Aircraft Controls : Primary flight

controls & Secondary flight

controls
Flight Control
• Aircraft flight control systems are divided into :
 Primary flight controls
 Secondary flight controls

• The ailerons, elevator (or stabilator), and rudder constitute the primary control
system and are required to control an aircraft safely during flight.

• Wing flaps, leading edge devices, spoilers, and trim systems constitute the
secondary control system and improve the performance characteristics of the
airplane or relieve the pilot of excessive control forces.
 ELEVATOR
The elevator controls the pitch
 On the horizontal tail, the elevator tilts up or down, decreasing or increasing lift on the tail.
 This tilts the nose of the airplane up and down.
Elevators tilted upwards – Pitch
up/Nose up

Elevators tilted downwards –

Pitch down/Nose down
 AILERON
The Ailerons Control Roll
 On the outer rear edge of each wing, the two ailerons tilt in opposite directions, up and down, decreasing
lift on one wing while increasing it on the other.
 This causes the airplane to roll to the left or right.
 To turn the airplane, the pilot uses the ailerons to tilt the wings in the desired direction.
Left Aileron tilted down
and
Right Aileron tilted up –
Airplane rolls towards right

Left Aileron tilted up

and
Right Aileron tilted down –
Airplane rolls towards Left
 RUDDER
The Rudder Controls Yaw
 On the vertical tail , the rudder swivels from side to side, pushing the tail in a left or right direction.
 A pilot usually uses the rudder along with the ailerons to turn the airplane..
Rudder tilted left – Left
Turn

Rudder tilted Right – Right

Turn
Secondary Flight Controls
Flaps
• Flaps are the most common high-lift devices used on aircraft.
• These surfaces, which are attached to the trailing edge of the
wing, increase lift
• Flaps are deployed to generate additional lift when flying at low
speeds, especially during take-off, landing
Leading Edge Devices
• High-lift devices also can be applied to the
leading edge of the airfoil. The most common
types are fixed slots, movable slats, leading
edge flaps, and cuffs.
Spoilers
• Spoilers are high drag devices that are
deployed from the wings to spoil the smooth
airflow, reducing lift and increasing drag.
• Spoilers are also deployed to help reduce
ground roll after landing. By destroying lift,
they transfer weight to the wheels, improving
braking effectiveness.
Trim Systems

• Trim systems are used to relieve the pilot of the need to

maintain constant pressure on the flight controls, and usually
consist of flight deck controls and small hinged devices
attached to the trailing edge of one or more of the primary
flight control surfaces.
• Designed to help minimize a pilot’s workload,
Understanding Secondary Flight Controls:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G3Mf1XsQZvs
 AIRCRAFT
CONTROL SYSTEMS
FUNCTIONS
• Aircraft flight control systems operate the control surfaces namely
– Ailerons
– Rudders
– Elevators

and other support components like

– Flaps
– Trim Tab systems
– Air Brakes/Spoilers
– Slats
TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS

• Mechanical control systems

• Power assisted control systems (Hydraulic-Mechanical)

• Powered control systems

• Fly-by-wire and fly-by-optic

MECHANICAL
(Conventional)
FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS
 MECHANICAL FLIGHT CONTROLS
• Common in General Aviation Aircraft

• Gives pilot a lot of “feel” as he is directly connected to the

control surfaces on the aircraft

• Generally is made up of cables, pulleys, rods, and

sometimes even chains

• Routing these kind of systems throughout the aircraft

requires a lot of thought and creativity at times

• Generally not very good when there are large stick forces.
The pilots strength becomes the limiting factor.
A simple mechanical cable operated system as you will find on aircraft such as the Cessna C152. The
cables in some aircraft are replaced by rods. The control column can be moved by raising and
lowering the elevator

Neutral

Pitching down

Pitching up
POWERED FLIGHT
CONTROL SYSTEMS
 WHY POWERED FLYING CONTROLS?

