Unit 1

Alman Ahmed
Highway Planning:
Planning is essential for every engineering operation or project, and this is especially true for
the construction of a country's highway network or system, which is a major undertaking.

objectives of highway planning

I. Creating a highway network that is safe, efficient, and rapid for the transportation of
people and commodities is a major undertaking.
II. Making efforts to keep the total cost of construction and maintenance of roads in the
network as low as possible
III. Developing a plan for future expansion as well as expected traffic demands for a certain
design era
IV. From the standpoint of usefulness and relevance, as well as financial resources, road
development programmers should be phasing in their work.
V. Developing a funding structure that is commensurate with the costs and advantages of
the project.

Principles
I. The proposed road connections should be included into the state's or country's overall
road network planning.
II. The significance of a road must be determined by the demand for it, and as a result, its
type should be classified according to the standard classification.
III. The need for road repair should be addressed as soon as possible, and money should be
set aside for this purpose.
IV. It is necessary to have legal regulations in place for traffic control.

Classification of Roads:
The categorization of roads is determined by the criteria that is used.
They may be classified as all-weather roads if they can be used throughout the year in all
weather conditions; they may be classified as fair-weather roads if traffic is disrupted during the
monsoon season at course ways where water overflows for a few hours. It might be a paved
road with at least a water-bound macadam layer, or it could be an unpaved road, depending on
the kind of carriageway or road pavement. Earth roads and gravel roads are included in this
classification.
The carriageway of superior paved highways has a bituminous or concrete surface, depending
on the material. A bituminous road is sometimes referred to as a black-top road in certain
circles.
The volume of traffic, the amount of freight moved each day, as well as the location and
purpose of a road, are all key factors in determining its categorization. These considerations
have been taken into account in the classification recommended by the Nagpur Plan—NH, SH,
MDR, ODR, and VR—as well as in the classification modified by the Lucknow Plan—with
categories of Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary roads—as well as in the classification
recommended by the Nagpur Plan.
Urban roads are classified based on their function and location:
I. Expressways are used for the transportation of large amounts of traffic.
II. Arterial streets—used to link the centre area to highways and other major
thoroughfares.
III. Sub-arterial streets are comparable to arterial roads, however they have a smaller width
and are less widely spaced.
IV. Collection and distribution roadways—used for the collection and distribution of traffic
via residential neighbourhoods' local streets.
V. Local streets—used to get access to private property such as dwellings, stores, and
factories. Traffic either originates or terminates at this location.
Certain definitions are relevant:
I. A road is a handy method for automobiles to get from one location to another while
being within the law.
II. Service road - A road that is used for service and as an access route to nearby property;
it is erected parallel to the main road and next to roadside buildings.
III. A street is a route that runs through a town or a residential neighbourhood with
buildings on one or both sides of the road.
IV. Landmarks on the way to and from the country: a route linking two points on the
countryside.
V. An urban road is a road that runs through a town or a city.
VI. When a road is built around a village or small town, it usually takes off via a highway and
rejoins it after passing through the populated area; this allows through traffic to travel
quickly without having to pass through the village or town.
VII. Highway - A highway is any public road or street that is open to the public.
VIII. In urban areas, arterial roads connect cities to state or national highways, although
often have restricted access to the general public.
IX. A freeway is an arterial route with restricted access that connects to other highways at
various stages of development.
 X. In cities, a boulevard is a very broad road with an avenue on each side of it; it is often
used for ceremonial processions or is regarded to be one of the most prominent
roadways in the city.

Urban Road Patterns:

Although a country's road designs are historically inherited, subsequent expansions might be
developed to meet the needs of the present day.
Road layouts are very useful in the development of metropolitan highways. When designing a
road layout, the amount of land use or the distribution of residential, industrial, and
commercial regions in a city must be considered, as well as the terrain's characteristics and the
preferences of the city planner.
The main patterns in use in urban areas are
1. Grid Iron Pattern:
This design, which is also known as a rectangle or block pattern, is possibly the most
straightforward. It was chosen by the Romans, and it has since become popular with Americans,
who have adapted it in many of their towns. This is simple to lay down in straight lines and
rectangular co-ordinates, and it is best suited to flat terrain because of its simplicity.

