, and to add flavor (especially

roasted oil)

 Making cooking oil from peanuts requires an oil press which can
be manual or electrically driven.

 Manual press: Seeds and nuts are fed into the press through a
funnel, then the handle is cranked. The peanut oil is collected
underneath the press.

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 The oil should be left to stand in the jar for 24 hours. Once the
particles have settled to the bottom, the oil is strained through a
sieve into a clean bottle or jar, leaving the sediment-like material
behind.

 The bottle or jar is sealed tightly, and stored it away from heat and
light.
Fig
2.4.8:

Manual press used to derive peanut butter oil

Fig
2.4.9:

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Electric press for industrial scale derivation of peanut butter oil

Industrial-processes-Exercise 1

Answer the following questions. For each question there are four possible answers. Choose the one
you consider correct.

1) Which one of these is not a use of peanut oil? Frying

Roasting
Adding flavour
Cooking

2) Which of the following is essential to achieve separation between shells and peanuts in the
shelling machine? Mesh
Winnowing
Scooping
Drying

3) Producing large quantities of peanut butter for commercial supplies __________. requires
industrial scale equipment
is cheap
is slow
is impossible

4) What is the stage that follows grinding in industrial production of peanut butter? Pulverising
Heating
Packaging
Cleaning

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5) Which of these will be used to make peanut oil at commercial scale? Sheller
Peanut butter making machine
Manual press
Electric press

6) At commercial scale production, blanching is __________. pulverising

heating
pressurising
cooling

7) Why are machines used for production at larger scales? They are faster and more efficient.
They are cheaper.
It is fashionable.
They are expensive.

8) Electricity and diesel can be used to run motors of machines at industrial scale, as in the example
of peanut butter making. Electricity and diesel are therefore sources of __________. energy
heat
income
light

9) Why are groundnuts dried before shelling and other processes? To make shelling easier.
To make them tastier.
To make packaging easier.
To make handling easier.

10) Which fluid medium is used to cool roasted peanuts at industrial scale? Water
Oil
Air
Refridgeration
Industrial-processes-Exercise 2

Answer the following questions. Each correct answer is equivalent to one mark. For questions 1-8,
state whether the statement s are TRUE or FALSE. For questions 9-16, provide one word answers for
the given descriptions.

1) Freshly harvested peanuts are dried to get rid of the high moisture content.

2) At subsistence level shelling is done using industrial machines.

3) Winnowing is a technique used to separate chaff, along with any dust or dirt, from the shells.

4) After shelling, the peanuts are roasted in a pan on a fire and a small quantity of brine is added.

5) A sheller can be driven manually or automatically.

6) At commercial scale, roasting is done manually.

7) Separation of shells from nuts at industrial scale utilises sieving.

8) Cranking is used in the electric press for the production of oil from peanut butter.

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9) A machine (manual or electric) that crushes peanuts and forces oil out of them.

10) A machine (manual or electric) that liberates nuts from their cover.

11) The manual process used when separating chaff from peanuts.

12) A long pole that is traditionally used to crush peanuts in a pestle.

13) The term that describes how the peanut butter product is introduced into its final container
before it is released into the market.

14) The force that effects the desired separation when manually pressed oil is left to stand in a jar
for 24 hours.

15) The removal of the nut skin using heat or water.

16) The process of sieving a liquid substance like oil to remove sediments is called straining or
_________ .

Oxidation and reduction

Oxidation
 Oxidation is the addition of oxygen to a substance, for example,

Magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide

 Elements like carbon, sulphur and magnesium can be burnt in air

to form oxide compounds.

 Oxygen is added to the element in each case.

 The element is oxidised during combustion.

 The oxidising agent is oxygen.

Carbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide

Magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide

Sulphur + oxygen → sulphur oxide

Reaction of metals with steam (water)

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 Metals react with water to form oxides.

 The oxidising agent provides the oxygen.

