NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

FACULTY OF HEALTH SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH SCIENCES

COURSE CODE: EHS 514

COURSE TITLE: PEST MANAGEMENT, METHODS AND CONTROLS

COURSE
GUIDE

EHS 514: PEST MANAGEMENT, METHODS AND CONTROLS

Course Developer/Writer: Dr. Usman N. Gimba

Department of Biological Sciences
IBB University Lapai.

Course Editor: Assoc. Professor A.S Dan-kishiya

Department of Biological Sciences
University of Abuja

Course Coordinator: Professor Grace C. Okoli-Nnabuenyi

HOD, Dept. of Environmental Health Science
Faculty of Health Sciences
National Open University of Nigeria

Programme Coordinator: Professor Grace C. Okoli-Nnabuenyi

Dean, Faculty of Health Sciences
National Open University of Nigeria

National Open University of Nigeria

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COURSE
GUIDE

CONTENTS PAGE
Introduction……………………………………………………………….
What you will Learn in this Course……………………………………….
Course Aims……………………………………………………………….
Course Objectives…………………………………………………………
Working through this Course………………………………………………
The Course Material………………………………………………………..
Study Unit…………………………………………………………………
Presentation Schedule……………………………………………………..
Assessment…………………………………………………………………
Tutor-Marked Assignment…………………………………………………
Final Examination and Grading……………………………………………
Course Marking Scheme……………………………………………………
Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials…………………………………………….
Summary……………………………………………………………………
Introduction
EHS 514 titled ―pest management, methods and controls‖ is a one (1) Unit
course with four (4) Modules and thirteen (13) Units.
A pest is any living organism, whether animal, plant or fungus, which is invasive
or troublesome to plants or animals, human or human concerns, livestock, or
human structures. It is a loose concept, as an organism can be a pest in one setting
but beneficial, domesticated or acceptable in another.
Pests, such as termites, often occur in high densities, making the damage they do
even more detrimental.
Animals are called pests when they cause damage to agriculture by feeding on crops
or parasitizing livestock, such as codling moth on apples, or boll weevil on cotton. An animal
could also be a pest when it causes damage to a wild ecosystem or carries germs

within human habitats.

What you will learn in this course

In this course, you have the course units and a course guide. The course guide will
tell you what the course is all about. It is general overview of the course materials
you will be using and how to use those materials. It also helps you to allocate the
appropriate time to each unit so that you can successfully complete the course
within the stipulated time limit.
The course guide also helps you to know how to go about your Tutor-Marked
Assignment which will form part of your overall assessment at the end of the
course. Also, there will be regular tutorial classes that are related to this course,
where you can interact with your facilitator and other students. Please, I encourage
you to attend these tutorial classes.

Course aim
The aim of this short course is to provide participants with a broad knowledge of
pest and methods of controlling pest.
Course Objectives
To achieve the aim set above, there are objectives. Each unit has a set of objectives
presented at the beginning of the unit. These objectives will guide you on what to
concentrate / focus on while studying the unit. Please read the objectives before
studying the unit and during your study to check your progress.

The Comprehensive Objectives of the Course are given below. At the end of the
course the participants will be able to:

 Define the term pest

 Methods of controlling pest

Working through this course

To successfully complete this course, you are required to read each study unit, read
the textbooks materials provided by the National Open University.
Reading the referenced materials can also be of great assistance.
Each unit has self-assessment exercises which you are advised to do and at certain
periods during the course you will be required to submit your assignment for the
purpose of assessment.
There will be a final examination at the end of the course. The course should take
you about 17 weeks to complete.
This course guide will provide you with all the components of the course how to
go about studying and hour you should allocate your time to each unit so as to
finish on time and successfully.

Course materials
The major components of the course are:
1. Course Guide
2. Study Units
3. Text Books
4. Assignment File
5. Presentation Schedule

Study units
There are 14 study units and 4 modules in this course. They are:
Module 1

Unit 1 pest
Unit 2 Pest Control
Unit 3 Cultural control

Module 2

Unit 1 Pesticides
Unit 2 Forestry
Unit 3 General methods

Unit 4Methods for specific pests

Module 3
Unit 1 Pest management
Unit 2 Economic test
Unit 3 Economic damage

Module 4
Unit 1 Surveillance / Pest scouting
Unit 2 Pest Complex
Unit 3 Kinds of Pests

There are activities related to the lecture in each unit which will help your progress
and comprehension of the unit. You are required to work on these exercises which
together with the TMAs will enable you to achieve the objectives of each unit.
Presentation Schedule
There is a time-table prepared for the early and timely completion and submissions
of your TMAs as well as attending the tutorial classes. You are required to submit
all your assignments by the stipulated time and date. Avoid falling behind the
schedule time.
Assessment
There are three aspects to the assessment of this course.
The first one is the self-assessment exercises. The second is the tutor marked
assignments and the third is the written examination or the examination to be taken
at the end of the course.
Do the exercises or activities in the unit by applying the information and
knowledge you acquired during the course. The tutor-marked assignments must be
submitted to your facilitator for formal assessment in accordance with the
deadlines stated in the presentation schedule and the assignment file.
The work submitted to your tutor for assessment will count for 30% of your total
course work.
At the end of this course, you have to sit for a final or end of course examination of
about a three hour duration which will count for 70% of your total course mark.
Tutor-Marked Assignment
This is the continuous assessment component of this course and it accounts for
30% of the total score. You will be given Three (3) TMAs by your facilitator to
answer. The three of which must be answered before you are allowed to sit for the
end of course examination.
These answered assignments are to be returned to your facilitator.
You’re expected to complete the assignments by using the information and
material in your readings, references and study units.
Reading and researching into you references will give you a wider via point and
give you a deeper understanding of the subject.
1. Make sure that each assignment reaches your facilitator on or before the
deadline given in the presentation schedule and assignment file. If for any reason
you are not able to complete your assignment, make sure you contact your
facilitator before the assignment is due to discuss the possibility of an extension.
Request for extension will not be granted after the due date unless there in
exceptional circumstances.
2. Make sure you revise the whole course content before sitting or the examination.
The self-assessment activities and TMAs will be useful for this purposes and if you
have any comment please do before the examination. The end of course
examination covers information from all parts of the course.
Course Marking Scheme
Assignment Marks
Assignments 1 – 3 Three assignments, three marks of the
three count at 10% each–30% of
course
marks.
End of course examination 70% of overall course marks
Total 100% of course materials.

Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials

Sixteen (16) hours are provided for tutorials for this course. You will be notified of
the dates, times and location for these tutorial classes.
As soon as you are allocated a tutorial group, the name and phone number of your
facilitator will be given to you.
These are the duties of your facilitator: He or she will mark and comment on your
assignment. He will monitor your progress and provide any necessary assistance
you need. He or she will mark your TMAs and return to you as soon as possible.
(You are expected to mail your tutored assignment to your facilitator at least two
days before the schedule date).
Do not delay to contact your facilitator by telephone or e-mail for necessary
assistance if you do not understand any part of the study in the course material.
You have difficulty with the self assessment activities. You have a problem or
question with an assignment or with the grading of the assignment.
It is important and necessary you acted the tutorial classes because this is the only
chance to have face to face content with your facilitator and to ask questions which
will be answered instantly. It is also period where you can say any problem
encountered in the course of your study.
Summary
In agriculture, pests are the organisms which may cause quantities or qualitative
losses to our crops. E.g insects, mites, weeds, fungus, algae, snails, slugs, different
pathogens, rodents etc. In A pest is any animal or plant detrimental to humans or
human concerns, including crops, livestock and forestry, among others. The term is
also used of organisms that cause a nuisance, such as in the home. An older usage
is of a deadly epidemic disease, specifically plague. In its broadest sense, a pest is a
competitor of humanity.

A pest is any living organism, whether animal, plant or fungus, which is invasive
or troublesome to plants or animals, human or human concerns, livestock, or
human structures. It is a loose concept, as an organism can be a pest in one setting
but beneficial, domesticated or acceptable in another.

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Define the term pest
 Pest control
 Cultural control
 Pesticides
 Forestry
 Physical control method

The list of questions expected to be answered is not limited to the above list.
Finally, you are expected to apply the knowledge you have acquired during this
course to your practical life.
I wish you success in this course.
Course Code: EHS 514
Course Title: Pest Management, Methods and Controls
Course Developer/Writer: Dr. Usman N. Gimba
Department of Biological Sciences
IBB University Lapai.

Module 1

Unit 1 pest
Unit 2 Pest Control
Unit 3 Cultural control

UNIT 1 PEST
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Definition of term
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-marked Assignment
7.0 References

1.0 Introduction

In a wide sense, may be defined as any organism which harms or causes damage to
man directly or indirectly, is called a pest. In agriculture, pests are the organisms
which may cause quantities or qualitative losses to our crops. E.g insects, mites,
weeds, fungus, algae, snails, slugs, different pathogens, rodents etc.A pest is any
animal or plant detrimental to humans or human concerns, including crops,
livestock and forestry, among others. The term is also used of organisms that cause
a nuisance, such as in the home. An older usage is of a deadly epidemic disease,
specifically plague. In its broadest sense, a pest is a competitor of humanity.

A pest is any living organism, whether animal, plant or fungus, which is invasive
or troublesome to plants or animals, human or human concerns, livestock, or
human structures. It is a loose concept, as an organism can be a pest in one setting
but beneficial, domesticated or acceptable in another.

2.0 Objectives

At the end of this unit, you should be able to talk comprehensively on the term
pest.
3.0 Main content
3.1 Definition of term

In a wide sense, may be defined as any organism which harms or causes damage to
man directly or indirectly, is called a pest. In agriculture, pests are the organisms
which may cause quantities or qualitative losses to our crops. E.g insects, mites,
weeds, fungus, algae, snails, slugs, different pathogens, rodents etc. In A pest is
any animal or plant detrimental to humans or human concerns, including crops,
livestock and forestry, among others. The term is also used of organisms that cause
a nuisance, such as in the home. An older usage is of a deadly epidemic disease,
specifically plague. In its broadest sense, a pest is a competitor of humanity.