The drawbacks of this design are the monotonously lengthy roadways and the annoyance that
it causes in traffic operations and flow. Other benefits include the ease of avoiding any roads
that are congested and the ability to impose one-way traffic if required, as well as the creation
of alternative roadways with one-way traffic in opposing directions.
The city of Chandigarh serves as an outstanding illustration of this pattern. Localities in most
major cities, including Bangalore City, that have recently been established have been
constructed in this manner.
2. Radial Pattern:
In this arrangement, roadways radiate outward from a central focal point, which might be a
commercial district or a significant public building of significance. Ring roads are constructed to
relieve traffic congestion in the central region; there may be numerous ring roads, including
inner, middle, and outer roads, depending on the needs of the traffic.
A ring road's form might be circular, square, or extended, depending on its purpose. The design
may be a combination of stars and grids, or a combination of stars and circulars. Several Indian
towns have adopted the star and grid plan, or the radial and block pattern, which served as the
foundation for the Nagpur Road Plan and has been replicated elsewhere.

While the star and circle pattern, also known as the radial and circular pattern, has been used in
a few instances, it has only been used in a limited number of instances. The Connaught Place
neighbourhood of New Delhi is a great example.
3. Hexagonal Pattern:
In this scenario, the fundamental figure of the road network is a hexagon; each hexagon shares
at least one side with a neighbouring design, which is referred to as a common side.

The hexagonal design may be adjusted by breaking it into six triangular units and connecting
them with link roads; this, in comparison to any other pattern, makes it easier to move from
one spot to any other in the region in the shortest amount of time. A'minimum travel pattern' is
exactly what it sounds like: a simple pattern of travel that may be employed to great benefit in
certain places.

Highway is identified and Planned:

Highway planning entails determining the length of road that is required for a given area, which
may be a city, a district, a state, or a country; it also entails developing a master plan for the
area that takes into account future needs; and phasing in the programmer in annual or five-
year plans, depending on the priorities and utility of the project.
It will be essential to conduct field studies in order to gather the necessary information in order
to determine the needed road length for the region.
Economic Studies:
In addition, information on the existing facilities and their utility will be gathered. Other
information to be gathered includes the current distribution of the population in the area,
population growth trends, existing agricultural and industrial products, future trends of
development in these sectors, existing communication and education facilities, and the average
per capita income.
Road Use Studies:
A detailed analysis of the existing road infrastructure, the daily traffic volume in vehicles, traffic
flow patterns, the different types of traffic (such as passenger cars and buses), the amount of
cargo carried, the average speed, the anticipated future trends in traffic growth, and other
traffic-related studies will be carried out.
Engineering Studies:
These include the investigation of the terrain, soil, road life, and any particular challenges that
may arise during the course of construction, drainage, and maintenance operations.
Financial Studies:
It is taken into consideration several financial issues such as the sources of financing, expected
income from vehicle taxes, toll taxes, and indirect advantages such as the improvement in
people's living conditions as a result of the planned road network
After doing a thorough review of all of the data, the planner will be better able to prepare a
Master Plan that will suit the requirements of the region for a given design time, such as 20 to
25 years.
These analyses also aid in the determination of the relative importance of different routes or
sectors based on their usefulness per unit of length. The complete development plan for the
design period will be phased in five-year intervals, depending on the availability of financial
resources and the priorities identified. The maximum utility per unit length will be determined
by calculating the maximum utility per unit length. The Master Plan for road development is
divided into phases, which is referred to as phasing.
A technique known as the saturation system or the maximal utility system is used in order to
determine the optimal road length.
A planned road network's utility is evaluated using a method that is based on the number of
villages and towns with varying populations that it serves, as well as the weight of agricultural
or industrial goods that it transports.
Consider, for example, the 'utility units' that are tied to villages with certain population ranges,
as shown in the table below.

On the basis of this, the total number of utility units for all of the communities serviced by a
planned route might be calculated. In a similar vein, the utility unit for 1000 tonnes of
agricultural goods may be calculated as 1.00, while the utility unit for 100 tonnes of industrial
output can be calculated as 10.00. It is possible to use a reasonable average value as the utility
unit for the total productivity if the break-up is not known in advance.
By adding together the numbers from each of these criteria and dividing them by the length of
the roads, the total utility units can be calculated. The total utility per unit length can then be
calculated.
So the values for the various choices under consideration can be compared, and the optimal
option based on the highest total utility units may be selected.
This option is supposed to be utilised to the maximum extent by traffic in all stretches of the
road, reaching saturation.
This approach has been widely employed in the United States of America.
There is an element of arbitrariness in the utility coefficients assigned to the various factors,
which is a disadvantage of this system; however, with sound judgement and professional skill
and experience, balanced weightages can be arrived at for the purpose of selecting the most
advantageous option.

