Contents

1) Basic Electrical
2) Basic Electronics
3) EV Basics
4) EV Components
5) Batterypack Configuration
6) EV Dynamics
7) Battery Sizing and Calculations
8) Types of Motors used in an EV
9) Motor controller
10) DC-DC Converter
11) Charging Infrastructure of an EV
12) Battery Management System
13) EV Thermal Management
14) EV Systems and Subsystems
15) E-Rickshaw Wiring
 Basic Electrical

1) Current – It is the flow of electrons.

2) Voltage - Voltage, also known as electric pressure, electric

tension, or (electric) potential difference, is the
difference in electric potential between two points.

3) Resistance - The electrical resistance of an electrical

conductor is the opposition to the passage of an electric
current through that conductor.
Basic Electrical
 Basic Electrical

1) Alternating Current (A.C) - An alternating current can

be defined as a current that changes its magnitude and
polarity at regular intervals of time
 Basic Electrical

2) Direct Current (D.C) - A flow of electricity that goes

in one direction only
Difference Between AC and DC?

AC DC
1) In Ac current, electric charge 1) In DC current, electric charge flow
changes its direction periodically. only in one direction.
2) Ac current can travel safely at 2) DC current can not transfer at
longer distance. longer distance because of very
large energy loss.
3) The generating frequency is 50 hz 3) The frequency of dc current is
to 60 hz in ac current. zero.
4) The magnitude of current varying 4) The magnitude of current is
with time. constant.
5) The source of availability is 5) The source of availability is
generator or mains. battery or cell.
6) Applications: Home appliances, 6) Applications: Electric Vehicles,
Industrial Machines Solar Stations
 Question?

Why Battery cannot store AC?

Basic Electrical
Basic Electrical
How to use Multimeter?
 Basic Electronics

1) Diode – It allows current only in one direction.

Symbol –

Real Image-
Forward and Reverse Bias
 Basic Electronics

2) Capacitor - A capacitor is an electronic device

that stores electrical energy in an electric field by
accumulating electric charges on two closely spaced
surfaces that are insulated from each other.

Symbol –

Real Image -
 Basic Electronics

3) Resistor - The main purpose of a resistor is to control or

reduce the amount of current in a circuit.

Symbol –

Real Image -
 Basic Electronics

4) Inductor - An inductor is a passive component that is

used in most power electronic circuits to store energy in
the form of magnetic energy when electricity is applied to
it.

Symbol –

Real Image -
 Basic Electronics

5) Transistor - Transistors have the function of switching,

amplifying and controlling electrical signals.

Symbol –

Real Image -
 Basic Electronics

6) MOSFET (Metal Oxide semiconductor Field Effect

Transistor) - The MOSFET is the most common type of
transistor today. Their primary use is to control conductivity, or
how much electricity can flow, between its source and drain
terminals based on the amount of voltage applied to its gate
terminal.

Symbol –

Real Image -
 Basic Electronics

7) IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) - IGBTs are

widely used as switching devices in the inverter circuit (for
DC-to-AC conversion) for driving small to large motors.

Symbol –

Real Image -
Rectifier Working
Inverter Working
 Voltage Drop Test

V1 – Battery positive to Battery Negative

V2 – Load Positive to Load Negative
V3 – Load Negative to Battery Negative
V4 – Load Positive to Battery Positive

 V2+V3+V4 should be almost equal to V1 (otherwise your

reading is faulty)
 V3 and V4 should be as low as possible
 0.5 volt drop is acceptable in a circuit
Voltage Drop Test
Voltage Drop Test
 Relay

Function - A simple relay is used for switching a large

current on or off via the use of a low voltage circuit.
The relay permits a small amount of electrical current to
control high current loads. When voltage is supplied to
the coil, small current passes through the coil, resulting in
a larger amount of current passing through the contacts to
control the electrical load.
Working of Relay
Relay
 Testing of Relay

1) Check continuity of switch terminals when relay is not

connected to supply, It should show you infinite value.
2) Check resistance of coil
i) Set multimeter to Resistance measurement mode
ii) Connect multimeter probes to coil terminals
iii) It should show resistance value in between 50 ohms to
200 ohms
iv) If it will not show value in this range then relay is not
working correctly
3) Connect coil terminals to 5v or 12v (depends on relay
voltage rating) and check continuity of switch terminals, it
should generate beep sound while testing
 Testing of Diode

1) Set multimeter to Diode test mode

2) Connect red probe to Anode and black probe to Cathode, it
should show you value in range of 0.5 to o.8v for Silicon Diodes
and if it is Germanium diode then it show 0.2 to 0.3
3) Now reverse the test probes, it should show OL on display
4) If we test diode in forward bias mode and it shows OL on
display then that diode is not working correctly
5) If the multimeter shows same value for diode in forward bias
as well as in reverse bias then that diode is shorted(approx.
value of 0.4 in both directions)
Solenoid Valve
 Testing Of Solenoid Valve

1) Set Multimeter to Resistance Measurement mode

2) Connect red probe to one end of coil and connect black
probe another end of coil, it should show some value
(Resistance of solenoid coil is varying depends on
manufacturer)
3) If it not shows the value while checking resistance then
there is a problem in coil
4) Connect Coil to Supply and put one screw driver near to
coil, if armature attracts the screw driver then that
solenoid is working correctly but if it not attracts the
screw driver then there is a problem in coil.
 Soldering