A pest is any living organism, whether animal, plant or fungus, which is invasive
or troublesome to plants or animals, human or human concerns, livestock, or
human structures. It is a loose concept, as an organism can be a pest in one setting
but beneficial, domesticated or acceptable in another.

Plate 1: Image of termites

Source: "AGP - Integrated Pest Management". Retrieved 19 August2012.
Pests, such as termites, often occur in high densities, making the damage they do
even more detrimental.

Animals are called pests when they cause damage to agriculture by feeding on crops
or parasitizinglivestock, such as codling moth on apples, or boll weevil on cotton. An animal
could also be a pest when it causes damage to a wild ecosystem or carries germs

within human habitats. Examples of these include those organisms which vector

human disease, such as rats and fleas which carry the plague disease, mosquitoes which
vector malaria, and ticks which carry Lyme disease.

A species can be a pest in one setting but beneficial or domesticated in another (for
example, European rabbits introduced to Australia caused ecologicaldamage beyond the scale
they inflicted in their natural habitat). Many weeds are also seen as useful under
certain conditions, for instance Patterson's curse is often valued as food for honeybees
and as a wildflower, even though it can poison livestock.

The term "plant pest" has a specific definition in terms of the International Plant

Protection Convention and phytosanitary measures worldwide. A pest is any species,

strain or biotype of plant, animal, or pathogenic agent injurious to plants or plant
products. Plants may be considered pests themselves if an invasive species.

The animal groups of greatest importance as pests (in order of economic

importance) are insects, mites, nematodes and gastropods. Plant pests can be classed as
monophagous, oligophagous, and polyphagous according to how many hosts they have.
Alternatively, they can be divided by feeding type, whether biting and chewing;
piercing and sucking; or Lapping and chewing. Another approach is to class them
by population presence as * key pests, occasional pests, and potential pests. In
terms of population biology, there are population growth rate (r) pests; carrying capacity (k)
pests; and r-k pests.

4.0 Conclusion

The term "plant pest" has a specific definition in terms of the International Plant

Protection Convention and phytosanitary measures worldwide. A pest is any species,

strain or biotype of plant, animal, or pathogenic agent injurious to plants or plant
products. Plants may be considered pests themselves if an invasive species.

5.0 Summary

Plant pests can be classed as monophagous, oligophagous, andpolyphagous according to

how many hosts they have. Alternatively, they can be divided by feeding type,
whether biting and chewing; piercing and sucking; or Lapping and chewing.
6.0 Tutor-marked Assignment
1. Define the term pest

Solution
A pest is any living organism, whether animal, plant or fungus, which is invasive
or troublesome to plants or animals, human or human concerns, livestock, or
human structures. It is a loose concept, as an organism can be a pest in one setting
but beneficial, domesticated or acceptable in another. Pests, such as these termites,

often occur in high densities, making the damage they do even more detrimental.
7.0 References

"AGP - Integrated Pest Management". Retrieved 19 August2012.

Knipling, EF (1972). "Entomology and the Management of Man's
Environment". Australian Journal of Entomology. 11: 153–
167. doi:10.1111/j.1440-6055.1972.tb01618.x.

Wright, M. G.; Hoffmann, M. P.; Kuhar, T. P.; Gardner, J.; Pitcher, S. A. (2005).
"Evaluating risks of biological control introductions: A probabilistic risk-
assessment approach". Biological Control. 35 (3): 338–
347. doi:10.1016/j.biocontrol.2005.02.002.

UNIT 2 PEST CONTROL

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Definition of term
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-marked Assignment
7.0 References
1.0 Introduction

It is the system of using two or more pest control methods, except chemical
control, in a planned way to control pest.

Pest control is the regulation or management of a species defined as a pest, a member

of the animal kingdom that impact adversely on human activities. The human
response depends on the importance of the damage done, and will range from
tolerance, through deterrence and management, to attempts to completely eradicate
the pest. Pest control measures may be performed as part of an integrated pest

management strategy.

2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you will get to know how pests are been controlled.
3.0 Main content
3.1 Definition of term

In agriculture, pests are kept at bay by cultural, chemical and biological means.
Ploughing and cultivation of the soil before sowing reduces the pest burden and
there is a modern trend to limit the use of pesticides as far as possible. This can be
achieved by monitoring the crop, only applying insecticides when necessary, and by
growing varieties and crops which are resistant to pests. Where possible, biological
means are used, encouraging the natural enemies of the pests and introducing suitable
predators or parasites.

In homes and urban environments, the pests are the rodents, birds, insects and
other organisms that share the habitat with humans and that feed on and spoil
possessions. Control of these pests is attempted through exclusion, repulsion,
physical removal or chemical means. Alternatively, various methods of biological
control can be used including sterilization programmes.

Pest control is at least as old as agriculture, as there has always been a need to keep
crops free from pests. As long ago as 3000 BC in Egypt, cats were used to control
pests of grain stores such as rodents. Ferrets were domesticated by 500 AD in
Europe for use as mousers. Mongooses were introduced into homes to control rodents
and snakes, probably by the ancient Egyptians.

The conventional approach was probably the first to be employed, since it is

comparatively easy to destroy weeds by burning them or ploughing them under,
and to kill larger competing herbivores. Techniques such as crop rotation, companion

planting (also known as intercropping or mixed cropping), and the selective breeding of
pest-resistant cultivars have a long history.

Red weaver ants, here feeding on a snail, have been used to control pests in China,
Southeast Asia and Africa for many centuries.

Chemical pesticides were first used around 2500 BC, when the Sumerians used sulphur

compounds as insecticides. Modern pest control was stimulated by the spread across
the United States of the Colorado potato beetle. After much discussion, arsenical

compounds were used to control the beetle and the predicted poisoning of the
human population did not occur. This led the way to a widespread acceptance of
insecticides across the continent. With the industrialization and mechanization of
agriculture in the 18th and 19th centuries, and the introduction of the insecticides
pyrethrum and derris, chemical pest control became widespread. In the 20th century,
the discovery of several synthetic insecticides, such as DDT, and herbicides boosted this
development.
Biological control is first recorded around 300 AD in China, when colonies of
weaver ants, Oecophylla smaragdina, were intentionally placed in citrus plantations to
control beetles and caterpillars. Also in China, ducks were used in paddy fields to
consume pests, as illustrated in ancient cave art. In 1762, an Indian mynah was
brought to Mauritius to control locusts, and about the same time, citrus trees in
Burma were connected by bamboos to allow ants to pass between them and help
control caterpillars. In the 1880s, ladybirds were used in citrus plantations in
California to control scale insects, and other biological control experiments followed.
The introduction of DDT, a cheap and effective compound, put an effective stop to
biological control experiments. By the 1960s, problems of resistance to chemicals
and damage to the environment began to emerge, and biological control had a
renaissance. Chemical pest control is still the predominant type of pest control
today, although a renewed interest in traditional and biological pest control
developed towards the end of the 20th century and continues to this day.

Biological pest control is a method of controlling pests such as insects and mites by
using other organisms. It relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory or other natural
mechanisms, but typically also involves an active human management role.
Classical biological control involves the introduction of natural enemies of the pest
that are bred in the laboratory and released into the environment. An alternative
approach is to augment the natural enemies that occur in a particular area by
releasing more, either in small, repeated batches, or in a single large-scale release.
Ideally, the released organism will breed and survive, and provide long-term
control. Biological control can be an important component of an integrated pest

management programme.

For example: mosquitoes are often controlled by putting Bacillus thuringiensis ssp. A
bacterium that infects and kills mosquito larvae, in local water sources.
4.0 Conclusion
Classical biological control involves the introduction of natural enemies of the pest
that are bred in the laboratory and released into the environment. An alternative
approach is to augment the natural enemies that occur in a particular area by
releasing more, either in small, repeated batches, or in a single large-scale release.
5.0 Summary

Biological control can be an important component of an integrated pest management

programme.

6.0 Tutor-marked Assignment

1. List the three basic methods of controlling pest in Agriculture.
Solution
Pests can be kept at bay in Agriculture by cultural, chemical and biological means.
7.0 References

Charles Perrings; Mark Herbert Williamson; Silvana Dalmazzone (1 January

2000). The Economics of Biological Invasions. Edward Elgar
Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84064-378-7.

Clercq, P.; Mason, P. G.; Babendreier, D. (2011). "Benefits and risks of exotic
biological control agents". BioControl. 56 (4): 681–
698. doi:10.1007/s10526-011-9372-8.

UNIT 3 CULTURAL CONTROL

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content

3.1 Trap cropping

4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0Tutor-marked Assignment
7.0 References

1.0 Introduction

Mechanical pest control is the use of hands-on techniques as well as simple equipment
and devices, that provides a protective barrier between plants and insects. This is referred
to as tillage and is one of the oldest methods of weed control as well as being useful
for pest control; wireworms, the larvae of the common click beetle, are very destructive
pests of newly ploughed grassland, and repeated cultivation exposes them to the
birds and other predators that feed on them.

Crop rotation can help to control pests by depriving them of their host plants. It is a
major tactic in the control of corn rootworm, and has reduced early season incidence
of Colorado potato beetle by as much as 95%.

2.0 Objectives

At the end of this unit, you will get to know what is meant by the term cultural
control.

3.0 Main content

3.1 Trap cropping

A trap crop is a crop of a plant that attracts pests, diverting them from nearby crops.
Pests aggregated on the trap crop can be more easily controlled using pesticides or
other methods. However, trap-cropping, on its own, has often failed to cost
effectively reduce pest densities on large commercial scales, without the use of
pesticides, possibly due to the pests' ability to disperse back into the main field.

4.0 Conclusion

Pests aggregated on the trap crop can be more easily controlled using pesticides or
other methods.

5.0 Summary

Trap-cropping, on its own, has often failed to cost effectively reduce pest densities
on large commercial scales, without the use of pesticides.

6.0 Tutor-marked Assignment

1. Define the term trap-cropping

Solution

A trap crop is a crop of a plant that attracts pests, diverting them from nearby crops.
Pests aggregated on the trap crop can be more easily controlled using pesticides or
other methods.