Legal procedure:
For the purposes of this Law (RS, 2005).

1. Road means any built or set aside area that can be used as a paved area by all or specific
participants in traffic under the conditions stipulated in the law and other regulations.
2. Public road is a road that fulfils the criteria for classification by the relevant authority.
3. National road is a public road which links:
a. the territory of the state with the European road network, namely it is a part of
the European road network,
b. the territory of the state with the territories of the neighboring countries,
c. the whole of the state territory,
d. economically important conurbations in the state territory,
e. the territories of two or more districts or a single district or any section passing
through an urban area where no road bypass is built.
4. Motorway is a national road intended solely for motorized traffic with physically
separated carriageways in each direction, grade separated intersections and full access
control, with minimum two traffic lanes and one emergency lane in each direction and
appropriate traffic signaling,
5. Municipal road is a public road that forms links within the territory of one municipality
and/or one city and connects the municipal or city areas with the national road network.
6. Paved area is a specially developed area for the movement of all or certain modes of
traffic or for the standing of vehicles.
7. Uncategorized road is a paved area accessible to a large number of various users,
pronounced as an uncategorized road by the relevant authority and entered as an
uncategorized road in the land cadaster.
8. Cycle track is a paved area marked out with a statutory traffic sign intended for the
movement of bicycles or motorized bicycles,
9. Urban area is a functionally unified development providing conditions for life and work
of a community and meeting their common needs, its boundaries being demarcated in
the physical and urban plans of a municipality and/or a town, and marked out with a
statutory traffic sign on the public road.
10. Road outside urban area is a section of a public road in the open country outside urban
area limits.
11. Road in urban area is a section of a public road located within urban area limits, its
characteristics defined in the physical or urban development plan of a municipality
and/or a city.
12. Street is a public road linking parts of an urban area.
13. Public roads referencing is a determined procedure for defining category and physical
position of a road (kilometer and hectometer points).
14. Public roads registry contains statutory traffic and technical relevant data and
procedures for the collection and/or updating data on public roads.
15. Pavement structure serves to take up mechanical impacts of vehicles, transfer them to
public road substructure and enable safe, undisturbed and cost-effective movement of
vehicles, bicycles and pedestrians. Its top section is called surfacing.
16. Carriageway is a developed portion of a public road used by motorists and comprising
lanes (fast, additional, nearside, emergency and the like) for the travel and standing of
vehicles.
17. Shoulder is a roadside element on an embankment that ensures lateral stability of
pavement structure and accommodates traffic signs, signals and road furniture.
18. Open channel is a roadside element in a cutting which receives and drains surface water
and ensures stability of pavement structure,
19. Berm lies between an open channel and a cutting slope protecting the former from
being clogged with eroded material, and it includes traffic signs and road furniture and
ensures sight distance.
20. Median is a public road element that physically separates traffic directions,
accommodates traffic signaling and road furniture and offers space for building
segments of a road structure. If a median exceeds 6 m in width it becomes a central
reserve.
Requirements of an Ideal Alignment:
Following are the requirements of an ideal alignment (SAUTYA, 2018).

1. Directness:
The aligned path between the two end locations should be as straight as feasible and result in
the shortest possible length under the given conditions.
2. Ease of Construction, Maintenance and Operation:
The route of the highway should be chosen such that it is simple to build, maintain, and operate
the road. Curves and slopes should be straightforward.
3. Safety:
The major focus should be the safety of road users; the stability of natural slopes and man-
made slopes for embankments and cuttings should be assured in order to avoid potential
accidents.
4. Economy:
The entire cost of building and maintenance of the road, as well as the cost of operation of the
vehicles, should be kept as low as possible in order to maximise efficiency.
5. Special Considerations:
Depending upon the purpose of the highway and the characteristics of the terrain, special
considerations may be needed as in the case of hill roads or ghat roads.
Horizontal Alignment:
This is the alignment of the roadway in the horizontal plane; although it is ideal to have a
straight route between end points, it is practically impossible owing to several constraints. A
change in direction necessitates the use of horizontal curves for smooth flow of traffic.
Vertical Alignment:
However, although it is desirable to have a highway that is the same height throughout, this is
practically impossible to achieve and so requires the use of gradients or slopes over the length
of the road. As a result of the change in gradient, vertical curves are required; vertical curves
should be planned and built in such a way that traffic flows smoothly according to a number of
requirements.
Factors Controlling Alignment:
The following variables will be taken into account while determining the alignment of a
proposed new highway route: 1.
1. Obligatory Points:
These are the places through which the alignment must travel in order to make the most of the
available road space (Figure 2.2). When constructing a new highway route between two end
locations, it would be required to ensure that it passes through significant landmarks along the
way. This may be determined by the number of people who can be serviced, or by the presence
of important commercial or industrial facilities.