1) Soldering is a process used for joining metal parts to form a

mechanical or electrical bond. It typically uses a low
melting point metal alloy (solder) which is melted and
applied to the metal parts to be joined and this bonds to
the metal parts and forms a connection when the solder
solidifies.
2) Equipment and materials required for Soldering : Soldering
Gun, Soldering Metal, Flux/Solder paste and Wire Cutter.
3) Soldering wick or metal is made up of copper wire and that
wire is coated with flux.
 Soldering

1) Soldering Gun –

2) Soldering Metal -
 Soldering

3) Solder Paste -
Soldering
Soldering
 Logic Gates

A logic gate is a device that acts as a building block for

digital circuits. They perform basic logical functions that
are fundamental to digital circuits. Most electronic
devices we use today will have some form of logic gates
in them. For example, logic gates can be used in
technologies such as smartphones, tablets. The
relationship between the i/p and the o/p is based on a
certain logic. These gates are implemented using
electronic switches like transistors, diodes.
Simple Example
 Logic gates

1) OR Gate - The OR gate outputs "true" if any of its

inputs are "true"; otherwise it outputs "false". The
input and output states are normally represented by
different voltage levels.
Simple Example of OR Gate
 Logic Gates

2) AND gate behaves according to the truth table. A HIGH

output (1) results only if all the inputs to the AND gate are
HIGH (1). If not all inputs to the AND gate are HIGH, LOW
output results.
Simple Example of AND Gate
 Logic Gates

3) NOT Gate - NOT gate is logic gate that gives a negative

mathematical output. Hence it is also called an Inverter.
That means it gives 0 when input is 1 and 1 when the
input is 0. NOT gate is a single window system wherein we
have a single input and output system.
 Logic Gates

4) The NOR gate is a digital logic gate that implements

logical NOR - it behaves according to the truth table to the
right. A HIGH output (1) results if both the inputs to the
gate are LOW (0); if one or both input is HIGH (1), a LOW
output (0) results.
 Logic Gates

5) NAND Gate - NAND is an abbreviation for “NOT AND.” A

two-input NAND gate is a digital combination logic circuit
that performs the logical inverse of an AND gate. While an
AND gate outputs a logical “1” only if both inputs are
logical “1,” a NAND gate outputs a logical “0” for this same
combination of inputs.
Simple Series Connection

+
+
-
- +

-
- +
 Simple Series Connection

1) Connect Negative terminal of 1st bulb to positive terminal of 2nd

bulb and connect negative terminal of 2nd bulb to positive terminal
of 3rd bulb.
2) Connect negative terminal of battery directly to negative terminal
of 3rd bulb negative.
3) Connect positive terminal of battery to input of switch and
connect output of switch to positive terminal of 1st bulb.
4) Now, Turn on the switch to observe voltage and current readings
5) If there is 12V supply available at battery terminals then each bulb
will get 4v supply from battery(Because there are 3 bulbs), So we
can say that voltage is divided in series connection.
 Simple Series Connection

6) Current will not be divided and it will be same throughout

the circuit.
7) Measure the voltage and current value by using
Multimeter or Clampmeter.
8) Calculate the resistance of circuit by using ohm’s law.
V = I*R
Where,
V – Voltage
I – Current
R - Resistance
Simple Parallel Connection

+ + + +

- - - -
 Simple Parallel Connection

1) Connect positive terminal of all three bulbs with each other

and connect negative terminals of all three bulbs with each
other.
2) Connect negative terminal’s junction to Battery negative.
3) Connect positive terminal of battery to switch input and
connect switch output to junction of positive terminal of bulbs.
4) Turn on switch to observe brightness of bulbs, as compared to
series connection bulb will glow more in parallel connection if
we use same battery for both connection.
5) In parallel connection, Volatge is same for all bulbs and current
is divided to 3 bulbs.
 Simple Parallel Connection

6) For example, if there is 12v battery connected to 3 bulbs in

parallel then all bulbs will get 12v, but if input current is 6amps then
each bulb will get 2 amps in parallel circuit.
7) Measure the voltage and current value by using Multimeter or
Clampmeter.
8) Calculate the resistance of circuit by using ohm’s law.
V = I*R
Where,
V – Voltage
I – Current
R - Resistance
Construct circuit to read Temperature
Sensor

1) LM35 is a temperature sensor that outputs an analog

signal which is proportional to the instantaneous
temperature. The output voltage can easily be
interpreted to obtain a temperature reading
in Celsius. The advantage of lm35 over
thermistor is it does not require any
external calibration.
Construct circuit to read Temperature
Sensor

 Lm35 output voltage is proportional to

centigrade/Celsius temperature. Lm35
Celsius/centigrade resolution is 10 mills volt. 10 mills
volt represent one degree centigrade/Celsius. So if
Lm35 outputs 100 mills volts the equivalent
temperature in centigrade/Celsius will be 100/10 = 10
centigrade/Celsius.
LCD Display
LM35 Temperature Sensor
 Fuse

 Fuse - A fuse is a safety device in an electric plug or

circuit. It contains a piece of wire which melts when
there is a fault so that the flow of electricity stops.
 Selection of Fuse for Circuit

 How to select fuse?