7.0 References
Acosta, EW (1995–2006). "The History of Integrated Pest Management (IPM)". BioControl
Reference Center. "1997: Smith and Adkisson". The World Food Prize Foundation.
Retrieved 15 April 2015.

"Integrated Pest Management (IMP) Principles". United States Environmental Protection

Agency. 2012.

"IPM Guidelines".
UMassAmherst—Integrated Pest Management, Agriculture and
Landscape Program. 2009. Archived from the original on 12 March 2012.
Retrieved 13 March 2012.
MODULE 2

Unit 1 Pesticides
Unit 2 Forestry
Unit 3 General methods

UNIT 1 PESTICIDES

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0Main content
3.1 General Overview

4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-marked Assignment
7.0References

1.0 Introduction

Pesticides are applied to crops by agricultural aircraft, tractor-mounted crop sprayers or as

seed dressings to control pests. However, successful control by pesticides is not easy;
the right formulation must be chosen, the timing is often critical, the method of
application is important, adequate coverage and retention on the crop are
necessary. The killing of natural enemies of the target pest should be minimized.
This is particularly important in countries where there are natural reservoirs of
pests and their enemies in the countryside surrounding plantation crops, and these
co-exist in a delicate balance. Often in less-developed countries, the crops are well
adapted to the local situation and no pesticides are needed.
2.0 Objectives

At the end of this unit, you will get more enlightenment on the term pesticide.

3.0 Main content

3.1 General Overview

Where progressive farmers are using fertilizers to grow improved crop varieties,
these are often more susceptible to pest damage, but the indiscriminate application
of pesticides may be detrimental in the longer term.

The efficacy of chemical pesticides tends to diminish over time. This is because
any organism that manages to survive the initial application will pass on its genes
to its offspring and a resistant strain will be developed. In this way, some of the
most serious pests have developed resistance and are no longer killed by pesticides
that used to kill their ancestors. This necessitates higher concentrations of
chemical, more frequent applications and a movement to more expensive
formulations.

Pesticides are formulated to kill pests, but many have detrimental effects on non-
target species; of particular concern is the damage done to honey-bees, solitary bees
and other pollinating insects and in this regard, the time of day when the spray is
applied can be important. The widely used neonicotinoids have been banned on
flowering crops in some countries because of their effects on bees. Some pesticides
may cause cancer and other health problems in humans, as well as being harmful to
wildlife. There can be acute effects immediately after exposure or chronic effects
after continuous low-level or occasional exposure. Maximum residue limits for
pesticides in foodstuffs and animal feed are set by many nations.
Plate 1: Image of Budworm
Source: ^ Acosta, EW (1995–2006).
4.0 Conclusion

Maximum residue limits for pesticides in foodstuffs and animal feed are set by
many nations.

5.0 Summary
Pesticides are formulated to kill pests, but many have detrimental effects on non-
target species; of particular concern is the damage done to honey-bees, solitary bees
and other pollinating insects and in this regard, the time of day when the spray is
applied can be important.

6.0 Tutor-marked Assignment

1. Define the term pesticides in relation to Agriculture.
Solution
Pesticides are applied to crops by agricultural aircraft, tractor-mounted crop sprayers or as
seed dressings to control pests. However, successful control by pesticides is not easy;
the right formulation must be chosen, the timing is often critical, the method of
application is important, adequate coverage and retention on the crop are
necessary.

7.0 References

Sandler, Hilary A. (2010). "Integrated Pest Management". Cranberry Station

Best Management Practices. 1 (1): 12–15.

Handbook of Pest Control, Mallis, Arnold, 10th edition, Hedges, Stoy, Editor.
.1499-1500

Organic Materials Review Institute, "The OMRI Product

List," http://www.omri.org/OMRI_about_list.html approved product list.

^Acosta, EW (1995–2006). "The History of Integrated Pest Management (IPM)". BioControl

Reference Center.
UNIT 2: FORESTRY

CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Definition of term

4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-marked Assignment
7.0 References
1.0 Introduction

Forest pests present a significant problem because it is not easy to access the
canopy and monitor pest populations. In addition, forestry pests such as bark
beetles, kept under control by natural enemies in their native range, may be
transported large distances in cut timber to places where they have no natural
predators, enabling them to cause extensive economic damage.

2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you will get to know what is meant by the term forest pest.

3.0 Main content

3.1 Definition of term

Pheromone traps have been used to monitor pest populations in the canopy. These
release volatile chemicals that attract males. Pheromone traps can detect the arrival
of pests or alert foresters to outbreaks. For example, the spruce budworm, a destructive
pest of spruce and balsam fir, has been monitored using pheromone traps in Canadian
forests for several decades. In some regions, such as New Brunswick, areas of
forest are sprayed with pesticide to control the budworm population and prevent
the damage caused during outbreaks.

4.0 Conclusion

Forest pests present a significant problem because it is not easy to access the
canopy and monitor pest populations.
5.0 Summary
Pheromone traps have been used to monitor pest populations in the canopy. These
release volatile chemicals that attract males. Pheromone traps can detect the arrival
of pests or alert foresters to outbreaks.
6.0Tutor-marked Assignment
1. Define the term forest pest.
Solution
Forest pests present a significant problem because it is not easy to access the
canopy and monitor pest populations. In addition, forestry pests such as bark
beetles, kept under control by natural enemies in their native range, may be
transported large distances
7.0 References

Purdue University Turf Pest Management Correspondence Course,

Introduction, 2006

Klassen;
W and Curtis, C. F. (2005). "1.1". In V.A. Dyck; J. Hendrichs; A.S.
Robinson (eds.). Sterile Insect Technique: Principles and Practice in Area-
Wide Integrated Pest Management. Netherlands: Springer. pp. 4–28.

Thomson, Linda; Bennett, David; Glenn, DeAnn; Hoffman, Ary (2 September

2003). Opender Koul; G. S. Dhaliwal (eds.). Developing Trichogramma as a
Pest Management Tool. Predators and Parasitoids. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-203-
30256-9.
UNIT 3 GENERAL METHODS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Physical pest control

3.2 Poisoned bait

3.3 Fumigation

3.4 Sterilization

3.5 Insulation

4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-marked Assignment
7.0References

1.0 Introduction
Physical pest control involves trapping or killing pests such as insects and rodents.
Historically, local people or paid rat-catchers caught and killed rodents using dogs
and traps. On a domestic scale, sticky flypapers are used to trap flies. In larger
buildings, insects may be trapped using such means as pheromones, synthetic volatile
chemicals or ultraviolet light to attract the insects; some have a sticky base or an
electrically charged grid to kill them. Glueboards are sometimes used for
monitoring cockroaches and to catch rodents. Rodents can be killed by suitably
baited spring traps and can be caught in cage traps for relocation. Talcum powder or
"tracking powder" can be used to establish routes used by rodents inside buildings
and acoustic devices can be used for detecting beetles in structural timbers.

2.0 Objectives

At the end of this unit, you will get to know what is meant by the term physical
pest control.

3.0 Main content

3.1 Physical pest control

Historically, firearms have been one of the primary methods used for pest control.
"Garden Guns" are smooth bore shotguns specifically made to fire .22 calibersnake shot or
9mm Flaubert, and are commonly used by gardeners and farmers for snakes,
rodents, birds, and other pest. Garden Guns are short range weapons that can do
little harm past 15 to 20 yards, and they're relatively quiet when fired with snake
shot, compared to standard ammunition. These guns are especially effective inside
of barns and sheds, as the snake shot will not shoot holes in the roof or walls, or
more importantly injure livestock with a ricochet. They are also used for pest control
at airports, warehouses, stockyards, etc.
The most common shot cartridge is .22 Long Rifle loaded with 12 shot. At a
distance of about 10 ft (3.0 m), which is about the maximum effective range, the
pattern is about 8 in (20 cm) in diameter from a standard rifle. Special smoothbore
shotguns, such as the Marlin Model 25MG can produce effective patterns out to 15 or
20 yards using .22 WMR shotshells, which hold 1/8 oz. of #12 shot contained in a
plastic capsule.

3.2 Poisoned bait

Plate 1: Image of a poisoned bait

Source: ^ Handbook of Pest Control (10th edition)

Poisoned bait is a common method for controlling rats, mice, birds, slugs, snails,
ants, cockroaches and other pests. The basic granules, or other formulation,
contains a food attractant for the target species and a suitable poison. For ants, a
slow-acting toxin is needed so that the workers have time to carry the substance
back to the colony, and for flies, a quick-acting substance to prevent further egg-
laying and nuisance. Baits for slugs and snails often contain the molluscide
metaldehyde, dangerous to children and household pets.

Warfarin has traditionally been used to kill rodents, but many populations have
developed resistance to this anticoagulant, and difenacoum is often substituted. These
are cumulative poisons, requiring bait stations to be topped up regularly. Poisoned
meat has been used for centuries to kill animals such as wolves and birds of prey.
Poisoned carcasses however kill a wide range of carrion feeders, not only the
targeted species. Raptors in Israel were nearly wiped out following a period of
intense poisoning of rats and other crop pests.

3.3 Fumigation
Plate 2: Tent fumigation of a house in America
Source: USEPA (2012).
Fumigation is the treatment of a structure to kill pests such as wood-boring beetles by
sealing it or surrounding it with an airtight cover such as a tent, and fogging with
liquid insecticide for an extended period, typically of 24–72 hours. This is costly
and inconvenient as the structure cannot be used during the treatment, but it targets
all life stages of pests.

An alternative, space treatment, is fogging or misting to disperse a liquid

insecticide in the atmosphere within a building without evacuation or airtight
sealing, allowing most work within the building to continue, at the cost of reduced
penetration. Contact insecticides are generally used to minimise long lasting
residual effects.
 3.4 Sterilization

Populations of pest insects can sometimes be dramatically reduced by the release

of sterile individuals. This involves the mass rearing of a pest, sterilizing it by
means of X-rays or some other means, and releasing it into a wild population. It is
particularly useful where a female only mates once and where the insect does not
disperse widely. This technique has been successfully used against the New World

screw-worm fly, some species of tsetse fly, tropical fruit flies, the pink bollworm and the
codling moth, among others.