2. Topographical Features:
Because of topographical factors such as a lake or a mound, the alignment may need to be
rerouted around them. For large hills, the possibility of digging a tunnel through them in order
to preserve a straight alignment might be explored, if possible. To conclude the alignment, it is
necessary to investigate the relative costs of the various possibilities.
3. Geometric Design Aspects:
The alignment is influenced significantly by factors such as the radius of the curve, longitudinal
gradients, sight distances, road intersections, design speed, lateral friction, and super-elevation;
the radius of horizontal curves and longitudinal gradients should allow for easy manoeuvring of
vehicles.
4. Cross-Drainage Needs:
The alignment of the bridges should be such that they are situated at right angles to the
direction of the stream or river's current flow.

5. Deviations Dictated by Circumstances:

In spite of the fact that a straight horizontal road is the greatest alternative, it is very boring for
a motorist; thus, in order to divert attention on a straight road and break the boredom, a little
bend or curve should be built at least once per kilometre or two to keep the driver awake. In
some cases, it may be necessary to bypass obstacles such as places of worship (such as
established temples and churches), historical monuments, public buildings such as hospitals
and educational institutions, as well as utility services such as water and sewerage lines, as well
as overhead transmission lines.
Accordingly, the alignment of the route may need to be altered in order to allow for these
obstructions to pass through safely. It is possible that the alignment will need to be adjusted in
order to avoid pricey private property, agricultural or industrial areas.
6. Proximity to Materials and Labor:
The proximity of the alignment to sources of road-building materials and the availability of
inexpensive labour may be a consideration for determining the best location for the alignment.
7. Economic Considerations:
Before a final alignment is selected, two or three alternative routes may need to be studied and
their total cost – including the initial expenditure as well as maintenance costs over the course
of the design period – weighed against one another. Following that, the route with the greatest
economy is chosen.
8. Political Considerations:
Sometimes, political reasons override all other considerations, including economic ones, in
determining which alliance to join. Without a doubt, the other crucial elements must also be
taken into consideration at all times.

Earthwork Operations:
Preliminary construction techniques that include the use of soil or earth in its natural state and
that take place before the actual construction of the pavement structure.
Basic earthwork operations
1. Clearing & Grubbing
2. Excavation: Roadway & drainage excavations for structures and borrow excavation.
3. Embankments
4. Finishing Operations

Equipment Used in Earthwork Operations

Equipment Type Typical Uses Equipment Type Typical Uses
Bulldozers Loosening rocky earth, short distance
earthmovings
Motor grader Shaping pavement layers & slopes
Crane Excavation, placing & handling, lifting
Trucks & Wagons Hauling operations
Rollers Compaction
Loaders Excavation, filling, cleaning
Scrapers Digging, loading, transporting, dumping, &
 spreading

Clearing & Grubbing

1. Prior to excavation, the first activity in the earthwork is to level the ground.
2. Removing obstacles such as trees, roots, trash, and other undesirable materials from the
planned or specified area of intended excavation and embankment, or from any other
place where impediments must be removed.
3. Clearing is the process of removing debris from above ground.
4. The removal of roots and similar things to a nominal depth below the surface is referred
to as grubbing.
5. This contract item (removal of topsoil to a shallow depth) is measured in Acres and
represents a single contract item.
Excavation
AASHTO

1. Excavation of rock: It is not possible to dig rock without blasting, and boulders larger
than 2 m3 must be removed.
2. Excavation materials of any kind, regardless of their classification, are considered
common.
3. Excavations that are unsuitable for embankment material include deposits of saturated
or unsaturated soil and organic materials.
4. Borrow excavation: material that has been approved for use in the building of an
embankment.
5. In order to describe excavation of any materials, regardless of their nature, it is
preferable to use the term "Unclassified excavation" instead.
Roadway & Drainage Excavation
 Excavation and grading of the highway and ditches, as well as the removal of all
excavated material in preparation for the building of cuts, embankments, slopes,
ditches, junctions, and other features.
 The volume of excavated materials is used to determine the amount of material
extracted (cubic meters).
 The majority of the equipment on this list is suitable for this operation.

