UNIT-3

Operational Amplifier

Introduction
An operational amplifier is a direct coupled high gain amplifier usually consisting of one or more
differential amplifier and usually followed by a level translator and an output stage. • An operational amplifier is
available as a single integrated circuit package. • The operational amplifier is a versatile device that can be used to
amplify DC as well as AC input signals and was originally designed for computing such mathematical functions as
addition, subtraction, multiplication and integration. • With the addition of suitable external feedback components,
the modern day op-amp can be used for a variety of applications such as AC and DC signal amplification, active
filters, oscillator, comparators and regulators, and others. It is a linear device. An ideal operational amplifier is
basically a 3-terminal device that consists of two high impedance inputs, one an Inverting input marked with a
negative sign, ("-") and the other a Non-inverting input marked with a positive plus sign ("+").

Operational amplifiers can be connected using external resistors or capacitors in a

number of different ways to form basic "Building Block" circuits such as,
Inverting, Non-Inverting, Voltage Follower, Summing, Differential, Integrator and
Differentiator type amplifiers. There are a very large number of operational
amplifier IC's available to suit every possible application. The most commonly
available and used of all operational amplifiers is the industry standard 741 type
IC.
An operational amplifier only responds to the difference between the voltages at
its two input terminals, known commonly as the "Differential Input Voltage" and
not to their common potential. Then if the same voltage potential is applied to
both terminals the resultant output will be zero.

Block Diagram of Op-amp.

Since an op-amp is a multi-stage amplifier it can be represented by a block diagram as shown in the following
figure. Non-inverting input terminal

Dual Input Dual Input emitter follower complementary &

Balanced output Unbalanced Output with constant current bias Symmetry push-pull amp.
 The input stage generally provides most of the voltage gain of the amplifier and alsoestablishes the input
resistance of the op-amp
 Because of the direct coupling used, the DC voltage at the output of the intermediate stage is well above the
ground potential. Therefore, generally, the level translator circuit is used after the intermediate stage
 The final stage is usually a push-pull complimentary amplifier output stage. The outputstage increases the
output voltage swing and raises the current supplying capability of op-amp. A well designed output stage
also provides low output resistance.

IDEALIZED CHARACTERISTIC :
 Voltage Gain, (A) Infinite - The main function of an operational amplifier is to amplify the input signal and
the more open loop gain it has the better, so for an ideal amplifier the gain will be infinite.
 Input impedance, (Zin) Infinite - Input impedance is assumed to be infinite to prevent any current flowing
from the source supply into the amplifiers input circuitry.
 Output impedance, (Zout) Zero - The output impedance of the ideal operational amplifier is assumed to be
zero so that it can supply as much current as necessary to the load.
 Bandwidth, (BW) Infinite - An ideal operational amplifier has an infinite Frequency Response and can
amplify any frequency signal so it is assumed to have an infinite bandwidth. Any signal can be amplified
without attenuation.
 Offset Voltage, (Vio) Zero - The amplifiers output will be zero when the voltage difference between the
inverting and non-inverting inputs is zero.
 Infinite common mode rejection ratio (CMRR)
 Infinite slew rate so that output voltage changes occur simultaneously with input voltage changes.

Some Important rules, as they help understand the working of the amplifier with regards to analysis and
design of operational amplifier circuits.

1. No current flows into either input terminal (the current rule).This is equivalent to having an infinite input
resistance Ri=∞. In practical terms this implies that the amplifier device will make no power demands on the
input signal source. Have a zero output resistance (Ro=0). This implies that the output voltage is independent of
the load connected to the output.

2. The differential input offset voltage is zero (the voltage rule).

Ip

Vp +
Vo
AVi
Vn

Figure 4. Ideal op-amp model.