Laboratory studies conducted with U-5897 (3-chloro-1,2-propanediol) were

attempted in the early 1970s for rat control, although these proved unsuccessful. In
2013, New York City tested sterilization traps, demonstrating a 43% reduction in
rat populations. The product ContraPest was approved for the sterilization of rodents
by the United States Environmental Protection Agency in August 2016.

3.5 Insulation

Boron, a known pesticide can be impregnated into the paper fibers of cellulose
insulation at certain levels to achieve a mechanical kill factor for self-grooming
insects such as ants, cockroaches, termites, and more. The addition of insulation
into the attic and walls of a structure can provide control of common pests in
addition to known insulation benefits such a robust thermal envelope and acoustic
noise cancelling properties. The EPA regulates this type of general-use pesticide
within the United States allowing it to only be sold and installed by licensed pest
management professionals as part of an integrated pest management program.
Simply adding Boron or an EPA-registered pesticide to insulation is does not
qualify it as a pesticide. The dosage and method must be carefully controlled and
monitored.

4.0 Conclusion

The addition of insulation into the attic and walls of a structure can provide control
of common pests in addition to known insulation benefits such a robust thermal
envelope and acoustic noise cancelling properties.

5.0 Summary

Populations of pest insects can sometimes be dramatically reduced by the release

of sterile individuals. This involves the mass rearing of a pest, sterilizing it by
means of X-rays or some other means, and releasing it into a wild population. It is
particularly useful where a female only mates once and where the insect does not
disperse widely.

6.0 Tutor-marked Assignment

1. Define the term Fumigation

Solution

Fumigation is the treatment of a structure to kill pests such as wood-boring beetles by

sealing it or surrounding it with an airtight cover such as a tent, and fogging with
liquid insecticide for an extended period, typically of 24–72 hours. This is costly
and inconvenient as the structure cannot be used during the treatment, but it targets
all life stages of pests.
7.0 References

Mills NJ, Daane KM (2005) Biological and cultural controls . . . Nonpesticide

alternatives can suppress crop pests. California Agriculture 59.

Rajeev K. Upadhyay; K.G. Mukerji; B. P. Chamola (30 November

2001). Biocontrol Potential and its Exploitation in Sustainable Agriculture: Volume 2: Insect
Pests. Springer. pp. 261–. ISBN 978-0- 306-46587-1.

Knutson A (2005) 'The Trichogramma Manual: A guide to the use of

Trichogramma for Bilogical Control with Special Reference to
Augmentative Releases for Control of bollworm and Budworm in
Cotton.' (Texas Agricultural Extension Service).
UNIT 4 METHODS FOR SPECIFIC PESTS

CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Definition of term
3.2 Pantry pests
3.3 Clothes moths
3.4 Carpet beetles
3.5 Bookworms
3.6 Beetles
3.7 Termites
3.8 Mosquitoes

4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-marked Assignment
7.0 References
1.0 Introduction

Natural rodent control

Plate 1: Brown rat infestation

Source: "IPM Guidelines" (2009).

Several wildlife rehabilitation organizations encourage natural form of rodent control

through exclusion and predator support and preventing secondary poisoning
altogether. The United States Environmental Protection Agency notes in its Proposed Risk
Mitigation Decision for Nine Rodenticides that "without habitat modification to
make areas less attractive to commensal rodents, even eradication will not prevent
new populations from recolonizing the habitat."

2.0 Objectives

At the end of this unit, you should be able to know the methods of some specific
pest.

3.0 Main content

3.1 Definition of term

The United States Environmental Protection Agency has prescribed guidelines for
natural rodent control and for safe trapping in residential areas with subsequent
release to the wild People sometimes attempt to limit rodent damage using
repellents. Balsam fir oil from the tree Abies balsamea is an EPA approved non-toxic
rodent repellent. Acacia polyacantha subsp. campylacantha root emits chemical compounds that
repel animals including rats.

3.2 Pantry pests

Plate 2: The red flour beetle
Source: Sandler(2010).

The red flour beetleTribolium castaneum, attacks stored grain products

worldwide.Insect pests including the Mediterranean flour moth, the Indian mealmoth, the
cigarette beetle, the drugstore beetle, the confused flour beetle, the red flour beetle, the merchant

grain beetle, the sawtoothed grain beetle, the wheat weevil, the maize weevil and the rice weevil

infest stored dry foods such as flour, cereals and pasta.

In the home, foodstuffs found to be infested are usually discarded, and storing such
products in sealed containers should prevent the problem from reoccurring. The
eggs of these insects are likely to go unnoticed, with the larvae being the
destructive life stage, and the adult the most noticeable stage.[48] Since pesticides
are not safe to use near food, alternative treatments such as freezing for four days
at 0 °F (−18 °C) or baking for half an hour at 130 °F (54 °C) should kill any insects
present.

3.3 Clothes moths

Plate 2: Larva, pupa and adult clothes moth Tineola bisselliella with characteristic
damage to fabric
Source: www.google.com

The larvae of clothes moths (mainly Tineola bisselliella and Tinea pellionella) feed on
fabrics and carpets, particularly those that are stored or soiled. The adult females
lay batches of eggs on natural fibres, including wool, silk and fur, as well as cotton
and linen in blends. The developing larvae spin protective webbing and chew into
the fabric, creating holes and specks of excrement. Damage is often concentrated
in concealed locations, under collars and near seams of clothing, in folds and
crevices in upholstery and round the edges of carpets as well as under furniture.
Methods of control include using airtight containers for storage, periodic
laundering of garments, trapping, freezing, heating and the use of chemicals;
mothballs contain volatile insect repellents such as 1,4-Dichlorobenzene which deter
adults, but to kill the larvae, permethrin, pyrethroids or other insecticides may need to
be used.

3.4 Carpet beetles

Carpet beetles are members of the family Dermestidae, and while the adult beetles
feed on nectar and pollen, the larvae are destructive pests in homes, warehouses and
museums. They feed on animal products including wool, silk, leather, fur, the
bristles of hair brushes, pet hair, feathers and museum specimens. They tend to
infest hidden locations and may feed on larger areas of fabrics than do clothes
moths, leaving behind specks of excrement and brown, hollow, bristly-looking cast
skins. Management of infestations is difficult and is based on exclusion and
sanitation where possible, resorting to pesticides when necessary. The beetles can
fly in from outdoors and the larvae can survive on lint fragments, dust and inside
the bags of vacuum cleaners. In warehouses and museums, sticky traps baited with
suitable pheromones can be used to identify problems, and heating, freezing, spraying
the surface with insecticide and fumigation will kill the insects when suitably
applied. Susceptible items can be protected from attack by keeping them in clean
airtight containers.

3.5 Bookworms

Books are sometimes attacked by cockroaches, silverfish,[52] book mites, booklice,

and various beetles which feed on the covers, paper, bindings and glue. They leave
behind physical damage in the form of tiny holes as well as staining from their
faeces. Book pests include the larder beetle, and the larvae of the black carpet beetle and
the drugstore beetle which attack leather-bound books, while the common clothes moth and
the brown house moth attack cloth bindings. These attacks are largely a problem with
historic books, because modern bookbinding materials are less susceptible to this
type of damage.

Evidence of attack may be found in the form of tiny piles of book-dust and specks
of frass. Damage may be concentrated in the spine, the projecting edges of pages
and the cover. Prevention of attack relies on keeping books in cool, clean, dry
positions with low humidity, and occasional inspections should be made.
Treatment can be by freezing for lengthy periods, but some insect eggs are very
resistant and can survive for long periods at low temperatures.

3.6 Beetles
Plate 3: House timber split open to reveal larvae of the house longhorn beetle,

Hylotrupes bajulus, in their burrows, which are partially filled with frass.

Source: Organic Materials Review Institute, "The OMRI Product

List," http://www.omri.org/OMRI_about_list.html approved product list.

Various beetles in the Bostrichoideasuper family attack the dry, seasoned wood used
as structural timber in houses and to make furniture. In most cases, it is the larvae
that do the damage; these are invisible from the outside of the timber, but are
chewing away at the wood in the interior of the item. Examples of these are the
powder post beetles, which attack the sapwood of hardwoods, and the furniture beetles,

which attacks softwoods, including plywood. The damage has already been done
by the time the adult beetles bore their way out, leaving neat round holes behind
them. The first that a householder knows about the beetle damage is often when a
chair leg breaks off or a piece of structural timber caves in. Prevention is through
chemical treatment of the timber prior to its use in construction or in furniture
manufacture.

3.7 Termites

Termites with colonies in close proximity to houses can extend their galleries
underground and make mud tubes to enter homes. The insects keep out of sight and
chew their way through structural and decorative timbers, leaving the surface
layers intact, as well as through cardboard, plastic and insulation materials. Their
presence may become apparent when winged insects appear and swarm in the
home in spring. Regular inspection of structures by a trained professional may help
detect termite activity before damage becomes substantial.; Inspection and
monitoring of termites is important because termite alates (winged reproductives)
may not always swarm inside a structure. Control and extermination is a
professional job involving trying to exclude the insects from the building and
trying to kill those already present. Soil-applied liquid termiticides provide a
chemical barrier that prevents termites from entering buildings, and lethal baits can
be used; these are eaten by foraging insects, and carried back to the nest and shared
with other members of the colony, which goes into slow decline.
 3.8 Mosquitoes

Plate 4: Mosquito (Aedes aegypti) biting a human

Source: wikipedia.org

Mosquitoes are midge-like flies in the family Culicidae. Females of most species
feed on blood and some act as vectors for malaria and other diseases. Historically
they have been controlled by use of DDT and other chemical means, but since the
adverse environmental effects of these insecticides has been realized, other means
of control have been attempted. The insects rely on water in which to breed and the
first line of control is to reduce possible breeding locations by draining marshes
and reducing accumulations of standing water. Other approaches include biological
control of larvae by the use of fish or other predators, genetic control, the
introduction of pathogens, growth-regulating hormones, the release of pheromones

and mosquito trapping.

