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, : Borrowings

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Table of contents 1. The impact of historical events on the development of English vocabulary 2. The reason of appearance of borrowed words in English vocabulary 3. Classification of borrowings according to the borrowed aspect 4. Classification of borrowings according to the degree of assimilation 5. The role of borrowings in the development of English vocabulary

1. The impact of historical events on the development of English vocabulary Language contact occurs when speakers of distinct speech varieties interact. The study of language contact is called contact linguistics. Contrary to popular opinion, multilingualism has been common throughout much of human history. Even in huntergatherer times, to judge by recent parallels, multilingualism was not uncommon, as bands would need to communicative with neighboring peoples, who often spoke different languages. And in-present day areas such as Sub-Saharan Africa, where there is much variation in language over even short distances, it is usual for anyone who dealings outside his own town or village to know two or more languages were spoken in a small territory. Thus, language contact is a very common phenomenon in human history, and the worlds present vast linguistic diversity has developed in the presence of this constant contact. When speakers of different languages interact closely, it is typical for their languages to influence each other. Languages normally develop by gradually accumulating internal differences until one parent languages splits into daughter languages. This is analogous to asexual reproduction in biology. Change due to language contact, in this analogy, is skin to the recombination that happens when separate organisms exchange genetic material. As a matter of fact, they are- if we regard them in the light of present-day English. If, however, their origins are looked into, the picture may seem somewhat bewildering. A person who does not know English but knows French (Italian, Latin, Spanish) is a certain to recognize a great number of familiar-looking words when skipping through an English book. It is true that English vocabulary, which is one of the most extensive amongst the worlds languages, contains an immense number of words of foreign origin. Explanations for this should be sought in the history of the language which is closely connected with the history of the nation speaking language. In order to have a better to understanding of the problem, it will be necessary to go through a brief survey of historical facts, relating to different epochs [4,142-146] The first century B.C most of the territory now, known to us as Europe is occupied by the Roman Empire. Among the inhabitants of the continent are Germanic tribes, barbarians a s the arrogant romance call them. Theirs is really a rather primitive stage of development, especially if compared with the high civilization and refinement of Rome. By etymology of words is understood their origin. Breeders, European and Germanic elements. The latter fact is some importance for the purposes of the survey. Now, comes an event which brings an important change. After a number of wars between the Germanic tribes and Romans these two opposing peoples come into

peaceful contact. Trade is carried on, and the Germanic people gain knowledge of new and useful things. The first among them are new things to eat. It has been mentioned that Germanic cattle-breeding was on a primitive scale. Its only products known to the Germanic tribes were meat and milk. It is from the Romans that they learn how to make butter and cheese, as there are naturally no words for these foodstuffs in their tribal languages, they are to use the Latin words to name them(Lat.butyrum, caseus). It is also to the Romans that the Germanic tribes owe the knowledge of some new fruits and vegetables enter the in vocabularies reflecting this new knowledge: cherry(Lat.cerasum), pear(Lat.pirum), plum(Lat.ptunus), pea(Lat.pisum), beet(Lat.beta), pepper(Lat.piper). It is interesting to note that the word plant is a also a Latin borrowing of this period (Lat.planta). Her some more examples of Latin borrowings of this period: cup(Lat.cuppa), kitchen(Lat.coquina), mil(Lat.molina),port( Lat.portus), wine (Lat.vinum). The fact that all these borrowings occurred is in itself significant. It was certainly important that the Germanic tribal languages gained a considerable number of new words and were thus enriched. By the borrowing or loan-word we mean a word which came into the vocabulary of one language from another and was assimilated by the new language. Even more significant was that all these Latin words were destined to become the earliest group of borrowings in the future English language which was-much later-built on the basis of Germanic tribal languages. This brings us to another epoch, much closer to the English language as we know it, both in geographical and chronological terms. The fifth century A.D. several Germanic tribes (the most numerous amongst them being the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes) migrated across the sea now known as the English Channel to the British Isles. There they were confronted by the Celts, the original inhabitants of the Isles. The Celts desperately defended their lands against the invaders, but they were no match for the military-minded Tautens and gradually yielded most of their territory. They retreated to the North and South-West(modern Scotland, Wales and Cornwall). Through their numerous contacts with the defeated Celts, the conquerors got to know and assimilated a number of Celtic words(modern English bald, down, glen, druid, cradle). Especially numerous among the Celtic borrowings were place naes, names of rivers, bills, etc. TheGermanic tribes occupied the land, but the names of many parts and features of their territory remained Celtic.For instance, the names of rivers Avon, Exe, Esk, Usk and Ux originated from Celtic words meaning river and water. Ironically, even the name of the English capital originates from Celtic llyn+dun in which llyn is another Celtic word for river and dun stands for a fortified hill, the meaning of the whole being fortress on the hill over the river. Some Latin words entered the Anglo-Saxon languages through Celtic, among them such widely-used words as street (Latin strata via) and wall (Lat.vallum) The seventh century A.D. this century was significant for the Christianization of