 However, Real Operational Amplifiers (e.g. 741) do not have infinite gain or bandwidth but have a
typical "Open Loop Gain" which is defined as the amplifiers output amplification without any external
feedback signals connected to it and for a typical operational amplifier is about 100dB at DC (zero Hz). This
output gain decreases linearly with frequency down to "Unity Gain" or 1, at about 1MHz and this is shown in
the following open loop gain response curve. From this frequency response curve we can see that the product of
the gain against frequency is constant at any point along the curve.
Also that the unity gain (0dB) frequency also determines the gain
of the amplifier at any point along the curve. This constant is
generally known as the Gain Bandwidth Product or GBP.
Therefore, GBP = Gain × Bandwidth or A × BW.
The Voltage Gain (A) of the amplifier can be found using the
following formula:
Gain, A = Vo/Vi and in Decibels or (dB) is given as:
20log A = 20log Vo/Vi

The graph that relates the output voltage to the input voltage is
called the voltage transfer curve and is fundamental in designing
and understanding amplifier circuits. The voltage transfer curve of
the op-amp is shown on Figure 3.
Vo

Saturation
VCC

Linear
Vi
slope=A

VEE
Saturation

Figure 3. Op-amp voltage transfer characteristics.

Practical Op-amp Characteristics:

Input offset voltage:
Input offset voltage Vio is the differential input voltage that exists
between two input terminals of an op-amp without any external inputs
applied.

Output Offset Voltage:

The output voltage caused by mismatching between two input
terminals is calledthe output offset voltage Voo.
 Input offset Current:
The input offset current Iio is defined as the algebraic difference
between twoinput bias currents Ib1 and Ib2. In equation form it is
Iio = |Ib1 – Ib2|

Input Bias Current:

An input bias current Ib is defined as the average of the two input
bias currents, Ib1 and Ib2 as shown in the following figure.
Ib = (Ib1 + Ib2)/2 [Ib – DC current]

The value of input bias current Ib is very small, in the range of a few
to few hundred nanoamp.

Slew Rate:
The slew rate is defined as the maximum rate of change of output voltage per unit of
time and is expressed in volts per micro seconds. In equation form,

SR =(dVo/dt)|maximum V/μs.

Slew rate indicates how rapidly the output of an op-amp can change in responseto changes in the
input frequency.

One of the drawbacks of the 741C is it’s low slew rate(0.5 V/μs), which limits its use in relatively
high frequency applications, especially in oscillators, comparators and filters

In high-speed op-amps especially, the slew rate is significantly improved. For instance, the LM138 has
a slew rate of 70 V/μs.

What causes the slew rate? There is usually a capacitor within or outside an op-amp toprevent
oscillation. It is this capacitor which prevents the output voltage from responding immediately to a
fast changing input.

The rate at which the voltage across the capacitor Vc increases is given by dVc/dt = I/C. Here, I is the
maximum current furnished by op-amp to the capacitor C. This means thatfor obtaining faster slew
rate, op-amp should have either a higher current or a small compensating capacitor.

For the 741C, that maximum internal capacitor charging current is limited to about 15μA. So the slew
rate of 741C is
SR = dVc/dt|max = Imax/C = 15 μA/30 PF = 0.5 V/ μs.

Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR):

As we have seen, the usefulness of the op amp is derived from its ability to amplify differential
signals. In fact the ideal op amp has an infinite gain for differential voltage signals. It is desired that
signals that are common to both inputs “Common Mode (CM) Signals” be rejected by the
amplifier. An ideal op amp has the ability to completely reject those CM signals; thus having
infinite Common Mode Rejection (CMR) ability.

For an amplifier subjected to a differential voltage VD and a common mode voltage VCM, the output
voltage is

Vo = GDVD + GCMVCM (1)

Where GD is the differential gain and GCM is the common mode gain of the amplifier. Inpractice
we would like to minimize GCM. The ability of an amplifier to reject the CM signal is expressed by
a parameter called the Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) which is defined as the ratio of the
differential gain to common mode gain as follows.
– It can be defined as the ratio of the differential gain AD to the common modegain Acm, that is
CMRR = Ad/Acm
– It is a measure of the degree of matching between two input terminals, that is, the larger the value
of CMRR, the better is the matching between the two inputterminals and the smaller is the output
common mode voltage Vocm.