 Water is the oxidising agent.

 Magnesium + steam (water) magnesium oxide + hydrogen

 Oxidation can also be said as the removal of hydrogen.

 In the above case the oxidising agent removed hydrogen.

Reduction
 Reduction is the removal of oxygen from a substance.

Magnesium + copper (I) oxide → copper + magnesium

oxide

 Reduction has occurred since oxygen has been removed from

copper (I) oxide.

 Oxidation has also occurred since oxygen has been added to

magnesium.

 Reduction is the removal of oxygen but also an addition of

hydrogen.

 Reducing agents add hydrogen or remove oxygen.

OXIDATION REDUCTION

- Addition of oxygen - Removal of oxygen

- Removal of hydrogen - Addition of hydrogen

OXIDISING AGENT REDUCING AGENT

- Adds oxygen - Removes oxygen

- Removes hydrogen - Adds hydrogen

Experiment 2.5.1: Investigating The Rusting Of Iron

Materials

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 4 iron nails

 1 steel nail and a piece of copper

 5 test tubes

 Cotton wool

 Solid calcium chloride and magnesium ribbon

Procedure

1. 2 test tubes are half filled with water.

2. An iron nail is placed in test tube labelled A, and a steel nail in test
tube labelled B.

3. An iron nail is placed in a dry test tube labelled C and plugged with
cotton wool on which a few pieces of calcium chloride is placed.
Calcium chloride is a drying agent.

4. Magnesium ribbon is wrapped around an iron nail and placed in

test tube labelled D containing water.

5. The remaining test tube labelled E was half filled with boiled water
and the remaining nails are placed in it and covered with a layer of
oil to exclude air. The test tubes were left to stand for a few days.
Fig
2.5.1:

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Investigating the rusting of iron

Expected observations

 Iron nail in test tube A rusts.

 There will be very little if any rust on the steel nail in test tube B.

 No rust is observed on the iron nail in test tube C.

 There is no/little rust observed on the iron nail in test tube D

 There is no rusting on the iron nail in test tube E

Explanation

 In test tube A, there is rusting since conditions necessary for

rusting to occur are present.

 The iron nail is alloyed with other metals to form steel which does
not rust.

 No rusting in test tube C since there is no moisture which is

needed for rusting to occur. The air is dried using calcium
chloride.

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 Magnesium in test tube labelled D is more reactive than iron hence

magnesium reacts with oxygen before iron preventing it from
rusting.

 No rusting occurs in test tube labelled E because of absence of

oxygen. Boiling water drives out oxygen. The layer of oil prevents
entrance of oxygen.

Coating processes
 Coating is the technology of covering one material with another.

 This is done to either give a decorative appearance or prevent

corrosion.

 A significant metal in industry is steel because it is strong, cheap

and malleable (that is, it can be cast and machined into various
forms and shapes.)

 Steel is an alloy of iron which entails that it can rust when it gets
into contact with air and water.

 Rust makes structures unattractive and gradually weakens them.

 Therefore there is need to protect the steel, which is done by

coating the metal.

 Like steel, other metals also corrode and need to be

coated/protected.

 There are various methods of coating that can be used.

 These include painting, galvanising, electroplating (copper, nickel

and chrome plating), oiling.

Methods of coating materials

Galvanising
Fig
2.5.2:

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Galvanised nuts

 A method used to protect/coat iron and steel can be called zinc

plating or sacrificial plating.

 It is called zinc plating because zinc metal is used for coating the
iron or steel.

 Since zinc is more reactive than iron it corrodes first before the
iron does.

 It sacrifices itself first even if the metal underneath it is exposed

thus the name sacrificial plating.

Process Of Galvanising
 The steel sheets is first cleansed.

 The sheet material is then dipped in molten /melted zinc.

 As the hot zinc cools it sticks onto iron.

 An alloy of iron and zinc forms on the surface of the sheets.