Birds are a significant hazard to aircraft, but it is difficult to keep them away from
airfields. Several methods have been explored. Stunning birds by feeding them a
bait containing stupefying substances has been tried, and it may be possible to
reduce their numbers on airfields by reducing the number of earthworms and other
invertebrates by soil treatment. Leaving the grass long on airfields rather than
mowing it is also a deterrent to birds. Sonic nets are being trialled; these produce
sounds that birds find distracting and seem effective at keeping birds away from
affected areas.

4.0 Conclusion

Mosquitoes are midge-like flies in the family Culicidae. Females of most species
feed on blood and some act as vectors for malaria and other diseases. Historically
they have been controlled by use of DDT and other chemical means, but since the
adverse environmental effects of these insecticides has been realized, other means
of control have been attempted.
5.0 Summary
Termites with colonies in close proximity to houses can extend their galleries
underground and make mud tubes to enter homes. The insects keep out of sight and
chew their way through structural and decorative timbers, leaving the surface
layers intact, as well as through cardboard, plastic and insulation materials.
6.0 Tutor-marked Assignment
1. Define the term carpet beetles
Solution
Carpet beetles are members of the family Dermestidae, and while the adult beetles
feed on nectar and pollen, the larvae are destructive pests in homes, warehouses and
museums. They feed on animal products including wool, silk, leather, fur, the
bristles of hair brushes, pet hair, feathers and museum specimens. They tend to
infest hidden locations and may feed on larger areas of fabrics than do clothes
moths, leaving behind specks of excrement and brown, hollow, bristly-looking cast
skins.

7.0 References

Seaman, Abby. "Integrated Pest Management". University of Connecticut. Archived

from the original on 20 February 2012. Retrieved 13 March 2012.

"Understanding Integrated Insect Management Method". James Giner. Retrieved 2013-

01-19.

Cook, R. James; William L. Bruckart; Jack R. Coulson; Mark S. Goettel;

Richard A. Humber; Robert D. Lumsden; Joseph V. Maddox; Michael L.
McManus; Larry Moore; Susan F. Meyer; Paul C. Quimby Jr; James P. S
tack; James L. Vaughn (1996). "Safety of Microorganisms Intended for
Pest and Plant Disease Control: A Framework for Scientific
Evaluation". Biological Control. 7: 333–51. doi:10.1006/bcon.1996.0102.
MODULE 3
Unit 1 Pest management
Unit 2 Economic test
Unit 3 Economic damage

UNIT 1 PEST MANAGEMENT

CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Definition of term

3.2 Pest out break

3.3 Pest Resurgence

4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-marked Assignment
7.0 References

1.0 Introduction
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is an effective and environmentally sensitive
approach to pest management that relies on a combination of common-sense
practices. IPM programs use current, comprehensive information on the life cycles
of pests and their interaction with the environment. This information, in
combination with available pest control methods, is used to manage pest damage
by the most economical means, and with the least possible hazard to people,
property, and the environment.

2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you will get to know why IPM an effective and
environmentally sensitive approach to pest management.

3.0 Main content

3.1 Definition of term

The Pest Management approach can be applied to both agricultural and non-
agricultural settings, such as the home, garden, and workplace. IPM takes
advantage of all appropriate pest management options including, but not limited to,
the judicious use of pesticides. In contrast, organic food production applies many
of the same concepts as IPM but limits the use of pesticides to those that are
produced from natural sources, as opposed to synthetic chemicals.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is an effective and environmentally sensitive

approach to pest management that relies on a combination of common-sense
practices. IPM programs use current, comprehensive information on the life cycles
of pests and their interaction with the environment. This information, in
combination with available pest control methods, is used to manage pest damage
by the most economical means, and with the least possible hazard to people,
property, and the environment.

The IPM approach can be applied to both agricultural and non-agricultural settings,
such as the home, garden, and workplace. IPM takes advantage of all appropriate
pest management options including, but not limited to, the judicious use of
pesticides. In contrast, organic food production applies many of the same concepts
as IPM but limits the use of pesticides to those that are produced from natural
sources, as opposed to synthetic chemicals.

3.2 PEST OUT BREAK

Pest outbreak is an explosive increase in population of a particular species, that

occurs over a shout period of time (e.g) attack of locust, army worm etc. In
epidemiology, an outbreak is a sudden increase in occurrences of a disease in a
particular time and place. It may affect a small and localized group or impact upon
thousands of people across an entire continent. Four linked cases of a rare infectious

disease may be sufficient to constitute an outbreak. Outbreaks include epidemics,

which term is normally only used for infectious diseases, as well as diseases with an
environmental origin, such as a water or foodborne disease. They may affect a region
in a country or a group of countries. Pandemics are near-global disease outbreaks.
The terms "outbreak" and "epidemic" have often been used interchangeably.
Researchers Manfred S. Green and colleagues propose that the latter term be
restricted to larger events, pointing out that Chambers Concise Dictionary and Stedman's

Medical Dictionary acknowledge this distinction.

When investigating disease outbreaks, the epidemiology profession has developed
a number of widely accepted steps. As described by the United States Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, these include the following:[2]

 Identify the existence of the outbreak (Is the group of ill persons normal for
the time of year, geographic area, etc.?)
 Verify the diagnosis related to the outbreak
 Create a case definition to define who/what is included as a case
 Map the spread of the outbreak using Information technology as diagnosis is
reported to insurance
 Develop a hypothesis (What appears to be causing the outbreak?)
 Study hypotheses (collect data and perform analysis)
 Refine hypothesis and carry out further study
 Develop and implement control and prevention systems
 Release findings to greater communities

The order of the above steps and relative amount of effort and resources used in
each varies from outbreak to outbreak. For example, prevention and control
measures are usually implemented very early in the investigation, often before the
causative agent is known. In many situations, promoting good hygiene and hand-
washing is one of the first things recommended. Other interventions may be added
as the investigation moves forward and more information is obtained. Waiting until
the end of an investigation to implement prevention and control measures is a sure
way to lose ones job. In outbreaks identified through notifiable disease
surveillance, reports are often linked to laboratory results and verifying the
diagnosis is straight forward. In outbreaks of unknown etiology, determining and
verifying the diagnosis can be a significant part of the investigation with respect to
time and resources. Several steps are usually going on at any point in time during
the investigation. Steps may be repeated. For example, initial case definitions are
often established to be intentionally broad but later refined as more is learned about
the outbreak. The above list has 9 steps, others have more. Implementing active
surveillance to identify additional cases is often added.

3.3 PEST RESURGENCE

Pest resurgence is the rapid reappearance of a pest population in injurious numbers,

usually brought about after the application of a broad-spectrum pesticide has killed
the natural enemies which normally keep a pest in check.

A well-known example in rice cultivation is the resurgence of brown plant hopper

(BPH). If no pesticides are used, BPH is kept under control by its natural enemies
(mirid bugs, ladybird beetles, spiders and various pathogens). Pesticides kill the
beneficial and create a situation where populations of BPH can multiply rapidly
and thus become a man-made pest.

Resurgence can be easily avoided by not spraying pesticides. But for many farmers
it is difficult to recognize that resurgence has occurred in their field. They spray
regularly because they see pests in their fields, without realizing that it is actually
the spraying which is causing the pest problem.
Plate 1: Image of a farmer spraying pesticides

Source: Smith(1949).

Avoid pest resurgence by not spraying toxic pesticides

Another example is about spider mites. Spider mites are normally kept under
control by populations of predatory mites. If pesticides are used, the predatory
mites get wiped out and the populations of spider mites can increase and become a
problem. The farmer responds by spraying more (to control the spider mites) while
the proper response would be to stop spraying so that predatory mites can come
back to control the pest.
Plate 2: Spider mite (adult female)

Source: Wikipedia encyclopedia

4.0Conclusion

Resurgence can be easily avoided by not spraying pesticides. But for many farmers
it is difficult to recognize that resurgence has occurred in their field. They spray
regularly because they see pests in their fields, without realizing that it is actually
the spraying which is causing the pest problem.

5.0 Summary
Pest resurgence is the rapid reappearance of a pest population in injurious numbers,
usually brought about after the application of a broad-spectrum pesticide has killed
the natural enemies which normally keep a pest in check.

6.0 Tutor-marked Assignment

1. Define the term pest resurgence.
Solution

Pest resurgence is the rapid reappearance of a pest population in injurious numbers,

usually brought about after the application of a broad-spectrum pesticide has killed
the natural enemies which normally keep a pest in check.

7.0 References

Van Lenteren, J. C. (2009). "Implementation of biological control". American

Journal of Alternative Agriculture. 3 (2–3): 102. 102.

Babendreier, Dirk (2007). "Biological Invasion: Pros and Cons of Biological

Control". Ecological Studies. 193 (7): 403–414. doi:10.1007/978-3-540- 36920-
2_23.

UNIT 2 ECONOMIC TEST

CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Definition of term

4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-marked Assignment
7.0 References
1.0Introduction

When the damage done to the crop by a pest, causes a loss in quality or quantity
reaches to a certain proportion that can be calculated, the loss caused by such pest
is called economics pest.

PEST analysis (political, economic, socio-cultural and technological) describes a

framework of macro-environmental factors used in the environmental scanning
component of strategic management. It is part of an external analysis when
conducting a strategic analysis or doing market research, and gives an overview of
the different macro-environmental factors to be taken into consideration. It is a
strategic tool for understanding market growth or decline, business position,
potential and direction for operations.

2.0 Objectives

At the end of this unit, you will get to know more about the PEST Analysis.
3.0 Main content
3.1 Definition of term

PEST analysis (political, economic, socio-cultural and technological) describes a

framework of macro-environmental factors used in the environmental scanning
component of strategic management. It is part of an external analysis when
conducting a strategic analysis or doing market research, and gives an overview of
the different macro-environmental factors to be taken into consideration. It is a
strategic tool for understanding market growth or decline, business position,
potential and direction for operations.