Excavation for Structures

 Building of material excavations to allow for the construction of pipe culverts,
concrete box culverts, bridge foundations, retaining walls, and any other structures
that may be needed for a specific contract.
 Payments for this item are payable individually and are dependent on the actual
amount of earth removed.
  The majority of the time, when excavations inside the right-of-way provide
inadequate resources for the construction of an embankment, extra acceptable
material is obtained from borrow pits.
 Following completion of operations, borrow pits should not be left in a state where
water might accumulate.
 Payment is based on volume (cubic metres), which is measured in relation to the
initial volume.

Borrow Excavations
 It is common practise to extract additional acceptable material from borrow pits
when the resources available for the construction of an embankment from
excavations inside the right-of-way are inadequate.
 Borrow pits should not be left in a state where water may collect once the operation
is completed.
 Payment is based on volume (cubic metres), which is measured by the original
volume of the item being purchased.

Embankments
 If the grade line of a roadway must be raised a certain distance above the level of the
existing ground surface in order to maintain design requirements or to avoid damage to
the highway caused by surface or ground water, this term is used in highway
construction.
 Basic factors:
o Maintain grade near bridges, culverts, or hilly areas, and elevate the height of
the structure above groundwater.
o Preferred slopes are flat, however right of way restrictions and excellent material
allow for the use of higher slopes after ensuring that they are safe.
o Foundation: When designing a side slope, it is important to consider the stability
of the slope as well as the foundation (underlying soil).
o A-1 through A-3 grades of material are more desired.

Construction of Rolled-Earth Embankments

o The dirt should be in thin layers (15 to 30 cm in depth).... Prior to placing the next
layer... roll to a desirable degree of density... and continue rolling until the required
height is achieved.
o When huge boulders are utilised in the lowest area of the fill, the layer thickness may
become much larger.
o Scraper is used for direct dump and spreading during construction.
o Dumping from trucks and spreading using graders or dozers is a common practise.
o Compaction is measured as a percentage of maximum density (dry bases)....
o Test for field density (Sand cone test).
o Nuclear gauges are used in nuclear power plants.
Special Treatment of Embankment Foundation
o If failure is to be avoided, extra attention must be paid to the foundation of
embankments built in marshy locations. These include:
o Gravity Subsidence
o Excavation may be partial or complete.
o Blasting\sJetting
o Sand drains that are vertical in orientation
o Engineering textiles are used for reinforcement.

Finishing Operations
 Final series of operations that are required to complete the earthwork operations involved in a
typical highway project.
 Operations:
 Shoulders trimming.
 Side & ditch slopes.
 Cut sections (scarifying, shaping, compacting)
 Final grade cross-section.
 Operations are generally carried along & performed as the job approached completion.
 Motor grader is the most widely used tool.

Tunnels constructions:
Engineers that specialise in tunnelling are among the most sought-after professionals in the
industry. Despite the fact that the task is intriguing, it is hard and tough to complete over its
duration. In transportation, tunnels are described as subterranean corridors that are utilised for
the conveyance of passengers and freight. These allow for the movement of persons and
freight, as well as the conveyance of utilities such as water, sewage, and natural gas, among
others.

Selection of Tunneling Route

The alignment limitations and environmental concerns are the two most important variables in
determining the most efficient path for the tunnel to take. Nature's heterogeneity may be
found throughout the subterranean, as we all know. Before laying the route, it was necessary to
conduct a thorough investigation on the nature of the soil and rock, the level of the water table,
and the presence of any alignment restrictions. The location of the tunnelling project has been
selected in such a manner that the annoyance and trouble given to the surrounding
environment, including those who live there, would be kept to a bare minimum. The tunnelling
technique that is used is determined by the ground conditions, the water table level, the tunnel
drive length and diameter, as well as the depth of the tunnel. , final utility requirements, the
shape of the tunnel and the risk of construction.

Approaches in Tunneling Method

There are two ways that are based on the open cuttings at the ends of a slope on each side of
the slope. There are two types of approaches: short approach and lengthy approach. When the
hill slope is very steep in nature, the approach is referred to as being short. When the slope of
the hill is exceedingly flat, the approach is described as being very lengthy. The cost of this is
mostly determined by the terrain of the region under consideration. These routes will be
restricted by snow at high elevations, and they may even be closed by landslides due to the
extreme weather conditions. These are the considerations that might influence the choice on
whether to utilise an open cut or a tunnel approach.