 The zinc in the galvanised iron shield the iron from rusting

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Uses

 Galvanised iron is used for making roofing sheets.

 Used for making bolts and nuts.

 Used for making metal buckets which are used for gardening.

Painting
 Painting is the practise of applying paint on a solid surface to
protect it from harsh conditions and to give it a good finishing.

 It is a popular and cheap method used to prevent rusting.

 The method prevents water and oxygen from coming into contact
with the covered material.

 Oil paint is used to paint the materials.

Fig 2.5.3: A painted car

Process Of Painting
 The material to be painted is first cleaned using an acidic solution
to remove dirt and existing rust.

 Sand paper can also be used to clean the surface to be painted.

 The surface is left to dry and a coat of paint is then applied.

 If the paint peel off with time exposing the metal below it to water
and air, it must be repainted.

Uses

 Used to protect large structures e.g. bridges and pylons.

 Prevent corrosions of window frames, door frames, wood materials

for example doors.

Electroplating
 The process of coating materials (usually metals) with a thin layer
of another less reactive metal underneath by electrolysis.

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 Metals which do not react with oxygen are usually used to protect
the more reactive ones underneath them.

 Nickel, chrome and copper are used to plate the more reactive
ones.

 This is because they are not prone to corrosion as they neither

react with water or air.

Process Of Electroplating
 The metal to be electroplated is thoroughly cleaned first using
sand paper.

 It is then put in a bath of concentrated hydrochloric acid to remove

all the corroded metal.

 A current is then passed through a solution of metal ions.

 The object to be plated is made the cathode (negative electrode) of

the cell.

 The anode (copper, nickel or chromium) is made the anode.

 The electrolyte is a solution of a salt of the metal which is to be

plated.

 Positive metal ions move to the cathode where they pick up

electrons and become atoms which then coat the cathode.

Chromium Plating

Fig 2.5.4: A chromium plated rim of a wheel

 Chromium is less reactive than iron.

 Chromic acid is used as the electrolyte.

 It is used to improve the appearance of steel parts and protect

them from rusting.

 The steel to be plated is first plated with nickel or copper because

chromium does not adhere well onto a steel surface.

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 It is then plated using chromium which gives it a shiny finish.

Uses

 For the bright trim of cars, car bumpers and household appliances.

 To plate door handles

 For plating taps

Nickel Plating

Fig 2.5.5: A nickel plated trophy

 An acidified nickel sulphate solution is used as the electrolyte at a

temperature of 700⁰C and pH of 4.

 Nickel anodes are used.

Uses

 Nickel gives a decorative finish and is a tough base for chromium

plating.

Copper Plating

Fig 2.5.6: Copper plated coins

 The object to be plated is made the cathode.

 The electrolyte used is either copper cyanide or copper sulphate

solution acidified using sulphuric acid.

 The copper cyanide solution is alkaline and gives a plate that

adheres better but it has a dull finish.

 It is used to plate motor car parts that get very hot for exhaust
silencers.

 The acid electrolyte gives a bright finish and is used on decorative

objects.

 Both methods use copper anodes.

Experiment 2.5.2: To Copper Plate An Iron Nail.

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Material

 Beakers

 Cells

 Iron object

 Copper strip

 Concentrated hydrochloric acid

 Copper sulphate (CuSO4) solution

Fig 2.5.7: Setup for electroplating

Procedure

1. Thoroughly clean the iron nail with sand paper and then with acid.

2. Set up an electrolytic cell as above, making the copper strip the

anode and the iron nail the cathode.

3. Allow the current to flow for about 20 minutes.

4. Switch off the current and examine the iron nail and the copper
anode.

Expected observations

 The iron nail is coated with a thin layer of copper after the process.

 The copper electrode will be thinner after the process.

Oxidation-and-reduction-Exercise 1

Answer the following questions. For each question there are four possible answers. Choose the one
you consider correct.