England. Latin was the official language of the Christian church and consecuently the spread of Christianity was accompanied by a new period of Latin borrowings. These no longer came from spoken Latin as they did eight centuries earlier, but from church Latin. Also these new Latin borrowings were very different in the meaning from the earlier ones. They mostly indicated persons, objects and ideas associated with church religious rituals. For example priest (Lat. Presbyter), bishop (Lat. Episcopus), monk (Lat.Monachus), nun (Lat. Nonna), candle (Lat. Candela). Additionally, in a class of their own were educational terms. It was quite natural that these were also Latin borrowing, for the first schools, and the first teachers priests and monks. So the very word school is a Latin borrowing (Lat. Schola, of Greek origin) and so are such words as scholar (Lat.scholar) and magister (Lat. Magister) From the end of 8th c. to the middle of the 11th c. England underwent several Scandinavian invasions which inevitability left their trace on English vocabulary. Here are some examples of early Scandinavian borrowings: call, v., take, v., cast, v., die, v., law, n., husband, n.(Sc. Hus+bondi, i.e. inhabitant of the house), window, n. (Sc. Vindauga, i.e. the eye of the wind), ill, adj., low, adj., weak, adj. Some of the words of this group are easily recognizable as Scandinavian borrowings by the initial skcombination. For example sky, skill, skin, ski, skirt [5, 325-329] Certain English words changed their meanings under the influence of Scandinavian words of same root. So, the O.E. bread which meant piece acquired its modern meaning by association with the Scandinavian brand. The O.E. dream which meant joy assimilated the meaning of the Scandinavian draumr (with the Germ. Traum dream and the R.). With the famous Battle of Hastings, when the English were defeated by the Normans under William the conqueror, we come to the eventful epoch of the Norman Conquest. The epoch can be called eventful not only in national, social, political human terms but also in linguistic terms. England became a bi- lingual country, and the impact on the English vocabulary made over this two-hundred-years period is immense: French words from the Norman dialect penetrated every aspect of social life. Here is a very brief list of examples of Norman French borrowings. -Administrative words: state, government, parliament, council, power. -Legal terms: court, judge, justice, crime, prison. -Military terms: army, war, soldier, officer, battle, enemy. -Educational terms: pupil, lesson, library, science, pen, pencil. Everyday life was not unaffected by the powerful influence of French words. Numerous terms of everyday life were also borrowed from French in this period: for example table, plate, saucer, dinner, supper, river, autumn, uncle, etc. The Renaissance Period in England, as in European countries, this period was marked by significant developments in science, art and culture and also by revival of