 Selecting the correct fuse for a circuit is crucial to protect the
components and prevent electrical fires caused by
overcurrent situations. Here are the steps to guide you
through the process:
 1. Determine the Circuit's Normal Current:
 Find out the normal operating current of the circuit. This
information is often available in the equipment's
specifications or can be measured using a multimeter in
series with the circuit.
 Selection of Fuse for Circuit

 2. Consider Inrush Current:

 In some devices, especially those with motors or other high
inrush current components, the initial current surge when
the device is turned on may be higher than the steady-state
current. Take this into account when selecting a fuse.
 3. Choose a Fuse Rating:
 Fuses are rated in amperes (A), and the selected fuse rating
should be slightly higher than the normal operating current
of the circuit to allow for minor fluctuations. A general rule
of thumb is to use a fuse with a rating approximately 125% of
the circuit's normal current.
 Selection of Fuse for Circuit

 4. Consider Circuit Protection Type:

 Choose the appropriate type of fuse for the circuit. Common fuse types
include fast-acting, slow-blow, and time-delay fuses. The type of
protection needed depends on the characteristics of the circuit and the
devices it powers.
• Fast-Acting: Responds quickly to overcurrent conditions, suitable for
circuits with sensitive components.
• Slow-Blow (Time-Delay): Can handle temporary overloads without
blowing, suitable for circuits with devices that have high inrush currents.
 5. Check Voltage Rating:
 Ensure that the fuse voltage rating is equal to or greater than the circuit's
voltage. Using a fuse with a lower voltage rating may lead to arcing and
increased fire risk.
 Selection of Fuse for Circuit

 6. Consider Environmental Conditions:

 If the circuit is exposed to harsh environmental conditions such as
high temperatures, humidity, or vibration, choose a fuse that is
designed to withstand these conditions.
 7. Check Physical Size and Mounting:
 Ensure that the selected fuse physically fits into the available space
and is compatible with the circuit board or fuse holder.
 Selection of Fuse for Circuit

 8. Follow Manufacturer Guidelines:

 Always refer to the equipment or device manufacturer's
guidelines and specifications for fuse selection. The
manufacturer may provide specific recommendations to
ensure proper circuit protection.
 9. Double-Check and Test:
 Before finalizing your selection, double-check all
specifications and, if possible, test the chosen fuse in a
controlled environment to ensure it performs as expected.
 Interlock loops in vehicle

 An interlock loop in a vehicle refers to a system of safety measures

designed to prevent certain operations or functions from occurring
unless specific conditions are met. The purpose of interlock loops is
to enhance safety by ensuring that critical conditions are satisfied
before allowing particular actions, thereby reducing the risk of
accidents, injuries, or damage.
 Interlock loops in vehicle

1. Seat Belt Interlock:

1. A classic example is the seat belt interlock system, which
prevents the vehicle from starting unless the driver and
sometimes passengers have fastened their seat belts. This
encourages occupants to use seat belts, promoting safety.
2. Brake Interlock:
1. Some vehicles have an interlock system tied to the brake
pedal. For instance, you may need to depress the brake pedal
to shift the vehicle out of "Park." This ensures that the driver
has their foot on the brake before the vehicle can be put into
gear.
 Interlock loops in vehicle

3) Clutch Interlock (Manual Transmission):

1. In vehicles with manual transmissions, an interlock may
require the driver to depress the clutch pedal before starting
the engine. This prevents the vehicle from lurching forward
when started.
4) Ignition Interlock (Alcohol Interlock):
1. Some vehicles, particularly those owned by individuals with a
history of alcohol-related offenses, may be equipped with
ignition interlock devices. These require the driver to pass a
breathalyzer test before starting the vehicle, ensuring they are
not under the influence of alcohol.
 Interlock loops in vehicle

5) Automatic Transmission Interlock:

1. In automatic transmissions, there may be interlocks to
prevent shifting into certain gears (like reverse) without
engaging specific conditions, such as pressing the brake
pedal.
6) Door Interlock:
1. Modern vehicles often have interlocks related to the
doors. For example, some vehicles won't allow the
engine to start if the driver's door is ajar.
 NPN and PNP Transistors for it’s
Functionality

1) Connect MOSFET to simple circuit

 NPN and PNP Transistors for it’s
Functionality

2) Connect Source terminal of MOSFET to negative terminal

of battery.
3) Connect Drain terminal of MOSFET to negative terminal of
load.
4) Connect positive terminal of battery to positive terminal of
load.
5)Connect Gate terminal to small voltage from MCU (
depends on datasheet of MOSFET ).
6) Now it should turn on the circuit and after that remove the
supply of Gate terminal by using MCU, now it should turn off
the circuit.
Difference between MOSFET and IGBT
 PWM Signals

Pulse width modulation or PWM is a square wave

signals and it is commonly used control technique
that generates analog signals from digital
devices such as microcontrollers.We can control
the output voltage and frequency by providing pwm
signals to MOSFETs and IGBTs.We can do it by
changing on/off duration of this semiconductor
switches or we can say by changing duty cycle.
Duty Cycle = Ton/(Ton+Toff)
Output Voltage = Input Voltage*Duty Cycle
PWM
PWM (From 13 to 14.40)
 PWM Generator