1) Magnesium reacts with water to form magnesium oxide and hydrogen,

MAGNESIUM + WATER ⟶ MAGNESIUM OXIDE + HYDROGEN
Which substance has been reduced and which has been oxidised?

REDUCED OXIDISED
A Magnesium oxide Oxygen
B Hydrogen Magnesium oxide
C Hydrogen Magnesium

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D Water Oxygen A
B
C
D
2) The ability of a metal to be drawn into wires is known as __________. ductility
density
malleability
conductivity

3) Coating is done to __________ materials. decorate

oil
protect and decorate
galvanise

4) In an experiment to investigate rusting of iron, what is the purpose of calcium chloride? So

that it corrodes before the nail.
To act as a catalyst.
Used to dry air.
To prevent air from entering the water.

5) In an experiment to investigate rusting of iron, in which test tube does the iron nail corrode?
Test tube A, water and air are present.
Test tube C, the air is dried using calcium chloride.
Test tube E, there is no air in boiled water.
Test tube B, a steel nail.

6) Which statement is correct about corrosion of metals? Copper corrodes more rapidly than
magnesium.
Aluminium corrodes less rapidly than iron.
Lead corrodes more rapidly than zinc.
Copper corrodes less rapidly than iron.

7) In an experiment to reduce copper oxide with carbon. Which of the following is the reducing
agent? Copper oxide
Carbon
Copper
Crucible lid

8) ‘Protection of large steel structures.’ This is a use for__________. nickel plating

galvanising
painting
copper plating

9) Below are methods of coating materials except __________. painting

galvanising
electroplating
acidifying

10) Sacrificial plating is another name for __________. electroplating

galvanising
painting

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oiling

Oxidation-and-reduction-Exercise 2

Answer the following questions. Each correct answer is equivalent to one mark.

1) Oxidation is the addition of ___________ to a substance.

2) In an experiment to investigate rusting of iron, the purpose of calcium chloride is to

___________.

3) ___________ is the chemical name for rust.

4) The metal used in galvanising is called__________.

5) Name the oxidising agent in the following reaction,

CALCIUM + WATER ⟶ CALCIUM OXIDE + OXYGEN

6) Unprotected iron rusts in the presence of ____________ and air.

7) In electroplating, the other name given to the negative electrode is_____________.

8) The technology of covering one material with another is called__________.

9) In electroplating, the plating material is always placed at the anode to release ___________.

10) Painting is the most widely used method of coating materials because it is the
_____________method.

Organic Chemistry
Fuel

 A fuel is a material that stores chemical energy and burns to

produce heat energy.

 Fuels can exist as solids, liquids and gases at room temperature.

 Solid fuels include wood, charcoal, coke and coal.

 Liquid fuels include paraffin, diesel, petrol and ethanol.

 Gaseous fuels include natural gas, methane, butane, hydrogen and

biogas.

 Most fuels are hydrocarbons. A hydrocarbon is a compound made

up of hydrogen and carbon only. Since carbon is the main element

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in hydrocarbons, when they burn in plentiful supply of oxygen,

they produce heat, carbon dioxide and water:

Wood + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + heat

Butane + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + heat

Fig
2.6.1:

Types of fuels

SOLID FUELS
Coal And Coke
 Coal is a fossil fuel.

 It is formed from the decayed remains of vegetation some millions

of years ago.

 In Zimbabwe it is mainly mined at Hwange but smaller deposits are

found at Zambezi and Save valley.

 Decayed vegetation including wood was compacted by sand and

rocks below sea level.

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 The process converted wood to coal.

 The type of coal found in Zimbabwe is called Bituminous coal.

Uses of coal

 Power generation e.g. Hwange.

 Fuel for domestic use e.g. cooking and heating.

 To drive locomotives e.g. goods train.

 For curing tobacco.

 Coking-coke from coal.