interest in the ancient civilizations of Greece and Rome and their languages. Hence, there occurred a considerable number of Latin and Greek borrowings. In contrast to the earliest Latin borrowings (1st c. B.C.), the Renaissance ones were rarely concrete names. They were mostly abstract words (for example major, minor, filial, moderate, intelligent, permanent, to elect, to create). There were naturally numerous scientific and artistic terms (datum, status, phenomenon, philosophy, method, music). The same is true of Greek Renaissance borrowings (for example atom, cycle, ethics and esthete). The Renaissance was a period of extensive cultural contacts between the major European states. Therefore, it was only natural that new words also entered the English vocabulary from other European languages. The most significant once more were French borrowings. This time they came from the Parisian dialect of French and are known as Parisian borrowings. Examples: regime, routine, police, machine, ballet, matinee, scene, technique, bourgeois etc. One should note that these words of French origin sound and look very different from their Norman predecessors. Italian also contributed a considerable number of words to English, e.g. piano, violin, opera, alarm, colonel. There are certain structural features which enable us to identify some words as borrowings and even to determine the source language. We have already established that the initial sk-usually indicates Scandinavian origin. You can also recognize words of Latin and French origin by certain suffixes, prefixes or endings. The two tables below will help you in this. The historical survey above is far from complete. Its am is just to give a very general idea of ways it acquired its vast modern resources [6, 22-24]. Phenomenon, philosophy, method, music, etc. were borrowed into English from Latin and had earlier come into Latin from Greek. The etymological structure of English Vocabulary The native element The borrowed element Indo-European element Celtic(5th-6th c.A.D.) Germanic element II. Latin 1st group: 1st c. B.C. 2nd group: 7th c. A.D. 3rd group: the Renaissance period English proper element (no III. Scandinavian (8th- 11th c. A.D.) earlier than 5th c. A.D.) IV.French 1.Norman borrowings: 11th-13th c. A.D. 2. Parisian borrowings (Renaissance) V.Greek (Renaissance and later)VI. Italian (Renaissance and later) VII.Spanish (renaissance and later) VIII.German IX. Indian X. Russian and some other groups The table requires some explanation. Firstly, it should be pointed out that not only

does the second column contain more groups, butit also implies a greater quantity of words. Modern scholars estimate the percentage of borrowed words in the English vocabulary at 65-70 per cent which is an exceptionally high figure. By the native element to prevail. This anomaly is explained by the countrys eventful history and by its many international contacts. On a straight vocabulary count, considering the high percentage of borrowed words, one would have to classify English as a language of international origin or, at least, a romance one 9as French and Latin words obviously prevail). But here another factor comes into play, the relative frequency of occurrence of words, and it is under this heading that the native Anglo-Saxon heritage comes into its own. The native element in English comprises a large number of high-frequency words like the articles, prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions, auxiliaries and also words denoting everyday objects and ideas (for example house, child, water, go, come, eat, good, bad, etc.) Furthermore, the grammatical structure is essentially Germanic having remained unaffected by foreign influence. It is probably of some interest to mention that at various times purists have tried to purge the English language of foreign words, replacing them with Anglo-Saxon ones. One slogan created by these linguistic nationalists was: Avoid Latin derivatives; use brief, terse Anglo-Saxon monosyllables. The irony is that the only Anglo-Saxon word in the entire slogan is Anglo-Saxon Now let us to the first column of the table representing the native element, the original stock of the English vocabulary. The column consists of three groups, only the third being dated: the words of this group appeared in the English vocabulary in the 5th c. or later, that is, after the Germanic tribes migrated to the British Isles. As to the IndoEuropean and Germanic groups, they are so old that the tribal languages of the Angles, the Saxons, The Jutes, by the time of their migration, contained only words of IndoEuropean and Germanic roots plus a certain number of the earliest Latin borrowings [7,262-270] By the relations: father, mother, brother, son, daughter. Parts of human body: foot (R.), nose, lip, heart. Animals: cow, swine, goose. Plants: tree, birch(R.), corn (R.) Time of day: day, night. Heavenly bodies: sun, moon, star Numerous adjectives: red (Ukr., R.), new, glad (R.), sad(cf.R.). The numerals from one to a hundred. Pronouns-personal (except they which is a Scandinavian borrowing); demonstrative.