In the open loop configuration, our standard 741 op amp is characterized by a CMRR of90dB for
signal frequencies less than 100 Hz. At higher frequencies CMRR degrades considerably falling to
40dB at 100 kHz.

In general CMRR is not of concern in the inverting amplifier configuration. Can you seewhy?
Explain

Characteristics Ideal Practical

Voltage gain Infinite High
Input resistance Infinite High
Output resistance Zero Low
Output voltage when input voltage is zero Zero Low
Band width Infinite High
CMRR Infinite High
Slew Rate Infinite High

By connecting the output terminal of the op-amp with the inverting terminal of the devicewe
construct a configuration called the negative feedback configuration as shown on Figure 5. The
presence of the biasing voltages of the op-amp, VCC and VEE, is assumed and will not be shown
explicitly in the following circuits. The operational amplifier is assumed to be in the linear region

feedback path

Vn

Vi Vo

Vp

Figure 5. Basic negative feedback configuration.

In negative feedback, a certain fraction of the output signal, voltage Vo, is fed back into the
inverting terminal via the feedback path.
Modes of op-amp
• Basically there are 2 modes of op-amp. They
are
– Inverting Amplifier
– Non-Inverting Amplifier
Inverting Amplifier
• There are two types of connecting inverting
amplifier. They are
– Open loop inverting amplifier
– Closed loop/feedback inverting
amplifier

Open Loop Inverting Amplifier

• The circuit diagram for the open loop inverting amplifier is shown in figure 3-10.

• The equation for the output voltage is given byVo= A(V1 – V2)
where A – large signal voltage gain

V1 – voltage at non-inverting input terminal V2 – voltage at inverting input terminal here V1

= 0 and V2 = Vi therefore
Vo = A (-Vi) = - A Vi

• The negative sign indicates that the output voltage is out of phase with respect to theinput by
180° or is of opposite polarity.
• Thus in the inverting amplifier the input signal is amplified by gain A and is also invertedat
the output.
Closed Loop Inverting amplifier
• This is perhaps the most widely used of all the op-amp circuits.
• The circuit is shown in the figure 2.5(a)

• For simplicity, assume ideal op-amp. As Vd=0,

node ‘a’ is at ground potential and thecurrent i1
through R1 is i1 = Vi/R1
• Also since op-amp draws no current, all the current
flowing through R1 must flowthrough Rf. Hence
the output voltage is
Vo = -i1 Rf = -(Vi/R1) Rf

therefore the gain of the closed loop inverting

amplifier is Acl = Vo/Vi = -Rf/R1

• The –ve sign indicates a phase shift of 180° between Vi and Vo.

The negative sign for the gain indicates that the polarity of Vo is opposite to the polarityof Vin.
For example if the input signal Vin is a sinusoid of phase 0 degrees, the output signal will also be a
sinusoid with a phase shift of 180 degrees. Figure 11 shows the voltages Vin and Vo for an inverting
amplifier with R2/R1=2.
 Figure 11. Input and output signals of an inverting amplifier with gain of 2.

Unity Gain Inverter or Voltage Follower (Unity Gain Buffer):

One final point to note about Inverting Amplifiers, if the two resistors are of equal value, R in = Rf
then the gain of the amplifier will be -1 producing a complementary form of the input voltage at its
output as Vout = -Vin. This type of inverting amplifier configuration is generally called a Unity Gain
Inverter of simply an Inverting Buffer.

If we made the feedback resistor, Rf = 0 then the circuit will have a fixed gain of "1" and
would be classed as a Voltage Follower. As the input signal is connected directly to the non-
inverting input of the amplifier the output signal is not inverted resulting in the output voltage being
equal to the input voltage, Vout = Vin. This then makes the Voltage Follower circuit ideal as a Unity
Gain Buffer circuit because of its isolation properties as impedance or circuit isolation is more
important than amplification. The input impedance of the voltage
follower circuit is very high, typically above 1MΩ.
The voltage follower or unity gain buffer is a special and
very useful type of Non- inverting amplifier circuit that is
commonly used in electronics to isolate circuits from each other
especially in High-order state variable or Sallen-Key type
active filters to separate onefilter stage from the other.