Uses of coke

 Coke is a by-product from coal. It is derived from the destructive

distillation of coal, where coal is heated in the absence of air
(oxygen)

 It has a higher calorific value (energy per unit mass) compared to

coal, since most impurities would have been removed.

 Coke is used in high energy applications, like the blast furnace for
the making of steel.

Wood And Charcoal

 Wood is one of the most widespread used fuel in homes, especially
in most low income economies.

 It is a cheap, readily available source of energy.

 Wood charcoal is derived by carbonisation of wood (slow heating in

the absence of oxygen) to obtain a high carbon residue (charcoal)
and ash.

 Impurities like sulphur are burnt off during the process, making
the remaining charcoal a substance of high energy density.

LIQUID FUELS

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 Most liquid fuels used currently are produced from petroleum

(crude oil).

 They are separated from crude oil through fractional distillation

 Common liquid fuels include paraffin, diesel, petrol and ethanol.

Paraffin (Kerosene)
 Paraffin a very highly refined mineral oil used in cosmetics, medical
purposes, industry and households.

 Its application as a fuel is mostly within industry and households.

In households it is used in stoves and for lighting.
Fig
2.6.2:

Use of paraffin in household lamps (left) and stoves (right)

Petrol And Diesel

 Petrol and diesel are used in powering petrol and diesel engines
respectively.

 These engines may be for stationary purposes (like generators) or

motion (vehicles).

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 Petrol is a lighter fuel (low density). Diesel is denser and has higher
energy per unit volume.

 Light duty vehicles usually use petrol, whereas vehicles used for
heavy duty tasks will most likely use diesel.

GASEOUS FUELS
 The gaseous fuels widely used in industrial and household
applications are mostly mined or refined from mined gas.

 Natural gas can also mined from underground rock formations, in

close association with coal or petroleum. It is a mixture of
hydrocarbon gases, largely methane.

 Methane can also be obtained as coal bed methane (CBM) in seams

within coal deposits.

 Natural gas is the fuel used in Bunsen burners in a scientific lab.

Fig
2.6.3:

Bunsen burner

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 Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is a clean fuel fast gaining

popularity in nations like Iran and Pakistan.

 Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG) is a by-product from the mining of

natural gas; it is a mixture of propane, propylene, butane, and
butylene gases in various proportions.

 Liquid and gaseous fuels can also be obtained through the action
of micro-organisms; these are called Bio-fuels.

 Examples- Liquids: Bio-diesel, ethanol; Gases: biogas (60%

methane)

 In Zimbabwe, a plant that processes biodiesel from Jatropha seeds

has been set up in Mount Hampden.

Ethanol
 Ethanol is a flammable alcohol derived from the fermentation of
sugarcane juice.

 In Zimbabwe, most ethanol is produced in Triangle. Another plant

has been set up, recently, in Chisumbanje.

 For use in the laboratory, it is mixed with about 5% methyl alcohol

(toxic) to formulate the popular methylated spirit. The mixture is
done to prevent the abuse of ethanol in the lab as a cheap alcohol.

 Methylated spirit is the fuel used in the methylated spirit burner.

Fig
2.6.4

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Methylated spirit burner

Comparing the efficiency of fuels

 Fuel efficiency refers to the proportion of energy released when a
specific quantity of fuel is burnt.

 Some fuels give a lot of energy (heat) than others and are said to
be more efficient than those which produce less energy.

 It is important to know which fuels are more efficient.

 In a laboratory this can be done by measuring temperature rise of

a sample of water when it is heated by a known mass of fuel.

Experiment 1
Aim: To compare the thermal efficiency of liquid fuels.

Materials:

2 beakers, draught shield, thermometer, 2 spirit burners,

stand and a beam balance, water, methanol, paraffin,
methylated spirit (95% ethanol).
Fig
2.6.5:

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Experimental set up to compare the thermal efficiency of fuels

Procedure

1. Pour 5 0 c m 3 50cm3 of water into a beaker and record the

temperature.
2. Weigh a spirit burner full of A.