Numerous verbs: be(R.), stand (R.), sit (R.), eat (R.) and know (R.). The Germanic element represents words of roots common to all or most Germanic languages. Some of the main groups of Germanic words are same as in the Indo-European element. Parts of the human body: head, hand, arm, finger, bone. Animals: bear, fox, calf. Plants: oak, fir, grass. Natural phenomena: rain, frost. Seasons of the year: winter, spring, summer. Landscape features: sea, land. Human dwellings and furniture: House, room, bench. Sea-going vessels: boat, ship. Adjectives: green, blue, white, small, thick, high, old,good. Verbs: see, hear, speak, tell, say, answer, make, give, drink. It has been mentioned that the English proper element is, in certain respects, opposed to the first two groups. Not only can it be approximately dated, but these words have another distinctive feature: they are specifically English having no cognates in other languages whereas for Indo-European and Germanic words such cognates can always be found, as for instance, for the following words of the Indo-European group. Star: (Germ. Stern), (Lat. Stella), (Gr.Aster). Sad: (Germ, Satt), (Lat. Satis), (R.) Stand: (Germ.stehen), (Lat. Stare),(R.) Here are some examples of English proper words. These words stand quit alone in the vocabulary system of Indo-European languages: bird, boy, girl, lord, lady, woman, daisy, always. Of course, one might remark that Russian vocabulary also has the words , , . -Autumn is a French borrowing. -Cognates- words of the same etymological root, of common origin of native servant). The explanation is simple:these words have been borrowed by Russian from English and therefore are not cognates of their English counterparts[8,154-166]. It should be taken into consideration that the English proper element also contains all the later formations, that is words which were made after the 5th c. according to English word-building patterns both from native and borrowed root and the native suffix belongs to the English proper element. It is natural, that the quantity of such words is immense. The Norman French in 1066 differed more strikingly linguistically as well as

culturally from thr Anglo-Saxons than did the Danish conquerors of a few centuries earlier. Unlike the situation with the Norse invasions, the Normans looked upon the conquered Anglo-Saxons as social inferiors. French became the language of the upper class; Anglo-Saxon of the lower class. As a result, after the Norman invasion, many Anglo Saxon words narrowed in meaning to describe only the crude, dirtier aspects of life. Concepts associated with culture, fine living and abstract learning tended to be described by new Norman words. Thus, many new doublets appeared in English that were stylistically marked: cow/beef, calf/veal, swine/pork, sheep/mutton, deer/venison, sweat/perspire. Compare AngloSaxon work, hard, to Norman French leisure and profit. (In contrast, Norse/AngloSaxon doublets like raise/rear, etc., were stylistically neutral, since both peoples held an equal social position)[9,156-159]/ Consequently, the Norman invasion initiated a vast borrowing of Latin-based words into English. Entire vocabularies were borrowed from Norman French: governmental: count, heraldry, fine, noble, parliament. Military: battle, ally, alliance, ensign, admiral, navy, aid, gallant, march, enemy, escape, peace, war (cf. guerilla). Judicial system: judge, jury, plaintiff, justice, court, suit, defendant, crime, felony, murder, petty/petit, attorney, marriage (Anglo-Saxon wedding), heir. Ecclesiastical: clergy, altar, miracle, preach, pray, sermon, virgin, saint, friar/frre. Cuisine: sauce, boil, filet, soup, pastry, fry, roast, toast. New personal names: John, Mary (Biblical Hebrew and Greek names) and Norman French (Richard, Charles). As Anglo-Saxon and Norman French gradually merged throughout the later middle Ages and the Normans and Anglo-Saxons became one society, the speakers of English tried to effect some linguistic reconciliation between the older Anglo-Saxon words and the Norman French words. Many modern phrases English phrases and sayings still include a word from Norman French alongside a synonymous AngloSaxon: law and order, lord and master, love and cherish, ways and means. These doublet phrases capture this attempt to please everybody who might need to be pleased. The Norman French influence was so extensive that even the grammar of English was affected. The changes were mainly confined to the borrowing of derivational affixes. All native prefixes dropped out or became unproductive during this time; the few that survive today are non-productive: be- in besmirch, or for-in forgive, forstall; they were replaced by Latin: ex-, pre, pro, dis, re, anti, inter. Many Norman French suffixes were borrowed: -or vs. er; -tion, -ment, -ee, -able as a suffix. The period of Middle English cme to a close by about 1450, by the time the two languages of Norman and Anglo-Saxon had merged into a single linguistic form.