In order to see the importance of this buffer circuit let’s consider the case where the inputsignal is a
source with an output resistance Rs and is connected to a load with resistance RL. In Figure 16(a) the
signal source is connected directly to the load RL.

Source
Rs
Vin VL Source Rs VL

Vin Vp

RL RL

Load Load

(a) (b)
Figure 16. (a) Source and load connected directly. (b) Source and load connected via a voltage
follower.
 Non-Inverting Amplifier:
• There are two types of connecting non-
inverting amplifiers. They are
– Open loop non-inverting amplifier
– Closed loop non-inverting amplifier
Open Loop Non-inverting amplifier:
• Figure 3.11 shows the open loop non-
inverting amplifier

• Output voltage, Vo = A (V1 – V2) here V1 =

Vi and V2 = 0 v therefore Vo = A Vi
• This means that the output voltage is larger
than the input voltage by gain A and is in
phase with the input signal.
Closed Loop Non-Inverting Amplifier:
• If the signal is applied to the non-inverting input terminal and feedback is given as shown in
Figure 2.7(a), the circuit amplifies without inverting the input signal. Such a circuit is called
non-inverting amplifier.

• As Vd=0, the voltage at node ‘a’ in Figure 2.7(a) is Vi.

Now R1 and Rf forms a potentialdivider.
Hence Vi = (Vo/(R1+Rf)) * R1 as no current
flows into op-amp. therefore Vo/Vi = (R1+Rf)/R1
= 1+ (Rf/R1)
• Thus, for non-inverting amplifier the voltage gain Acl
= Vo/Vi = 1 + (Rf/R1)
• The gain can be adjusted to unity or more, by proper
selection of resistors Rf and R1.

Summing Amplifier:
The Summing Amplifier is a very flexible circuit based upon the standard Inverting Operational
Amplifier configuration. We saw previously that the inverting amplifier has a single input signal
applied to the inverting input terminal. If we add another input resistor equal in value to the
original input resistor, Rin we end up with another operational amplifier circuit called a Summing
Amplifier, "Summing Inverter" or even a "Voltage
Adder" circuit as shown below

The output voltage, (Vout) now becomes

proportional to the sum of the input voltages, V1,
V2,
V3 etc.
Difference Amplifier:
• Figure 4.14 shows the diagram of difference amplifier

• A close examination of the figure 4-14 reveals that

difference amplifier is a combination of inverting and
non-inverting amplifiers i.e. when Vx = 0, circuit is a
non-inverting amp.
when Vy = 0, circuit is an inverting amp.

Voltage Gain:
• The circuit in the figure 4-14 has two inputs Vx and Vy. Therefore we use super position
theorem in order to establish the relationship between inputs and output.
• When Vy = 0, the output voltage due to Vx only is Vox = -(Rf/R1) Vx ------- eq(1)a
Similarly when Vx=0, the configuration is a non-inverting amplifier having a voltage divider
network composed of R2 and R3 at the non-inverting input.
Therefore V1 =(R3/R2+R3) (Vy)
the output due to Vy alone is Voy = (1 + Rf/R1) V1
Voy= (R1+Rf)/R1 (R3/R2+R3) Vy

Since R1 = R2 and Rf = R3, Voy= (Rf/R1) (Vy)------eq(1)b

Thus from equations (1)a and (1)b, the net output voltage is
Vo = Vox + Voy
Vo= (-Rf/R1) (Vx – Vy) =
Note that the gain of the difference amplifier is the same as that of the invertingamplifier.

Input Resistance:

The input resistance Rif of the difference amplifier is the resistance determined looking into either one
of the two input terminals with the other grounded
• Therefore with Vy = 0, the input resistance of the inverting amplifier is Rifx = R1 ------
eq(2)a

• Similarly with Vx=0, the input resistance of non-inverting amplifier is Rify =R2+R3 --eq(2)b
• Therefore from eqs 2a and 2b, it is obvious that the input resistances seen by the signal
sources Vx and Vy are not the same.