LED Brightness Control by using PWM

GND

Arduino
Board

PWM1
Wire Diameter Measurement
Wire Diameter Measurement
Formula to Calculate wire Diameter

Diameter = Main Scale Reading + ( Rotating

Scale Reading * Least Count)
Wire Diameter Measurement
Current Carrying Capacity Table
Current Carrying Capacity Table
 Brazing

 Brazing is a metal-joining process in which two or more metals are

joined together by melting and flowing a filler metal into the joint.
Unlike welding, the base metals being joined do not melt during
the brazing process. Instead, the filler metal, often called the
brazing alloy or brazing rod, has a lower melting point than the
base metals.
 Here are the key steps involved in the brazing process:
 Surface Preparation:
The surfaces of the metals to be joined must be clean and free from
oxides, grease, or other contaminants. This is typically done by
cleaning the surfaces through methods such as brushing, grinding, or
chemical cleaning.
 Brazing

 Application of Flux:
A flux is often applied to the surfaces of the metals to be brazed. Flux
helps prevent the formation of oxides during the heating process
and promotes the wetting of the filler metal on the base metals.
 Assembly:
The metals to be joined are assembled into the desired
configuration. The brazing alloy is usually placed at the joint
interface.
 Heating:
The assembly is heated to a temperature above the melting point of
the brazing alloy but below the melting points of the base metals.
This temperature is often in the range of 450°C to 900°C (842°F to
1652°F).
 Brazing

 Capillary Action:
As the filler metal melts, it is drawn into the joint by capillary
action. The molten filler metal wets the surfaces of the base
metals and forms a strong bond as it solidifies.
(When you bring two pieces of metal together, these
imperfections and irregularities create channels along which a
liquid can move. In brazing, that liquid is a molten filler metal,
and the force that pulls it through the microscopic "pores" is
something called capillary action.)
 Cooling:
The assembly is allowed to cool, and the brazed joint solidifies,
creating a strong and durable bond between the metals.
 Advantages of Brazing

• Joining Dissimilar Metals: Brazing allows the joining of

dissimilar metals with different melting points, expanding the
range of materials that can be joined.
• Minimal Thermal Distortion: Since the base metals do not
melt, there is minimal thermal distortion or warping.
• High Joint Strength: The brazed joint is often strong and can
provide good mechanical and thermal properties.
• Versatility: Brazing can be used in various applications,
including the assembly of heat exchangers, plumbing
components, and electrical connectors.
Brazing
 Lux Meter

 Lighting professionals use a light meter (also called an

illuminance meter or lux meter) to measure the amount
of light in a space/on a particular work surface. The light
meter has a sensor that measures the light falling on it
and provides the user with a measurable illuminance
reading.
 Units– Lumen/ square meter ( lm/m^2), Foot-Candle(FC)
 1 Lux is equal to 1 lumen per square meter
 1 Foot candle is equal to 10.764 Lux
Lux Meter
How to use Lux Meter
 Use of Lux Meter in Vehicles

➢ External Lights:
▪ Headlights:
1. Low-beam headlights: Typically designed to provide sufficient
illumination for driving in urban areas with street lighting. Illuminance
values may vary, but they often range from 320 to 700 lux on the road
surface.
2. High-beam headlights: Designed for use in rural or unlit areas.
Illuminance values can range from 800 to 1,000 lux or more on the road.
▪ Brake Lights:
1. Brake lights are not typically specified in terms of illuminance, but they
need to be bright enough to quickly alert following drivers. Compliance
with regulations, such as FMVSS (Federal Motor Vehicle Safety
Standards) in the United States, ensures appropriate brake light
brightness.
 Use of Lux Meter in Vehicles

▪ Turn Signals:
1. Turn signal illuminance is not usually specified in lux but needs to be
bright enough to be visible to other drivers from various angles.
➢ Internal Lights:
▪ Interior Lighting:
1. Illuminance levels for interior lighting in cars can vary based on user
preference and design considerations. However, a common guideline is
to aim for illuminance levels between 100 to 300 lux for general interior
lighting.
▪ Dashboard Lighting:
1. Illuminance levels for dashboard lighting should be sufficient for
readability without causing glare. Values may range from 30 to 100 lux.
 What is an Electric Vehicle?