Alignment and Grade in Tunneling Process

Certain factors that must kept in mind in the tunneling procedures are:

 The most efficient and cost-effective alignment was selected, and it had to be straight in
nature.
 The inside of the tunnel should have a lower gradient than the exterior. Because of the
dampness of the tracks, it has been noted that the wheels of the trains constantly slide
as they go through railway tunnels. The locomotives' hauling capacity is reduced as a
result of this.
 In order to maintain appropriate drainage, a 0.2 percent gradient must be given.
 When it comes to lengthy tunnels, it is necessary to give two grades at each end of the
tunnel.
 The efficacy of ventilation may be improved if the grade is supplied on just one side,
rather than on both sides.

Interrelation between earthwork bridges and tunnels for a new highway:

The results of the scan team are used to provide training and development for owner agencies.
The majority of civil engineering schools in the United States do not now provide a graduate
course in tunnelling, and it is probable that the majority of civil engineers are not familiar with
tunnelling. Many departments of transportation (DOTs) do not have tunnels in their
transportation networks; others constructed their last tunnel 20 to 30 years ago, and as a
result, their in-house expertise is either non-existent or out of date. According to the
information acquired from host presentations, the desk scan, and conversations, the quantity,
volume, and complexity of tunnelling projects will rise in the next years. However, the present
availability of short courses enables engineers to get just a basic understanding of tunnel
project terminology, rather than the necessary practical expertise. Highway tunnel owners and
the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) should ensure that their engineers have access to
tunnel education and training that is accessible via academics and business. It is hoped that this
engagement would also aid in the direction of academic research on tunnelling. Online
tunnelling courses and credentials from reputable worldwide providers would enable engineers
to get up-to-date information and practical experience in the planning and construction of
underground tunnels.
Rigid Pavements
Rigid pavements are so termed because of the high flexural rigidity of the concrete slab, which results in
the pavement structure deflecting very little under load owing to the high modulus of elasticity of the
surface course. Rigid pavements are also known as rigid concrete pavements. It is possible to distribute
the traffic load across a big area with a shallow depth by using a concrete slab, which reduces the
requirement for a large number of layers to assist alleviate stress on the structure. Typically, rigid
pavement is made up of dowel bars and tie bars, which is the most frequent variety. Dowel bars are
small steel bars that are used to provide a mechanical connection between slabs without impeding the
mobility of the joints in the horizontal direction. Tie bars, on the other hand, are either deformed steel
bars or connections that are used to keep the faces of abutting slabs from coming into touch with one
another during construction. They are not intended to operate as weight transfer devices and are
instead used to 'bind' the two concrete slabs together, despite the fact that they may give a little degree
of load transmission in certain instances.

Flexible Pavements
A typical flexible pavement consists of a bituminous surface course over a base course and sub-
base course, with a bituminous surface course on top of the base course. It is possible that the
surface course will consist of one or more layers of bituminous or Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA). In
addition, since these pavements have low flexure strength, they bend when subjected to load
action. Achieving the structural capacity of flexible pavements requires the joint activity of the
various layers of the pavement to be successful. This is accomplished with direct application of
the load from trucks on the wearing course, and it is disseminated (in the shape of an inverted
truncated cone) with depth in the base, underbase and subgrade courses, and eventually to the
ground. Because the stress caused by traffic loads is greatest at the surface layer, the surface
layer has the greatest stiffness (as measured by the resilient modulus) and contributes the
greatest amount to the strength of the pavement. The layers below have less stiffness, yet they
are just as significant in terms of the pavement's composition as the ones above. In order to
transmit weight from the above-ground layers to the ground, the subgrade layer must be
properly installed and maintained. Flexible pavements are constructed in such a manner that
the weight of the load that reaches the subgrade does not exceed the carrying capability of the
soil under the pavement surface. Because of this, the thicknesses of the layers above the
subgrade vary in accordance with the soil's strength, which has an impact on the cost of a
pavement to be created.

Justification:
The majority of major roads built across the globe have bituminous surface. For example, in the
United States, 86 percent of rural highways and 78 percent of urban roadways are of the
flexible kind. The majority of runways in the world have flexible pavements, and the Autobahn
in Germany is also equipped with this kind of pavement. The kind of pavement that is selected
is determined by the type of traffic and the soil conditions. A rigid pavement can be an excellent
option in areas where the soil subgrade is weak (such as clay) and drainage conditions are
difficult to maintain at the desired level of performance (such as urban areas or situations
where the road passes through populated areas), rigid pavement can be an excellent choice.
Flexible pavements, on the other hand, may be more cost-effective when the soil subgrade is of
acceptable quality and the traffic volume is not excessive. The most significant benefit of
flexible pavements is that they may be constructed in phases. The economic research carried
out by an expert group for the future Nagpur – Mumbai Access controlled Expressway also
revealed that, if stage construction is used, flexible pavement would be much less expensive
than rigid pavement, according to the findings.