Variants that build on the PEST framework include:

 PESTEL or PESTLE, which adds legal and environmental factors. Popular

in the United Kingdom.
 SLEPT, adding legal factors.
 STEPE, adding ecological factors.
 STEEPLE and STEEPLED, adding ethics and demographic factors
(occasionally rendered as PESTLEE).
 DESTEP, adding demographic and ecological factors.
 SPELIT, adding legal and intercultural factors, popular in the United States
since the mid-2000s.
 PMESII-PT, a form of environmental analysis which looks at the aspects of
political, military, economic, social, information, infrastructure, physical
environment and time aspects in a military context.
There is also STEER, which considers socio-cultural, technological, economic,
ecological, and regulatory factors, but does not specifically include political factors

 Political factors relate to how the government intervenes in the economy.

Specifically, political factors have areas including tax policy, labour law,

environmental law, trade restrictions, tariffs, and political stability. Political factors
may also include goods and services which the government aims to provide
or be provided (merit goods) and those that the government does not want to be
provided (demerit goods or merit bads). Furthermore, governments have a high
impact on the health, education, and infrastructure of a nation.
 Economic factors include economic growth, exchange rates, inflation rate, and interest

rates. These factors greatly affect how businesses operate and make
decisions. For example, interest rates affect a firm's cost of capital and therefore
to what extent a business grows and expands. Exchange rates can affect the
costs of exporting goods and the supply and price of imported goods in an
economy.
 Social factors include the cultural aspects and health consciousness,
population growth rate, age distribution, career attitudes and emphasis on
safety. High trends in social factors affect the demand for a company's
products and how that company operates. For example, the ageing
population may imply a smaller and less-willing workforce (thus increasing
the cost of labour). Furthermore, companies may change various
management strategies to adapt to social trends caused from this (such as
recruiting older workers).
 Technological factors include technological aspects like R&D activity,
automation, technology incentives and the rate of technological change. These can
determine barriers to entry, minimum efficient production level and influence
 the outsourcing decisions. Furthermore, technological shifts would affect costs,
quality, and lead to innovation.

Expanding the analysis to PESTLE or PESTEL adds:

 Legal factors include discrimination law, consumer law, antitrust law, employment law,

and health and safety law. These factors can affect how a company operates, its
costs, and the demand for its products.
 Environmental factors include ecological and environmental aspects such as
weather, climate, and climate change, which may especially affect industries
such as tourism, farming, and insurance. Furthermore, growing awareness of
the potential impacts of climate change is affecting how companies operate
and the products they offer, both creating new markets and diminishing or
destroying existing ones.

Other factors for the various offshoots include:

 Demographic factors include gender, age, ethnicity, knowledge of

languages, disabilities, mobility, home ownership, employment status,
religious belief or practice, culture and tradition, living standards and
income level.
 Regulatory factors include acts of parliament and associated regulations,
international and national standards, local government by-laws, and
mechanisms to monitor and ensure compliance with these.

More factors discussed in the SPELIT Power Matrix include:

 Inter-cultural factors considers collaboration in a global setting.

  Other specialized factors discussed in chapter 10 of the SPELIT Power
Matrix include the Ethical, Educational, Physical, Religious, and Security
environments. The security environment may include either personal,
company, or national security.
 Other business-related factors that might be considered in an environmental
analysis include Competition, Demographics, Ecological, Geographical,
Historical, Organizational, and Temporal (schedule)

4.0 Conclusion

More factors discussed in the SPELIT Power Matrix include:

 Inter-cultural factors considers collaboration in a global setting.

Other specialized factors discussed in chapter 10 of the SPELIT Power Matrix

include the Ethical, Educational, Physical, Religious, and Security
5.0 Summary

PEST analysis (political, economic, socio-cultural and technological) describes a

framework of macro-environmental factors used in the environmental scanning

component of strategic management. It is part of an external analysis when conducting

a strategic analysis or doing market research, and gives an overview of the different
macro-environmental factors to be taken into consideration.
6.0 Tutor-marked Assignment
1. Define the PEST Analysis

Solution
PEST analysis (political, economic, socio-cultural and technological) describes a
framework of macro-environmental factors used in the environmental scanning

component of strategic management. It is part of an external analysis when conducting

a strategic analysis or doing market research, and gives an overview of the different
macro-environmental factors to be taken into consideration.
7.0 References

"Understanding Integrated Insect Management Method". James Giner. Retrieved 2013-

01-19.

Cook, R. James; William L. Bruckart; Jack R. Coulson; Mark S. Goettel;

Richard A. Humber; Robert D. Lumsden; Joseph V. Maddox; Michael L.
McManus; Larry Moore; Susan F. Meyer; Paul C. Quimby Jr; James P.
Stack; James L. Vaughn (1996). "Safety of Microorganisms Intended for
Pest and Plant Disease Control: A Framework for Scientific
Evaluation". Biological Control. 7: 333– 351
UNIT 3 ECONOMIC DAMAGE
CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content

3.1 Definition of term

3.2 Factors affecting supply

3.3 The economic injury level of cotton pest

4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-marked Assignment
7.0 References

1.0 Introduction

The amount of pest induced injury to the crop, which will justify the cost of
artificial control measures is called as the economic damage

An economic threshold is the insect's population level or extent of crop damage at

which the value of the crop destroyed exceeds the cost of controlling the pest. [1]
Economic thresholds can be expressed in a variety of ways including the number
of insects per plant or per square metre, the amount of leaf surface damage, etc. In
many cases, thresholds have been established through scientific research. Because
some combinations of pests and crops have not yet been studied, some thresholds
are just educated estimates.

2.0Objectives

At the end of this unit, you will get to know the Economic threshold of crops.

3.0 Main content

3.1 Definition of term

The amount of pest induced injury to the crop, which will justify the cost of
artificial control measures is called as the economic damage

An economic threshold is the insect's population level or extent of crop damage at

which the value of the crop destroyed exceeds the cost of controlling the pest. [1]
Economic thresholds can be expressed in a variety of ways including the number
of insects per plant or per square metre, the amount of leaf surface damage, etc. In
many cases, thresholds have been established through scientific research. Because
some combinations of pests and crops have not yet been studied, some thresholds
are just educated estimates.

Sub- economic pest /Non – economic pest

A pest with a general equilibrium position far below the economic injury level;
highest pest population does not reach the economic injury level.

In economics, supply is the amount of a resource that firms, producers, labourers,

providers of financial assets, or other economic agents are willing and able to provide
to the marketplace or directly to another agent in the marketplace. Supply can be in
currency, time, raw materials, or any other scarce or valuable object that can be
provided to another agent. This is often fairly abstract. For example in the case of
time, supply is not transferred to one agent from another, but one agent may offer
some other resource in exchange for the first spending time doing something.
Supply is often plotted graphically as a supply curve, with the quantity provided
(the dependent variable) plotted horizontally and the price (the independent variable)
plotted vertically.

In the goods market, supply is the amount of a product per unit of time that producers
are willing to sell at various given prices when all other factors are held constant.
In the labor market, the supply of labor is the amount of time per week, month, or year
that individuals are willing to spend working, as a function of the wage rate.

In financial markets, the money supply is the amount of highly liquid assets available in
the money market, which is either determined or influenced by a country's monetary
authority. This can vary based on which type of money supply one is discussing. M1

for example is commonly used to refer to narrow money, coins, cash, and other
money equivalents that can be converted to currency nearly instantly. M2 by
contrast includes all of M1 but also includes short-term deposits and certain types
of market funds.

A supply schedule is a table which shows how much one or more firms will be
willing to supply at particular prices under the existing circumstances. Some of the
more important factors affecting supply are the good's own price, the prices of
related goods, production costs, technology, the production function, and
expectations of sellers.
 3.2 Factors affecting supply

Innumerable factors and circumstances could affect a seller's willingness or ability

to produce and sell a good. Some of the more common factors are:

Good's own price: The basic supply relationship is between the price of a good and
the quantity supplied. Although there is no "Law of Supply", generally, the
relationship is positive, meaning that an increase in price will induce an increase in
the quantity supplied.
Prices of related goods: For purposes of supply analysis related goods refer to
goods from which inputs are derived to be used in the production of the primary
good. For example, Spam is made from pork shoulders and ham. Both are derived
from pigs. Therefore, pigs would be considered a related good to Spam. In this
case the relationship would be negative or inverse. If the price of pigs goes up the
supply of Spam would decrease (supply curve shifts left) because the cost of
production would have increased. A related good may also be a good that can be
produced with the firm's existing factors of production. For example, suppose that a
firm produces leather belts, and that the firm's managers learn that leather pouches
for smart phones are more profitable than belts. The firm might reduce its
production of belts and begin production of cell phone pouches based on this
information. Finally, a change in the price of a joint product will affect supply. For
example, beef products and leather are joint products. If a company runs both a
beef processing operation and a tannery an increase in the price of steaks would
mean that more cattle are processed which would increase the supply of leather.
Conditions of production: The most significant factor here is the state of
technology. If there is a technological advancement in one good's production, the supply
increases. Other variables may also affect production conditions. For instance, for
agricultural goods, weather is crucial for it may affect the production outputs
Economies of scale can also affect conditions of production.
Expectations: Sellers' concern for future market conditions can directly affect
supply. If the seller believes that the demand for his product will sharply increase in
the foreseeable future the firm owner may immediately increase production in
anticipation of future price increases. The supply curve would shift out.
Price of inputs: Inputs include land, labor, energy and raw materials. If the price of
inputs increases the supply curve will shift left as sellers are less willing or able to
sell goods at any given price. For example, if the price of electricity increased a
seller may reduce his supply of his product because of the increased costs of
production. Fixed inputs can affect the price of inputs, and the scale of production
can affect how much the fixed costs translate into the end price of the good.
Number of suppliers: The market supply curve is the horizontal summation of the
individual supply curves. As more firms enter the industry, the market supply
curve will shift out, driving down prices.
Government policies and regulations: Government intervention can have a significant
effect on supply Government intervention can take many forms including
environmental and health regulations, hour and wage laws, taxes, electrical and
natural gas rates and zoning and land use regulations.

This list is not exhaustive. All facts and circumstances that are relevant to a seller's
willingness or ability to produce and sell goods can affect supply. For example, if
the forecast is for snow retail sellers will respond by increasing their stocks of
snow sleds or skis or winter clothing or bread and milk.