An EV is defined as a vehicle that can be powered by

an electric motor that draws electricity from a battery
and is capable of being charged from an external
source.
IC Engine Vehicle vs Electric vehicle
IC Engine vehicle vs Electric Vehicle
IC Engine vehicle vs Electric Vehicle
Performance of EV vs ICE Vehicles

 Acceleration and Torque:

• EVs are known for delivering instant torque from the
electric motor, resulting in quick acceleration. This
characteristic often makes electric vehicles feel
responsive and agile, especially at lower speeds.
• Traditional ICE vehicles typically require the engine to
rev up before reaching peak torque, leading to a
different acceleration feel.
Performance of EV vs ICE Vehicles

 Top Speed:
• In terms of top speed, both EVs and ICE vehicles can
achieve high speeds, but the specific performance
depends on the individual model and design choices
made by manufacturers.
Performance of EV vs ICE Vehicles

 Range:
• Range refers to how far a vehicle can travel on a single
charge or tank of fuel. In general, the range of EVs has
been improving over time due to advancements in
battery technology.
• ICE vehicles can typically cover longer distances on a full
tank of fuel, but this depends on factors like fuel
efficiency and the vehicle's fuel tank capacity.
Performance of EV vs ICE Vehicles

 Maintenance:
• EVs generally have fewer moving parts than ICE
vehicles, leading to lower maintenance requirements.
There are no oil changes for electric vehicles, and brake
wear is often reduced due to regenerative braking
systems.
• Traditional ICE vehicles require regular maintenance
tasks such as oil changes, transmission fluid
replacements, and more.
Performance of EV vs ICE Vehicles

 Noise and Vibration:

• EVs are known for their quiet operation since electric
motors produce less noise and vibration compared to
internal combustion engines.
• ICE vehicles, especially those with powerful engines,
can be noisier during operation.
Performance of EV vs ICE Vehicles

 Environmental Impact:
• EVs produce zero tailpipe emissions during operation,
contributing to lower air pollution and reduced
greenhouse gas emissions.
• ICE vehicles emit pollutants, including carbon dioxide
and other pollutants, during combustion.
Performance of EV vs ICE Vehicles

 Energy Efficiency:
• EVs are generally more energy-efficient than traditional
ICE vehicles. Electric motors can convert a higher
percentage of electrical energy from the grid to power
at the wheels, whereas internal combustion engines are
less efficient due to factors like heat loss.
• The efficiency of an ICE vehicle can vary depending on
factors such as driving conditions, engine type, and fuel
quality.
Gauges/Instruments on dashboard of
an EV and ICE Vehicles

 Electric Vehicle Dashboard:

1. Battery State of Charge (SOC): Indicates the current level of
charge in the electric vehicle's battery.
2. Range Estimation: Displays an estimate of how far the
vehicle can travel based on the current battery charge.
3. Energy Consumption/Regeneration: Shows real-time energy
consumption or regeneration, indicating how efficiently the
vehicle is using or recovering energy.
4. Electric Motor RPM: Displays the revolutions per minute
(RPM) of the electric motor.
Gauges/Instruments on dashboard of
an EV and ICE Vehicles

5) Charging Status: Provides information about the ongoing

charging process, including charging rate and time remaining.
6) Power Output: Indicates the power output of the electric
motor, measured in kilowatts.
7) Drive Mode Selector: Allows the driver to switch between
different driving modes, such as Eco, Normal, or Sport, affecting
performance and energy consumption.
8) Temperature Gauges: Monitors the temperature of key
components like the battery and electric motor.
9) Efficiency Metrics: Some EVs may display efficiency metrics,
showing how efficiently energy is being used during driving.
Gauges/Instruments on dashboard of
an EV and ICE Vehicles

 Internal Combustion Engine Vehicle Dashboard:

1. Tachometer: Displays the engine RPM, indicating how fast the
engine is running.
2. Speedometer: Shows the current speed of the vehicle.
3. Fuel Gauge: Indicates the level of fuel in the vehicle's fuel tank.
4. Temperature Gauge: Monitors the engine coolant temperature.
5. Odometer: Displays the total distance the vehicle has traveled.
6. Oil Pressure Gauge: Monitors the oil pressure within the engine.
Gauges/Instruments on dashboard of
an EV and ICE Vehicles

7) Engine Temperature Warning Light: Illuminates if the engine

temperature exceeds a safe limit.
8) Check Engine Light: Alerts the driver to potential issues with the
engine or other crucial components.
9) Transmission Gear Indicator: Shows the current gear in automatic
transmissions.
10) Battery Charging System Indicator: Warns of potential issues with the
vehicle's charging system.
11) Various Warning Lights: Modern IC engine vehicles have multiple
warning lights for various systems such as ABS, airbags, and more.
 Electric Vehicles

BEV – Tata Tigor, Tata Nexon, Tata Tiago

HEV – Toyota Camry, Toyota Prius, Honda Accord, BMW 7

Series

PHEV – BMW 530e,Mercedes Benz GLC 350e,Toyota Prius

Prime

FCEV – Hyundai Nexo, BMW IX5 Hydrogen, Audi e-tron GT

Current Adoption Status Of an EVs

 Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV):

• BEVs have been gaining popularity worldwide due to
advancements in battery technology, increasing
environmental awareness, and government incentives.
• Automakers have been investing heavily in BEV
development, and several new models have been introduced
to the market.
• Countries like Norway, China, and some European nations
have seen significant BEV adoption due to supportive policies
and infrastructure development.
Current Adoption Status Of an EVs

 Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV):

• HEVs, which combine an internal combustion engine
with an electric motor, have been on the market for
several years.
• They are well-established and widely adopted,
especially in regions where consumers are looking for
fuel efficiency without relying solely on charging
infrastructure.
Current Adoption Status Of an EVs

 Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV):

• PHEVs offer both electric-only and hybrid driving
modes. They are popular among consumers who want
the flexibility of electric driving for short trips and the
extended range of a combustion engine for longer
journeys.
• Many automakers have introduced PHEV models to
their lineups, catering to a broader range of consumer
preferences.
Current Adoption Status Of an EVs