• Mechanical controls require increased pilots efforts with

increased aerodynamic loads.
• Hydraulically operated controls decreases pilot’s efforts to move
controls, since only servo valves are operated by the pilot.
• Sometimes referred to as “boosted”
• Power Assisted
• Stick force by the pilot is augmented by the efforts from the hydraulic jack
• A certain proportion of loads are fed back to the pilot

• Power operated
• Control stick is used to open a hydraulic valve
• Control surfaces moves purely by hydraulic jacks
• No control surface loads are fed to the pilot
• Artificial feel unit access the handling characteristics

Working of an simplified Power operated flight control:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JKPMo1dpBCs
DISADVANTAGES OF HYDRAULIC MECHANICAL FLIGHT CONTROLS

• Analogous to power steering on a car, easier physically to make

control inputs but loss of “feel” can be a problem
• Adds complexity and weight to an already complex system
• Has to include hydraulic lines, actuators, pumps, and a linkage
between the hydraulic system and the mechanical cockpit controls
• Makes flying the aircraft less demanding and allows for high loads on
control surfaces and much physically larger control surfaces
• Sometimes makes use of “Artificial Feel Devices”
FLY-BY-WIRE
 Fly-by-wire control systems

• The term "fly-by-wire" implies a purely electrical signal control system

• It is a computer-configured controls, where a computer system is
interposed between the operator and the final control actuators or surfaces
• It modifies the manual inputs of the pilot in accordance with control
parameters
• These are carefully developed and validated in order to produce
maximum operational effect without compromising safety
FBW – Basic Operation
 FBW - Operation
• When a pilot moves the control, a signal is sent to a computer through wires.
• The computer receives the signals along with motion sensor and flight data,
performs a calculation
• These signals are then sent to the control surface actuator and the surface begins
to move.
• Potentiometers in the actuator send a signal back to the computer (usually a
negative voltage) reporting the position of the actuator.
• When the actuator reaches the desired position the two signals (incoming and
outgoing) cancel each other out and the actuator stops moving (completing a
feedback loop)
Fly by light – Research
Flight Instruments – Air Data Systems
Air speed and altitude measurements
What are flight instruments?
Flight Instruments are the instruments in the cockpit of an aircraft that provide
the pilot with information:

1. Flight Situation of an Aircraft.

2. Altitude at which the Aircraft is flying at.
3. Airspeed of the Aircraft.
4. And the Direction of the Aircraft.
basic flight instruments
• Altimeter
• Airspeed Indicator
• Machmeter
• Vertical Speed Indicator
• Angle of attack indicator
• Attitude Indicator
• Heading Indicator
• Turn Coordinator
Pitot Static System
 Image showing Pitot-Tube and Static Vent

Pitot-Tube Static Vent

Airspeed indicator (ASI)
• The ASI is the one instrument that utilizes both the pitot (stagnation), as well as the static system.
• The ASI introduces the static pressure into the airspeed case while the pitot pressure
(stagnation) is introduced into the diaphragm.
• The differential pressure (dynamic pressure) expands or contracts one side of the diaphragm, which is
attached to an indicating system. The system drives the mechanical linkage and the airspeed needle.
Altimeter
How an Altimeter works?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u3pbXX_krS4
Altimeter
• An Altimeter or an Altitude meter is an instrument used to measure
the Altitude of an object above a fixed level.
• The altimeter works by using a static port that is on the outside of
the aircraft.
• As you climb in altitude the outside pressure will drop, causing
aneroid wafers in the instrument to expand, which will then change
the altimeter reading on the gauge.
• As you descend, the aneroid wafers contracts again causing the
altimeter reading to change.
• The expansion and contraction of the wafers moves the mechanical
linkage which drives the needles on the face of the altimeter.
An video containing animations on how pitot-static instruments work.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kdFGbUouE_4
Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)
• This indicator basically just tells the pilot at what rate you are
climbing, descending, or if you are in level flight.
• This indicator uses the static port on the aircraft to measure
differences in pressure, which allows the gauge to measure whether
you are climbing or descending.
Angle of Attack Indicator

• An AOA vane works by aligning itself with the local airflow, like an arrow.
• The angle to some reference line (normally aircraft fuselage horizontal) is then measured with a potentiometer
etc.
 Gyroscopic Instruments
• Gyroscope : Device consisting of a wheel
having much of its mass concentrated
around the rim, mounted on a spinning
axis.
Characteristics :
• Rigidity in Space : Directional reference
• Precession : Tendency of the gyro to react
to an applied force 900 in the direction of
rotation from the point the force is applied.
Gyroscopic Instruments
• Turn and Bank Indicator (or) Turn
Coordinator