3. Place the spirit burner on a large tin which acts as a draught shield.

4. Put the beaker on a burner stand inside the large tin and heat the
water while stirring constantly.

5. Extinguish the flame when temperature has risen by 15°C.

6. Weigh the burner again.

7. Repeat stage 1-6 using fuel B.

Expected Observations

 Paraffin will produce more heat energy than methanol and

methylated spirit (ethanol). Notice that it burns with a cleaner
flame.

 Record observations as shown in Table 2.6.1.

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MASS
WATER FUEL MASS TEMPERATURE RISE
FUEL OF
TEMPERATURE CONSUMED ÷ MASS CONSUMED
FUEL

start end start end

Methanol

Methylated
spirit

Paraffin

 It is expected that paraffin will achieve a higher value of rise in

temperature per unit mass of fuel consumed.

Conclusion

 Paraffin is more efficient than methylated spirit.

FUEL TYPE NAME OF FUEL HEATING VALUE (KJ/MOL)

Diesel 55
Paraffin 48
Liquid
Petrol 44
Ethanol 30

Hydrogen 60
Methane 55
Solid Butane 50
Coal gas 43
Biogas 40

Charcoal 33
Coke 28
Gaseous
Coal 26
Wood 17

Organic-chemistry-Exercise 1

Answer the following questions. For each question there are four possible answers. Choose the one
you consider correct.

1) Where is bio-diesel derived from? Petroleum

Vegetable oil
Micro-organisms

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Petrol

2) What dangerous gas is produced when burning petrol in a car engine? Carbon monoxide
Carbon dioxide
Nitrogen
Water vapour

3) Which of these is a correct definition of a natural gas? Gas found naturally occurring on the
surface of the earth.
Gas formed by fermentation.
Coal bed methane.
A mixture of hydrocarbon gases, largely methane.

4) Which fuel has more energy value between ethanol and paraffin? Ethanol
Paraffin
They are equal.
No answer

5) Petrol is a __________ fuel than diesel. better

stronger
lighter
gaseous

6) A fuel is a material that stores __________. heat energy

chemical energy
power
mechanical energy

7) Which fuel has the most heating value? Charcoal

Wood
Grass
Coal

8) Diesel is usually used for __________ tasks. easier

heavier
lighter
neutral

9) Which combination is correct?

Spirit burner Bunsen burner

A diesel paraffin
B paraffin ethanol
C spirit gas bunsen gas
D ethanol natural gas A
B
C
D
10) Sugar is a better raw material for the production of ethanol than starch because__________.
starch produces poor quality ethanol
sugar is readily available at Triangle

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fermentation of sugar needs no enzymes

starch needs to be broken down into simple sugars before producing ethanol
Organic-chemistry-Exercise 2

Answer the following questions. Each correct answer is equivalent to one mark. For questions 1-12,
supply names for the given description.

1) A fuel that is made by heating a solid fuel like wood in the absence of oxygen.

2) The gas that is released during the complete combustion of organic fuels.

3) The name of the type of coal mined in Zimbabwe (one word).

4) A gaseous fuel obtained through fermentation.

5) A fuel that is used in jet engines.

6) The solid fuel obtained from the destructive distillation of coal.

7) A compound made up of carbon and hydrogen only.

8) A common gaseous fuel that is a pure compound consisting one carbon atom.

9) A common solid fuel that is mined and used in power generation.

10) A flammable alcohol derived from the fermentation of sugarcane juice.

11) A mixture of the alcohol(methanol) with 5% of methanol for use in the laboratory.

12) The name given to a natural fuel obtained from years of vegetative decay and compression
(one word).

13) For questions 13-16, name the cities or towns associated with the given operations in
Zimbabwe:

Coal mining

14) Ethanol (most of it)

15) Blast furnace

16) Biodiesel

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