 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEV):

• FCEVs use hydrogen fuel cells to generate electricity for the
vehicle's electric motor. They emit only water vapor as a
byproduct.
• FCEVs are less common than other types of electric vehicles,
and their adoption is influenced by the availability of
hydrogen infrastructure.
• Countries like Japan and South Korea have been investing in
hydrogen infrastructure to support FCEV adoption.
Battery Electric Vehicle
 Battery Electric Vehicle

Main Components –
1) Battery Pack
2) Electric motor
3) Motor Controller
4) DC-DC Converter
5) Charger
6) Battery Management System(BMS)
 Components of an EV

Battery: Stores and provides electrical energy.

Controller: Regulates power flow between the battery and motor.

Motor: Converts electrical energy into mechanical energy for propulsion.

DC-DC Converter: Converts high-voltage DC power from the battery for use by
low-voltage systems.

Charger: Charges the battery by converting AC power from an external source to

DC.

BMS (Battery Management System): Monitors and manages the health, safety,
and performance of the battery by cell balancing and Thermal Management.
 Battery

 Types of Batteries
1) Lead Acid
2) Lithium Ion
3) Nickel cadmium
4) Lithium polymer
5) Sodium Ion
 C Rating of Battery

The battery C Rating is the measurement of current in

which a battery is charged and discharged at. The capacity
of a battery is generally rated and labelled at the 1C Rate
(1C current), this means a fully charged battery with a
capacity of 10Ah should be able to provide 10 Amps for
one hour.
C Rating of Battery
 Energy Density

Battery energy density is the amount of energy a battery

contains compared to its weight or size. We call this the
specific energy density when comparing to weight and
volumetric energy density when comparing size.
The energy density of a battery can be simply calculated
using this formula: Nominal Battery Voltage (V) x Rated
Battery Capacity (Ah) / Battery Weight (kg) = Specific
Energy or Energy Density (Wh / kg).
Energy Density
 Lead Acid Battery

The lead–acid battery is a type of rechargeable battery first

invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Planté. It is the first
type of rechargeable battery ever created. Compared to modern
rechargeable batteries, lead–acid batteries have relatively
low energy density. Despite this, they are able to supply
high surge currents. These features, along with their low cost,
make them attractive for use in motor vehicles to provide the
high current required by starter motors.Lead–acid batteries
suffer from relatively short cycle lifespan (usually less than 500
deep cycles) and overall lifespan (due to the "double sulfation"
in the discharged state), as well as slow or long charging time.
Lead Acid Battery working
 Lithium Ion battery

Lithium-ion is the most popular rechargeable

battery chemistry used today. Lithium-ion
batteries power the devices we use every
day,
like our mobile phones and electric
vehicles. Lithium-ion batteries consist
of single or multiple lithium-ion cells, along with a
protective circuit board.
Lithium Ion Battery Working
Types of cells
Types of cells
Types of cells
Series Configuration
Parallel Configuration
Series Parallel Combined
Configuration
 Battery Pack Configuration

1) nPmS Method
2) nSmP Method
Where,
n is total no. of cells,
m is the total no. of modules,
S stands for Series Connection
And
P stands for Parallel Connection
 Battery Pack Configuration

Total no. of cells required = n*m

Where,
n is total no. of cells in series or parallel
and
m is total no. of modules in parallel or series
BatteryPack Configuration
BatteryPack Configuration
BatteryPack Configuration
 Identify and interpret electrical
system concern

1) Initial Inspection:
 Safety First: Ensure that safety precautions are taken. Use
appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) and
work in accordance with safety regulations.
 Visual Inspection: Examine the electrical system for any
visible signs of damage, loose connections, or burnt
components.
 Documentation Review: Refer to electrical diagrams,
manuals, or any available documentation related to the
system to understand its configuration and expected
behavior.
 Identify and interpret electrical
system concern

2. System Testing:
 Power Supply Check: Verify that the system is receiving
the correct power supply. Check voltage levels and ensure
they match the specifications.
 Circuit Continuity: Use a multimeter to check for continuity
in circuits. Identify and fix any open or short circuits.
 Resistance Measurements: Measure resistance across
components to identify any faulty or damaged elements.
 Load Testing: Test the system under normal load
conditions to identify issues related to excess load or
insufficient power.
 Identify and interpret electrical
system concern

3. Functional Testing:
 Component Functionality: Test individual components to
ensure they are functioning correctly. Replace or repair
malfunctioning components.
 Control Signals: Check control signals and feedback loops
to ensure proper communication between different
components.
4. Isolation Testing:
 Isolate Sections: Divide the system into sections and test
each section independently. This helps identify specific
areas of concern.
 Vehicle safety systems’ including
disconnects; interlock loops

 Vehicle Safety Systems:

• Airbags: Deploy upon collision impact to cushion and protect
occupants.
• Antilock Braking System (ABS): Prevents wheel lock-up during
braking, maintaining steering control.
• Electronic Stability Control (ESC): Helps prevent skidding and loss
of control.
• Traction Control System (TCS): Regulates wheel spin during
acceleration to maintain traction.
• Collision Avoidance Systems: Include features like lane departure
warning, forward collision warning, and automatic emergency
braking.
 Vehicle safety systems’ including
disconnects; interlock loops