Differentiator:
• A differentiator is a circuit in which the output waveform is the derivative of input waveform.
A differentiator circuit is shown in the figure 4.21(a).

Analysis:
• The node N is at virtual ground potential ie Vn=0. The
current ic through the capacitor is ic= C1 d(Vi-Vn)/dt = C1
dVi/dt
• The current If(not the English word if) through the
feedback resistor = Vo/Rf and thereis no current into the
op-amp
Therefore nodal equation at node N isC1 dVi/dt + Vo/Rf = 0
==> Vo= -Rf C1 dVi/dt --------- eq(1)
 • The minus sign indicates a 180° phase shift of the output waveform Vo with respect tothe
input signal.
At high frequency, a differentiator may become unstable and break intooscillations .
• There is one more problem in the Differentiator of figure 4.21(a).
• The input impedance (ie 1/wC1) decreases with increase in frequency there by makingthe
circuit sensitive to high frequency noise.

Practical Differentiator:

• A practical differentiator of the type shown in Figure

4.21b eliminates the problem ofstability and high
frequency noise.

The input and output waveforms are shown in Figure 4.22

Integrator:
• By interchanging the resistor and capacitor of the Differentiator, we get the circuit of an
integrator which is shown in the figure 4.23(a).

• The nodal equation at node N is (Vi/R1) + Cf

dVo/dt = 0
dVo/dt = -(1/R1 Cf) Vi
0∫ dVo = (-1/R1Cf) 0∫ Vidt
t t

Vo(t)= (-1/R1Cf) 0∫ Vi(t)dt + Vo(0)-------eq(1)

t

where Vo(0) is the initial o/p voltage.

 • Here R1Cf is the time constant of the integrator
• Here –ve sign is present, hence it is called inverting integrator.
• Rcomp is the resistor to minimize the effect of input bias current.

Practical Integrator Circuit (Lossy Integrator):

• The gain of an integrator at low frequency (DC) can

be limited to avoid the saturation problem if the
feedback capacitor is shunted by a resistance Rf as
shown in the Figure 4.23c

Comparator:
A comparator is a circuit which compares a signal voltage applied at one input of anop-amp
with a known reference voltage at the other input.
There are basically two types of comparators.
1. Non-inverting comparator

2. Inverting comparator

Non-Inverting Comparator:
The circuit of figure 5.2a is called a non-inverting comparator.

A fixed reference voltage Vref is applied to – input and a time varying signal Vi is applied to
+input.
There are 3 conditions for a comparator. They are Vi < Vref Vo = -Vsat
Vi > Vref Vo = +Vsat
Vi = Vref changes the state of op-amp
The output waveform for a sinusoidal input signal applied to the +ve input is shown infigure
5.2 (b) and (c) for +ve and –ve Vref respectively.

Inverting Comparator:
• Figure 5.3(a) shows a practical inverting comparator in which the reference voltage Vref is
applied to the +input and Vi is applied to the –ve input.
• For a sinusoidal input signal, the output waveform is shown in figure 5.3(b) and 5.3(c)for
Vref +ve and –ve respectively.
 • The basic comparators either non-inverting or inverting can be used as a zero crossing
detector provided that Vref is set to zero. An inverting zero-crossing detector is shown in
figure 5.4 (a).
• The input and output waveforms are shown in Figure 5.4 (b).
• The circuit is also called as a sine to square wave generator.

• The basic comparators either non-inverting or inverting can be used as a zero crossing
detector provided that Vref is set to zero. An inverting zero-crossing detector is shown in
figure 5.4 (a).
• The input and output waveforms are shown in Figure 5.4 (b).
• The circuit is also called as a sine to square wave generator.

Applications of Comparator:
• Some important applications of comparator are
– Zero crossing detector
– Window detector
– Time marker generator
– Phase meter.