Comparison of Flexible and Rigid pavement:

Another comparison between flexible and rigid pavements could be in terms of carbon foot prints spent
during construction. Road construction consumes energy in following five phases.

 The amount of energy used in the production of building materials (Embodied Energy)
 The amount of energy used in site preparation (Pre Construction)
 Actual road building (induced energy) and material transportation are two examples of
energy use (gray energy) [Construction equipment, material transportation, and the
influence on the construction site]
 The amount of energy used during road maintenance [Maintenance]
The amount of energy spent during the demolition process, as well as the amount of energy consumed
in recycling its pieces With example, consider a case study of pavement design for soil subgrade CBR of
8% and traffic loads of 100 mesas per square kilometre.

It is proposed to use a typical length of two-lane road with a 7.0 m roadway and 1.5 m broad shoulders
on each side as an example. For the purpose of calculating the cost, a one-kilometer length is taken into
consideration. In this study, two types of pavements were designed for different types of soil subgrade
(with CBR ranging from 2 percent to 10 percent) and design traffic (1 million square feet per hour to 150
million square feet per hour), with cost estimates for each layer based on the Dehradun PWD schedule
of rates. A total of 90 pavements were developed as a result, and the expenses of construction and
maintenance were tallied in the process. The soil and traffic values in the table above are expected to
cover almost all potential combinations of soil CBR and traffic loadings, as shown by the arrows.

Improvement to existing and new highway provisions:

The management of excessive speed is an essential part of traffic regulation and accident
prevention since it adds considerably to the frequency and severity of road collisions. When it
comes to measuring speed, radar sensors or pacing with a police vehicle are most usually used.
In collision investigations, the length of skid marks is used to establish the speed of the vehicles
involved. The impact of others is another important component in road accidents. There are
many different types of tests for drunkenness currently available. The most often used is the, in
which the motorist blows into a device that analyses the alcohol content of his or her breath
and provides an estimate of the approximate blood alcohol level. For regular motorists, many
authorities consider that a 0.50 gramme of alcohol per litre of blood concentration is a
reasonable restriction, but that zero levels should be required for key operators, such as drivers
of public transportation buses.
Road safety may also be included into the design of the road. Divided highways are much safer
than two-way roads by a factor of several hundred. The installation of "soft" signs and light
poles, as well as guardrails and impact attenuators in front of permanent roadside structures
such as piers and the snout of highway exit ramps, may help to decrease the severity of a crash.
Driving conditions are improved and road safety is increased when road surfaces, alignments,
signage, and marking are improved.
Although this is true, around 90% of all accidents are caused mostly by human mistake.
Inattention or inability to recognise warnings has been blamed for several accidents. When it
comes to driver behaviour changes, alcohol, exhaustion, inexperience, hostility, and excessive
risk-taking are the most prevalent causes of crashes involving behavioural changes. Because
most drivers do not need extensive training, they instead depend on their knowledge and
expertise to get them through their journey. Road engineers, on the other hand, must design
road systems that seek to decrease the frequency and severity of human mistake.

Effective maintenance Regimes

The term "pavement maintenance" may refer to a variety of tasks ranging from basic cleaning
and restriping to the repair of serious distresses such as potholes and washouts on a roadway.
Depending on whether the focus is on correcting distresses or preventing them from occurring
in the first place, multiple techniques of maintenance may be used to accomplish this. Our
focus in this issue of the Road Ready newsletter is on the fundamental notion of pavement
care, as well the many sorts of operations that fall under this category.
One aim that all pavement repair efforts have is the desire to prolong the life of the pavement.
Over time, pavements are being constructed to have longer service lives, and longer-lasting
pavements provide more opportunities for maintenance during their service lifetimes. Long-
term pavements must demonstrate that they are less expensive than conventional alternatives
when both the original construction cost and continuing maintenance costs are taken into
consideration throughout the pavement's useful life are considered. Keeping pavement
maintenance costs as low as possible is beneficial to the effectiveness and feasibility of the
design in this method.. That does not necessarily imply that maintenance should be performed
less often, but it does imply that the maintenance operations must be as cost-efficient as
possible.
It is critical to consider the selection and scheduling of maintenance operations when
attempting to achieve cost-effective maintenance over time. Using the appropriate
maintenance therapy at the appropriate time can assist you in obtaining the most possible
benefit. This is dependent in part on the state of the pavement and the stage of its life cycle at
which it is.
In the majority of cases, the state of a pavement over time may be represented by a curve
similar to the one illustrated in the illustration above. The more the pavement's state
deteriorates, the more costly the treatment needed to restore it to excellent condition
becomes. As a result, you want to apply a suitable treatment in the appropriate general region
on this curve as soon as possible. While a relatively inexpensive preventive maintenance
treatment applied earlier in the pavement's life cycle may only result in a slight improvement in
the condition of the pavement, it can make a significant difference when considering that it can
postpone or avoid the need for a much more expensive treatment later on. This method is
frequently used to estimate these curves and recommend when maintenance treatments
should be applied.