 Disconnects:
• Battery Disconnect: In the event of a crash, disconnecting
the vehicle's battery can reduce the risk of a fire.
• Fuel Pump Disconnect: Disabling the fuel pump prevents
fuel leakage and reduces fire hazards after a collision.
• Electrical Disconnects: Disconnecting power to various
electrical systems can prevent short circuits and electrical
fires.
 Vehicle safety systems’ including
disconnects; interlock loops

 Interlock Loops:
• Seat Belt Interlock: Prevents the vehicle from starting
unless seat belts are fastened.
• Ignition Interlock: Requires the driver to perform a
specific action (e.g., blowing into a breathalyzer) before
starting the vehicle, promoting responsible driving.
• Brake-Transmission Shift Interlock (BTSI): Ensures the
vehicle cannot be shifted out of "Park" unless the brake
pedal is depressed, preventing unintended movement.
 Vehicle safety systems’ including
disconnects; interlock loops

 Ignition interlock system:

▪ This system prevents the vehicle from starting unless certain
conditions are met, such as the driver wearing a seatbelt or
engaging the clutch. It ensures that essential safety measures
are in place before the vehicle is set in motion.
 Transmission interlock:
▪ In vehicles with automatic transmissions, an interlock
prevents the driver from shifting out of "Park" unless the
brake pedal is depressed. This helps avoid unintended vehicle
movement when the engine is running.
 Vehicle safety systems’ including
disconnects; interlock loops

 Brake interlock:
▪ Some vehicles have interlock systems that require the
brake pedal to be pressed before certain functions can
be performed, such as shifting gears or starting the
engine.
 Seatbelt interlock:
▪ This safety feature prevents the driver or passengers
from disengaging certain vehicle functions (e.g., starting
the engine) unless seatbelts are properly fastened. It
encourages the use of seatbelts for everyone's safety.
 Vehicle safety systems’ including
disconnects; interlock loops

 Airbag interlock:
▪ An interlock system may be in place to prevent certain vehicle
functions if the airbag system detects a fault or if the airbags
have been deployed. This ensures that the vehicle is not
operated under potentially unsafe conditions.
 Speed interlock:
▪ Some vehicles, especially those used in commercial or
industrial settings, may have speed interlock systems. These
systems restrict the vehicle's speed under specific conditions,
promoting safety in certain environments.
 Vehicle safety systems’ including
disconnects; interlock loops

 Child safety lock:

▪ In passenger vehicles, child safety locks on rear doors
are a form of interlock. When engaged, they prevent
the rear doors from being opened from the inside,
providing an additional layer of safety for passengers,
especially children.
 Vehicle safety systems’ including
disconnects; interlock loops

 Collision Sensors and Impact Detection:

• Accelerometers and Gyroscopes: Measure changes in
velocity and rotation, aiding airbag deployment
decisions.
• Crash Sensors: Detect impact force and trigger safety
systems accordingly.
 Vehicle safety systems’ including
disconnects; interlock loops

 Feedback Systems:
• Warning Lights and Sounds: Notify drivers of potential issues
or unsafe conditions.
• Haptic Feedback: Vibrations or steering wheel feedback alert
drivers to lane departure or collision risks.
 Maintenance and Diagnostics:
• Onboard Diagnostics (OBD): Monitors and reports vehicle
health to assist in maintenance.
• Preventive Maintenance Systems: Reminders for regular
check-ups and service.
EV Dynamics
 Rolling Resistance

Rolling resistance refers to the resistance experienced by your

car tyre as it rolls over a surface. The main causes of this
resistance are tyre deformation and friction with the ground.
The higher the rolling resistance is, the more energy to
overcome it is needed.
Frr = Crr*M*g
Where,
Crr – coefficient of rolling resistance
M – Total Mass of Vehicle (Kg)
g – Gravity (9.81 m/s2)
Coefficient of Rolling Resistance

Coefficient of Rolling resistance is function of,

1) Tyre Material
2) Tyre Structure
3) Road Material and roughness
 Typical values of Crr

1) Car tyre on smooth tarmac road- 0.01

2) Car tyre on concrete road- 0.011
3) Car tyre on a rolled gravel road- 0.02
4) Bad earth tracks- 0.16
5) Loose sand- 0.15 to 0.3
6) Truck tyre on concrete-0.006 to 0.01
7) Wheel on iron rail- 0.001 to 0.002
Aerodynamic Drag
 Aerodynamic Drag

Aerodynamic drag force is defined as the force which is faced by the

vehicle as it moves through the air. This drag force depends mainly on
the front area of the vehicle, side mirrors, ducts, and many other
factors. It is also called as a Air Resistance.
Faero = ½*ρ*A*Cd*V2
Where,
ρ – Air density (1.27 Kg/m3)
A – Frontal area of vehicle (m2)
Cd – Coefficient of Drag
V – Vehicle Speed (m/s)
 Coefficient of Drag

When a vehicle moves through an air, then to compute its

resistance, the coefficient used is known as the coefficient of Drag,
denoted by Cd.