• Attitude Indicator (or)Artificial Horizon

• Heading Indicator
Attitude Indicator
• The Attitude Indicator, which is also sometimes called the “Artificial
Horizon” gives the pilot a site picture of the aircrafts wings in relation to
the ground and sky, without having to look out the window.
• This gauge is primarily used in flying where the pilot cannot see the horizon
outside the window due to clouds, weather, fog, etc. This is also useful for
pilots that find themselves in less than ideal visibility conditions.
• It can give you an at-a-glance indication as to weather the aircraft is
turning, climbing, descending, or a combination of that. This can be a life-
saving gauge should you become disoriented while flying.
• This gauge operates using a gyroscope that is spinning within its housing.
This allows the artificial horizon to move around the static aircraft symbol
within the gauge, thus mimicking what the real horizon is doing outside the
aircraft.
Attitude Indicator (or) Artificial Horizon
• Provides an artificial horizon to the pilot to display information about
both pitch and bank
• Gyroscope has two gimbals that the aircraft can rotate about for pitch and
bank
• 10,20,30,60,90 degree markings for bank
• Pitch angle is indicated by a series of lines, each representing 5° or 10° of
pitch
• Pilot can set where the miniature airplane meets the horizon before
takeoff
Turn Indicator
• This indicator is sometimes called the “Directional Gyro” or DG for short. This indicator
basically tells you which way you are pointing, based on a 360 degree direction. These are
the primary indicators used for course headings by pilots instead of a compass since
compasses are subject to magnetic errors, which the heading indicator is not.
• The only issue the heading indicator has is drift errors from bearing friction in the device
itself. The drift is corrected by turning the course adjustment knob on the lower right,
which will then rotate the degree markings around the static aircraft symbol. Pilots will
match the current aircraft heading with the correct compass readout and the heading
indicator will be reset.
• Some indicators will also have a “heading bug” feature. This colored marking can be moved
around the 360 degree markings using the heading adjustment knob. This will allow you to
visually set a marker on the indicator so it is easier for the pilot to see when they are close
to being on their desired heading and can begin to slow and level out the turn.
Turn coordinator
• Also known as the turn and slip indicator or
the turn and bank indicator, this gauge tells
a pilot if the aircraft is in a bank and if the
airplane is coordinated.
• Coordinated meaning that the yaw of the
aircraft while in straight and level flight or
in a turn is not too far to either side, or that
the tail is following directly through the
airplanes flight path and not off to one side.
• The pilot can see this information by
looking at the “ball” in the gauge itself. This
ball is encased in fluid and moves freely to
the right or left depending on the yaw of
the aircraft.
Turn and Bank Indicator
• Uses an electric gyroscope to give pilot information about rate of turn and
rate of roll
– Tells us direction and how quickly we are rolling initially
– Then tells us rate of turn, or how many degrees per second
• Markings at "Standard Rate Turn", which the airplane will turn 360
degrees in 2 minutes
• Gyroscope mounted diagonally, balanced by a spring, and works by
precession to sense bank angle
• Inclinometer (ball)
– Separate instrument used to measure quality of turn
– Ball on the inside of turn indicates a slipping turn
– Ball on the outside of turn indicates a skidding turn
Turn and Bank Indicator
Inclinometer

Inclinometer (ball)
Separate instrument used to measure quality of turn

Ball on the inside of turn indicates a slipping turn

Ball on the outside of turn indicates a skidding turn
Heading Indicator
• There are a number of errors when using the magnetic compass. The
gyroscopic heading indicator makes it easy to turn to headings.
• Unfortunately, the heading indicator does not seek magnetic north by
itself
• Vertically mounted gyroscope with one gimbal gives us heading
information
– We set where the gyroscope considers north with the knob and it tells us heading
as we rotate around it.
Errors
• Drift
– Because the earth rotates and because of small accumulated errors caused by
friction and imperfect balancing of the gyro, the Heading Indicator will drift over
time
– Must be set every 15 min
Heading Indicator