Categories of Pavement Maintenance

There are various types of pavement maintenance activities, and the notion is often addressed
in conjunction with other issues, such as pavement preservation, rehabilitation, and rebuilding,
as well as with other related topics. It is beneficial to have an understanding of how these
phrases are typically employed in order to better comprehend pavement care; otherwise, they
may seem overlapping and confusing. The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) uses the
following definitions in its publications (FHWA).

Pavement preservation: The implementation of a network-level, long-term plan to improve

pavement performance via the adoption of an integrated, cost-effective set of practises that
prolong pavement life, increase safety, and satisfy the expectations of road users

Pavement rehabilitation: Construction of structural improvements to an existing pavement in

order to prolong its service life and/or increase its load-carrying capability.

Pavement reconstruction: The replacement of the complete old pavement structure with the
installation of a new pavement structure that is equal to or greater in size.
It is common to differentiate between pavement maintenance and pavement rehabilitation
since maintenance treatments do not have a substantial impact on the structural or load-
carrying capability of the pavement. Maintenance that is done to prevent pavement damage is
one of the most important components of a pavement preservation programme, although
other forms of maintenance are not always regarded to be part of pavement preservation. Here
are some of the definitions that the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) uses for various
kinds of maintenance.

Preventive maintenance: Planning a coordinated programme of cost-effective treatments to be

applied to an existing highway system and its appurtenances in order to conserve the system,
delay future degradation, and maintain or enhance functional condition of the system (without
significantly increasing the structural capacity).

Corrective maintenance: Activities carried out in response to the development of a deficit or a

series of inadequacies that have a negative influence on the safe and efficient operation of the
facility as well as the long-term integrity of the pavement section.

Routine maintenance: Routine maintenance and preservation work is work that is planned and
carried out on a regular basis to maintain and preserve the state of the system or to react to
particular situations and occurrences in order to return the system to an appropriate level of
service.

Improving the efficiency of highway:

In an ideal world, pavement care would be mostly preventative, resulting in roads that are
constantly in excellent condition with no distresses present. With the aid of a well-executed
maintenance programme in combination with a pavement management system, this may be
accomplished in a cost-efficient manner. At the same time, it's a good idea to make sure you
have the resources to perform repairs when they become essential. In this way, you will be
better prepared to react to unexpected changes while still maintaining the structural integrity
of the system. You may argue that a comprehensive pavement management strategy should
include both prevention and repair, rather than simply one or the other.
Direct control, conventional construct only, design and construct, design, construct and
maintain, build own operate, and alliance contracts are all methods of contracting for
pavement construction in Australia and New Zealand. Direct control contracts are the most
common type of contract used in Australia and New Zealand for pavement construction. The
kind of contract that is employed for any specific project is often determined by a number of
factors, including authority practise, project size, project risk, resource availability, delivery
schedule, and funding. Significant differences exist between the types of contracts used by the
road authority and the construction companies when it comes to the separation of obligations
and risk distribution between the two parties (Austroad, 2009).
This research included a review of more than 20 national and subnational road infrastructure
delivery systems throughout the globe, with the goal of identifying fundamental causes and
improvement approaches. Our diagnostic for the whole infrastructure delivery system was
created in conjunction with prominent industry experts and covers five major areas:

 Fact-based project selection

 Streamlined project delivery

 Making the most of existing road networks

 Strong governance

 Robust funding and finance

These areas were further broken down into 30 categories and 80 sub-categories, each
representing a globally leading practice, and connected to a database of over 500 examples of
best practices found across the world (Garemo, 2019).