 Cars:
• Compact cars: Cd around 0.30-0.35
• Sedans: Cd around 0.25-0.30
• Sports cars: Cd around 0.25-0.35
• Aerodynamic or electric vehicles: Cd as low as 0.20 or even
less
 Coefficient of Drag

 Trucks:
• Heavy-duty trucks: Cd around 0.6-0.8 (higher due to
larger frontal area and less streamlined design)
• Some modern aerodynamic trucks: Cd around 0.5-0.6
 Buses:
• Buses typically have higher Cd values due to their boxy
shapes.
• Cd can range from 0.7 to 1.2, depending on the design.
 Coefficient of Drag

1. Motorcycles (Two-wheelers):
1. Motorcycles vary widely in design, and their Cd values
can range from 0.4 to 0.8.
2. Sport bikes tend to have lower Cd values compared to
cruisers.
2. Three-wheelers (e.g., Tuk-tuks):
1. Cd values for three-wheelers can range from 0.5 to 0.8,
depending on the design.
 Acceleration Force

 The acceleration force refers to the vehicle's resistance

to speed variations. This force holds you back when you
increase your speed and also moves you forward when
you slow down.

 Facc = M*a
Where,
M – Total mass of vehicle
a - Acceleration
 Acceleration Force

a = dv/dt
Where,
dv – Change in velocity
dt – change in time

dv = Final Velocity – Initial velocity

dt = Final time – Initial time
 Gradient Resistance

When the vehicle travels uphill, a component of its weight

works in a direction opposite to its motion. If some energy
is not supplied to overcome this backward force, then the
vehicle would slow down, stall and roll backwards.
 Gradient Resistance

Fgrade = M*g* Sinα

Where,
M- Total mass of vehicle(kg)
G- gravity(9.81 m/s2)
α – Gradient angle in radians

1 degree= π/180 radians

Total Force Calculation

Ftotal = Frr + Faero + Facc + Fgrade

 Torque Calculation

Torque = Total force * Wheel Radius

T = Ftotal * r
 Power calculation

Power = Total Force * Velocity

P = Ftotal * V
 Assignment

Calculate the total power and torque required for electric motor
if given data ,i)Vehicle mass = 400kg
ii)payload 150kg
iii)Max.Speed = 50km/hr
iv) Acceleration = 1.38m/s^2
v) Cd = 1.1
vi) Crr= 0.04
vii) Tire radius = 0.3m
viii) Projected Area = 2m^2
ix) gradient angle = 5 degree
Selection, sizing and characteristic of
Motor

 1. Define Application Requirements:

• Load Type: Understand the type of load the motor will
drive (constant torque, variable torque, or constant
power).
• Duty Cycle: Determine the duty cycle, i.e., the
percentage of time the motor will operate at full load.
• Speed and Torque Requirements: Define the required
speed and torque characteristics for the application.
Selection, sizing and characteristic of
Motor

 2. Calculate Torque and Power Requirements:

 3. Consider Operating Conditions:
• Ambient Conditions: Consider the ambient
temperature and altitude, as these can affect the
motor's performance.
• Duty Cycle and Overload: If the motor will experience
frequent starts and stops, or if it needs to handle
intermittent peak loads, consider the duty cycle and
overload capacity.
Selection, sizing and characteristic of
Motor

 4. Select Motor Type:

• AC vs. DC: Choose between alternating current (AC) and
direct current (DC) motors based on the application
requirements.
• Induction vs. Synchronous (AC): Decide between
induction and synchronous AC motors based on the
need for constant speed or variable speed operation.
Selection, sizing and characteristic of
Motor

 5. Efficiency and Energy Consumption:

• Select a motor with high efficiency to reduce energy
consumption. Energy-efficient motors can lead to long-
term cost savings.
 6. Consider Environmental Factors:
• In applications with harsh environments, select a motor
that is resistant to factors like dust, moisture, and
chemicals.
Selection, sizing and characteristic of
Motor

 7. Size the Motor:

• Use the calculated power and torque requirements to select
a motor that meets or exceeds these specifications.
• Consider the physical dimensions and mounting
requirements to ensure it fits within the available space.
 8. Inrush Current and Starting Torque:
• Consider the inrush current during motor startup and the
starting torque. Some applications may require special
features or soft-start mechanisms.
Selection, sizing and characteristic of
Motor

 9. Voltage and Frequency:

• Ensure the motor is compatible with the available
power supply voltage and frequency.
 10. Review Motor Characteristics:
• Speed-Torque Curve: Examine the motor's speed-
torque characteristics to ensure they align with the
application's requirements.
• Operating Efficiency: Check the motor's efficiency at
various load points.
 Chopper/ DC-DC Converter

 Function – It converts high voltage dc into low voltage dc

 Construction –
 Components
1) MOSFET
2) Diode
3) Inductor
4) Filter Capacitor
5) Gate driver
DC-DC Converter
DC-DC Converter
 What is Dual Diode?

 Dual diodes, as the name suggests, are semiconductor

devices consisting of two diodes connected in a single
package. These diodes are often utilized in various
electronic circuits and applications, offering benefits
such as compact size, improved thermal performance,
and simplified circuit design.
Thank You