Supply functions, then, may be classified according to the source from which they
come: consumers or firms. Each type of supply function is now considered in turn.
In so doing, the following notational conventions are employed: There are I
produced goods, each defining a single industry, and J factors. The indices i = 1,…,
I and J = 1,…, J run, respectively, over produced goods (industries) and factors. Let
n index all goods by first listing produced goods and then factors so that n = 1,…, I,
I + 1,…, I + J. The number of firms in industry i is written L i, and these firms are
indexed by l = 1,…, L i. There are K consumers enumerated as k = 1,…, K. The

variable represents the quantities of factor j consumed by consumer k. This

person can have endowments of good j from to . If < then person k

is a supplier of j. If the opposite is true, they are a consumer of j.

The supply function is the mathematical expression of the relationship between

supply and those factors that affect the willingness and ability of a supplier to offer
goods for sale. An example would be the curve implied by where is the price of the
good and is the price of a related good. The semicolon means that the variables to
the right are held constant when quantity supplied is plotted against the good's own
price. The supply equation is the explicit mathematical expression of the functional
relationship. A linear example in here is the repository of all non-specified factors
that affect supply for the product. The coefficient of is positive following the

general rule that price and quantity supplied are directly related. is the price of
a related good. Typically, its coefficient is negative because the related good is an
input or a source of inputs.

3.3 The Economic Injury Level of Cotton pest is mentioned below

 Pest: Economic injury level
 Jassid 1 Per leaf
 Thrips 8 Per leaf
 Whitefly 5 per leaf
  Whitefly 5 per leaf
 Aphid 5-7 per leaf
 Mite 10-15 per leaf
 Spotted boll worm 5-10% infestation
 Pink Boll worm 5-10% infestation

4.0 Conclusion
In economics, supply is the amount of a resource that firms, producers, labourers,

providers of financial assets, or other economic agents are willing and able to provide to
the marketplace or directly to another agent in the marketplace. Supply can be in
currency, time, raw materials, or any other scarce or valuable object that can be
provided to another agent.
5.0 Summary

An economic threshold is the insect's population level or extent of crop damage at

which the value of the crop destroyed exceeds the cost of controlling the pest.
Economic thresholds can be expressed in a variety of ways including the number
of insects per plant or per square metre, the amount of leaf surface damage, etc. In
many cases, thresholds have been established through scientific research. Because
some combinations of pests and crops have not yet been studied, some thresholds
are just educated estimates.

6.0 Tutor-marked Assignment

1. Define the term supply schedules

Solution

A supply schedule is a table which shows how much one or more firms will be
willing to supply at particular prices under the existing circumstances. Some of the
more important factors affecting supply are the good's own price, the prices of
related goods, production costs, technology, the production function, and
expectations of sellers.

7.0 References

W. Klassen;
C.F. Curtis (2005). "1.1". In V.A. Dyck; J. Hendrichs; A.S.
Robinson (eds.). Sterile Insect Technique: Principles and Practice in Area-
Wide Integrated Pest Management. Netherlands: Springer. pp. 4–28.

Thomson, Linda; Bennett, David; Glenn, DeAnn; Hoffman, Ary (2 September

2003). Opender Koul; G. S. Dhaliwal (eds.). Developing Trichogramma as a
Pest Management Tool. Predators and Parasitoids. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-203-
30256-9.

Mills NJ, Daane KM (2005) Biological and cultural controls . . . Nonpesticide

alternatives can suppress crop pests. California Agriculture 59.

MODULE 4
Unit 1 Surveillance / Pest scouting
Unit 2 Pest Complex
Unit 3 Kinds of Pests

UNIT 1: SURVEILLANCE / PEST SCOUTING

CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Definition of term
 3.2 Crop scouting
3.3 Method of pest scouting
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-marked Assignment
7.0 References

1.0 Introduction
The watch kept on a pest for determination of population density, dispersion and
dynamics, is called surveillance or pest scouting . A grower gets knowledge of
pest population only through pest scouting. On the basis of which he may see that
pest has reached economic injury level or not. Other words, it is time to spray or
not.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this, you will get to know what is meant by the term surveillance or
pest scouting.
3.0 Main content
3.1 Definition of term
The watch kept on a pest for determination of population density, dispersion and
dynamics, is called surveillance or pest scouting. A grower gets knowledge of pest
population only through pest scouting. On the basis of which he may see that pest
has reached economic injury level or not. Other words, it is time to spray or not.
3.2 Crop scouting

Crop scouting is the process of precisely assessing pest pressure (typically insects)
and crop performance to evaluate economic risk from pest infestations and disease, as well
as to determine the potential effectiveness of pest and disease control interventions.
Scouting is usually sold as a commercial service to farmers as part of Integrated pest

management. New tools are available to increase the effectiveness of crop scouting,
including specialized field instruments and handheld computers with GPS, enabling
geotagging of crop problems. There exists a new generation of crop scouting systems
that enables growers and crop consultants to precisely and accurately locate and
tag crop issues, visualize them on an aerial map and make decisions for site-
specific treatments. Before starting any actual scouting, preparation is essential to
provide accurate information in an efficient manner. Crop scouting is a Integrated pest
management strategy that looks at many different aspects of crop production, not just
any single pest or problem. Scouts must be actively observing environmental
conditions, beneficial insects, pest insects, diseases, weeds, crop growth stage, and
the general health of the crop in question to get a complete picture of any
problems. Since field and landscape characteristics affect pest distribution,
symptom expression, crop injury, and crop recovery, it is important to develop a
complete field history in order to properly assess and plan management strategies.
The frequency with which fields are scouted depends on the type of crop grown,
stage of crop life cycle, present and expected pest(s) and their lifecycle, and
environmental conditions (weather). Based on these variables, field visits should
be planned to ensure that crop establishes itself, that growth proceeds with healthy
development and does not proceed into a population bottleneck, and that pests do not
pass the economic threshold level, after which they could become a major
problem. This is generally not a problem after the crop has reached a specific stage
in development (specific to variety), so the number of visits can be reduced.
Frequency of visits to problem fields should not be reduced, and these fields
should be strictly monitored.
Since covering the entire population of a whole field would take lots of time,
sample populations must be surveyed to ensure quick and efficient data collection
and distribution. Sampling patterns are completely randomized to ensure that each
subdivision in a field has an equal chance of being sampled. Restrictions to these
randomized sampling techniques are imposed to correct the possible error of
oversampling in a specific area, and to make sure that all areas of the field are
sampled.

Some of the most common randomized patterns are a predetermined zigzag or M-

shaped route through rectangular shaped fields. Routes for irregular shaped fields
should be made, ensuring that every subdivision of the field is visited, these
randomized routes are field specific. Scouting along the edge of a field should not
be practiced unless for specific pests, this kind of sampling usually does not show
the baring of effects on the whole field

3.3 Method of pest scouting

There are various methods of pest scouting. The most famous are mentioned
below.
1. Maryo’s Method
2. Diagonal Method
3. Zig Zag Method

4.0 Conclusion

Some of the most common randomized patterns are a predetermined zigzag or M-

shaped route through rectangular shaped fields. Routes for irregular shaped fields
should be made, ensuring that every subdivision of the field is visited, these
randomized routes are field specific.
5.0 Summary

Scouting along the edge of a field should not be practiced unless for specific pests,
this kind of sampling usually does not show the baring of effects on the whole
field.

6.0 Tutor-marked Assignment

1. List the methods of pest scouting
Solution
There are various methods of pest scouting. The most famous are mentioned
below:

1. Maryo’s Method
2. Diagonal Method
3. Zig Zag Method

7.0 Reference

Organic Materials Review Institute, "The OMRI Product

List," http://www.omri.org/OMRI_about_list.html approved product list.

Pottorff LP. Some Pesticides Permitted in Organic Gardening. Colorado State University
Cooperative Extension.Consoli, Fernando L.; Parra, José Roberto Postali; Zucchi,
Roberto Antônio (28 September 2010). Egg Parasitoids in Agroecosystems with Emphasis
on Trichogramma. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4020-9110-0

UNIT 2 PEST COMPLEX

CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 General Overview
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-marked Assignment
7.0 References

1.0 Introduction
In many cases particular crop may be attacked by various insects and pathogen
species which after that form interacting position, which is known as pest complex.
This article is about a group of very similar species. For "species-group names" in
zoological nomenclature, see International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. For
individuals of different species grouping together, see Mutualism (biology) § Service-

service relationships.

"Cryptic species" redirects here. For the principles of hiding, see Crypsis. For a
supposed creature whose existence is not scientifically recognized, see Cryptid.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you will be enlightened on pest complex.
3.0 Main content
3.1 General Overview
In many cases particular crop may be attacked by various insects and
pathogen species which after that form interacting position, which is known as pest
complex.
This article is about a group of very similar species. For "species-group names" in
zoological nomenclature, see International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. For
individuals of different species grouping together, see Mutualism (biology) § Service-

service relationships.
"Cryptic species" redirects here. For the principles of hiding, see Crypsis. For a
supposed creature whose existence is not scientifically recognized, see Cryptid.
"Physiologic race" redirects here. For the mycology and phytopathology informal
classification, see Race (biology) § Physiological race.

Plate 1: Image of a butterfly

The butterfly genus Heliconius contains some species extremely difficult to tell apart.
Source: Encyclopedia

In biology, a species complex is a group of closely related organisms that are very
similar in appearance to the point that the boundaries between them are often
unclear. Terms sometimes used synonymously but with more precise meanings
are: cryptic species for two or more species hidden under one species name, sibling
species for two cryptic species that are each other's closest relative, and species
flock for a group of closely related species living in the same habitat. As informal
taxonomic ranks, species group, species aggregate, and super-species are also in use.

Two or more taxa once considered conspecific (of the same species) may later be
subdivided into infraspecific taxa (taxa within a species, such as bacterial strains or
plant varieties), but this is not a species complex.
A species complex is in most cases a monophyletic group with a common ancestor,
although there are exceptions. It may represent an early stage after speciation, but
may also have been separated for a long time period without evolving morphological
differences. Hybrid speciation can be a component in the evolution of a species
complex.

Species complexes exist in all groups of organisms. They are identified by the
rigorous study of differences between individual species, making use of minute
morphological details, tests of reproductive isolation, or DNA-based methods such as
molecular phylogenetics or DNA barcoding. The existence of extremely similar species

may cause local and global species diversity to be underestimated. Recognizing

similar but distinct species is important for disease and pest control, and in conservation
biology, although drawing dividing lines between species can be inherently difficult.

A species complex is typically considered as a group of close, but distinct species.

Obviously, the concept is closely tied to the definition of a species. Modern
biology understands a species as "separately evolving meta populationlineage" but
acknowledges that the criteria to delimit species may depend on the group studied.
Thus, many species defined traditionally, based only on morphological similarity,
have been found to comprise several distinct species when other criteria, such as
genetic differentiation or reproductive isolation were applied.

A more restricted use applies the term to close species between which hybridization
occurred or is occurring, leading to intermediate forms and blurred species
boundaries. The informal classification, super species, can be exemplified by the
grizzled skipper butterfly, a super species that is further divided into three subspecies.
Some authors apply the term also to a species with intraspecific variability, which
might be a sign of ongoing or incipient speciation. Examples are ring species or
species with subspecies, where it is often unclear if these should be considered
separate species.

Several terms are used synonymously for a species complex, but some of them
may also have slightly different or narrower meanings. In the nomenclature codes of
zoology and bacteriology, no taxonomic ranks are defined at the level between
subgenera and species,[13][14] while the botanical code defines four ranks below genera
(section, subsections, series and subseries). Different informal taxonomic solutions
have been used to indicate a species complex

Cryptic species
Also called physiologic race (uncommon). This describes "distinct species
that are erroneously classified (and hidden) under one species name" More
generally, the term is often applied when species, even if known to be
distinct, cannot be reliably distinguished based on their morphology. The
usage physiologic race is not to be confused with physiological race.

Sibling species
Also called aphanic species. This term, introduced by Ernst Mayr in 1942, was
initially used with the same meaning as cryptic species,[7] but later authors
emphasized the common phylogenetic origin. A recent article defines sibling
species as "cryptic sister species", meaning "two species that are the closest
relative of each other and have not been distinguished from one another
taxonomically".

Species flock
 Also called species swarm. This refers to "a monophyletic group of closely
related species all living in the same ecosystem". Conversely, the term has
also been applied very broadly to a group of closely related species than can
be variable and widespread.

Superspecies
Sometimes used as an informal rank for a species complex around one
"representative" species. Popularized by Bernhard Rensch and later Ernst Mayr,

with the initial requirement that species forming a superspecies must have
allopatric distributions. For the component species of a superspecies,
allospecies was proposed.

Species aggregate
Used for a species complex, especially in plant taxa where polypoidy and
apomixis are common. Historical synonyms are species collectiva, introduced
by Adolf Engler, conspecies, and grex. Components of a species aggregate
have been called segregates or microspecies. Used as abbreviation agg. after
the binomial species name.

Sensu lato
A Latin phrase meaning "in the broad sense", it is often used after a binomial species name,
often abbreviated as s.l., to indicate a species complex represented by that species.
4.0 Conclusion
Several terms are used synonymously for a species complex, but some of them
may also have slightly different or narrower meanings. In the nomenclature codes of
zoology and bacteriology, no taxonomic ranks are defined at the level between
subgenera and species, while the botanical code defines four ranks below genera
(section, subsections, series and subseries).
5.0 Summary
A species complex is typically considered as a group of close, but distinct species
Obviously, the concept is closely tied to the definition of a species. Modern
biology understands a species as "separately evolving metapopulationlineage" but
acknowledges that the criteria to delimit species may depend on the group studied.
6.0 Tutor-marked Assignment
1. List two informal taxonomic solutions to indicate species complex.
Solution

Cryptic species
Also called physiologic race(uncommon). This describes "distinct species
that are erroneously classified (and hidden) under one species name". More
generally, the term is often applied when species, even if known to be
distinct, cannot be reliably distinguished based on their morphology. The
usage physiologic race is not to be confused with physiological race.

Sibling species
Also called aphanic species. This term, introduced by Ernst Mayr in 1942, was
initially used with the same meaning as cryptic species, but later authors
emphasized the common phylogenetic origin. A recent article defines sibling
species as "cryptic sister species", meaning "two species that are the closest
relative of each other and have not been distinguished from one another
taxonomically".

7.0 References

"IPM Guidelines".
UMassAmherst—Integrated Pest Management, Agriculture and
Landscape Program. 2009. Archived from the original on 12 March 2012.
Retrieved 13 March 2012.
Sandler, Hilary A. (2010). "Integrated Pest Management". Cranberry Station
Best Management Practices. 1 (1): 12–15.

Handbook of Pest Control, Mallis, Arnold, 10th edition, Hedges, Stoy, Editor.
pp.1499-1500
UNIT 3 KINDS OF PESTS

CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Kinds of pest
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-marked Assignment
7.0 References

1.0 Introduction
Any pest, which causes more loss to our crop, it is marked as major pest. (e.g)
sugarcane black bug.
When damage caused by pest is slight, such pest is referred as a minor pest (e.g)
sugarcane black bug.
Key pests are perennially persistent species that dominate control practices. The
pest population usually remain themselves above economic injury level. (e.g)
jassid, Mango hopper etc. in simple words key pest may also be defined as, an
insect pest or disease normally present at some time during the growing season that
causes economic damage to a crop.
2.0Objectives
At the end of this unit, you will get to know the major kinds of pests.
3.0 Main content
3.1 Kinds of Pests

1. Major Pest: Any pest, which casuses more loss to our crop, it is
marked as major pest. (e.g) sugarcane black bug
2. Minor pest: When damage caused by pest is slight, such pest is
referred as a minor pes (e.g) sugarcane black bug.
3. Key Pest: Key pests are perennially persistent species that dominate
control practices. The pest population usually remain themselves
above economic injury level. (e.g) jassid, Mango hopper etc. in simple
words key pest may also be defined as, an insect pest or disease
normally present at some time during the growing season that causes
economic damage to a crop
4. Occasional Pest: it causes economic damage only in certan places or
at certain times. Such pest have usually adequate biological or
envinmental control. E.g hairy caterpillar
5. Potential pest/ Secondary Pest:it casuses no significant damage but
due to injurious use of chemicals or cultural practices they case
significant loss (e.g) miges
6. Migrant pest: Migrant pests are non resistant of agro-ecosystem that
enter periodically for short period of time ( e.g) desert locust and
other four types of locust, army worms etc

What are the types of pest control?

There are two main types of pest control, which are defined below:
 Natural control: Natural control is collective action of environmental
factors i.e., physical and biotic, that maintain number of pest
population within certain upper and lower limits over a period of time.

 Applied control/Artificial control: Applied control includes a whole

range of practices, developed or modified by men, that becomes
necessary when natural control factors fail to control the pest. Applied
control may be divided into following types:

Cultural control: The cultural control is the reduction of insect

population by the utilization of agricultural practices, to make
environment unfavorable for pest, (e.g.) through ploughing, hoeing,
irrigation, early or late sowing etc.
Mechanical control: The control of pest by mechanical means
involving operation of machinery, mechanical devices and manual
effort. Mechanical control is mostly done against weeds, rats, locusts
etc., in areas where labour is cheap.
Biological control: The use of living organisms and viruses to bring
down the pest population to sub-economic level. In other words,control
of life through life, (e.g.) through, predators and parasitoides.
 Genetic control: In this propagation and release of sterile and
genetically incompatible individuals is done in pest population, to
check pest.
 Chemical control: In this toxic chemicals including pesticides, and
sterilants, semi chemicals, growth regulators etc., are used to check
pest population quickly.
  Regularity or legislative method of control: The control of pest by
human controlling activities and laws. For this quarantine department
is made.

 quarantine department?
 It is one of the divisions of department of plant protection government
of Pakistan. Its function is to check the pests from entering into the
area in which the host plants are growing, to reduce the chance of
foreign pest attack.

 quarantine department?
 There are four main laws of quarantine, which are mentioned below:

 To prevent the introduction of new pest from abroad.

 To prevent the spread of established pest within country.
 Legislation to enforce the application of control measure against pest.
 Legislation to prevent the adulteration and adverse handling of
insecticides.

 causal organism?
 It is an organism (i.e. fungi, bacteria, or virus) that produces a
specific disease.
What is male sterile technique?
 It is the technique of genetic control of the pest, in which the
reproductive capacity of the male is destroyed.

4.0 Conclusion
The use of living organisms and viruses to bring down the pest population to
sub-economic level. In other words, control of life through life, (e.g.)
through, predators and parasitoids.
5.0 Summary
There are basically two main types of pest control

 Natural control: Natural control is collective action of environmental

factors i.e., physical and biotic, that maintain number of pest
population within certain upper and lower limits over a period of time.

 Applied control/Artificial control: Applied control includes a whole

range of practices, developed or modified by men, that becomes
necessary when natural control factors fail to control the pest.

6.0 Tutor-marked Assignment

1. List the two main types of pest control.
Solution

 Natural control: Natural control is collective action of environmental

factors i.e., physical and biotic, that maintain number of pest
population within certain upper and lower limits over a period of time.

 Applied control/Artificial control: Applied control includes a whole

range of practices, developed or modified by men, that becomes
necessary when natural control factors fail to control the pest.

7.0 References

Wright, M. G.; Hoffmann, M. P.; Kuhar, T. P.; Gardner, J.; Pitcher, S. A. (2005).
"Evaluating risks of biological control introductions: A probabilistic risk-
assessment approach". Biological Control. 35 (3): 338– 347..

Charles Perrings; Mark Herbert Williamson; Silvana Dalmazzone (1 January

2000). The Economics of Biological Invasions. Edward Elgar
Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84064-378-7.
Clercq, P.; Mason, P. G.; Babendreier, D. (2011). "Benefits and risks of exotic
biological control agents". BioControl. 56 (4): 681–698..