Actually, what happened was that the more numerous Anglo-Saxon speakers triumphed over the Norman French, who came to adopt English in place of French. But the English of 1500 contained a tremendous number of Norman French words. The Norman French influx of words into English was on an unprecedented scale. No other European language has a vocabulary date back to the time of Old English [10; 565-579]. A Brown University team ran 1 million words from modern different words and over half were borrowed from Norman French. Listed in order of frequency, however, every one of the 100 most commonly used words was Anglo-Saxon. Thus, the core of English vocabulary remained Germanic. The major change in English during the later period of Modern English, however, has been the continued expansion of the vocabulary from every convenient available source. Some language communities show an aversion to borrowing words; Icelandic and Hebrew, for example, prefer inventing their own new words (poato- Hebrew tappuah; computer- tolle). On the other hand, when scholarly types tried to borrow Latin and terms not out of necessity for describing new things and concepts but out of intellectual arrogance and pomp, they were not always successful [11.268-267] The influence of new lands and new peoples in the colonial era has brought to English many new words. Enthusiastic pursuit of the sciences has also ledto a great increase in vocabulary; often the new scientific words are coined on the basis of Latin and Greek in much the same way as occurred at the beginning of the scientific age. The tendency of English to borrow words has never abated since the earkiest times. Lets review the main sources of borrowing. North European aboriginal terms into Common Germanic (before 2000BC) Latin terms from the Romans into west Germanic (100BC-400AD) Christianized Latin terms into Anglo Saxon (after 587AD) Old Norse into Anglo Saxon (700-900AD) Norman French into Old English (1066-1300 AD) Ancient Latin and Greek into Modern English (1500-through the present) Borrowings of words from other English languages and dialects have produced a rich collection of synonyms in Modern English [12, 265-268]. The resulting lexical doublets themselves tell a lot about the history of the language: Forgive/pardon Latin borrowing from the Christianization vs. Norman French borrowing Shirt/skirt Native Anglo-Saxon word vs. Old Norse borrowing Cow/beef Native Anglo Saxon vs. Norman French borrowing Dish/disk Older Latin borrowing vs. later Latin borrowing Chief/chef Older Norman French borrowing vs. recent borrowing from French As a result of historical events stretching back 1200 years, the vocabulary of

English is enormously large, rich and varied. The original Germanic language of Anglo Saxon settlers has been subjected to three main waves of influence, Scandinavian and French as a result of invasion, and Latin as a result of intellectual developments during the Renaissance. There have also been other influences from around the world, not least from other varieties of English, such as American and Australian, during the modern period. 2.The reason of appearance of borrowed words in English vocabulary Whenever two idiolects come into contact, one or both may be modified. In faceto-face communication, either speaker may imitate some feature of others speech; when the contact is indirect, as in reading, the influence can of course pass only in one direction. The feature which is imitated is called the model; the idiolect (or language) in which the model occurs, or the speaker of eat idiolect is called the donor; the idiolect which acquires something new in the process is the borrowing idiolect. The process itself is called borrowing, but this requires some cautions. Does not have to be paid back; the donor makes no sacrifice and does not have to be asked for permission. Indeed, nothing changes hands: the donor goes on speaking as before, and only borrowers speech is altered [13, 805-813]. From this definition, we see that the conditions for borrowing are present constantly, as a natural accompaniment of every use of language except genuine soliloquy. In the contact of idiolects A and B, the changes that borrowing will actually occur depend on several factors, one of which is the unlikely, since neither speakers is apt so divergent that the speakers cannot understand each other, borrowings is equally unlikely. Between the two extremes we fined the situations in which borrowing is more probably. In practice, these situations can be classed roughly into two types. In one type, the two idiolects share a common core; under these conditions we speak of dialect borrowings. In the other, there is no common core but rather some degree of bilingualism or semi-bilingualism; in this case we speak of language borrowing. The mere contact of idiolects A and B does not guarantee that one will borrow from the other. For borrowing to occur, say from B to A, two conditions must be met: The speaker of A must understand, or think he understands, the particular utterance in idiolect B which contains the model. The speaker of A must have some motive, overt or convert, for the borrowings. The first condition need notdetail us long. Our reference must be toapparent rather then genuine understanding, because in many known instances there is really some measure of misunderstanding. The second is more difficult. We cannot profit from idle speculation about the psychology of borrowers, but must confine ourselves to such overt evidence as at hand. This may lead much surer of those which we do discern. These are two in numbers:

prestige and need-filling. The prestige motive people emulate those whom they admire, in speech-pattern as well as in other respects. Upper-and middle class Englishmen, in the days after the Norman Conquest, learned French and used French expressions in their English because French was the language of the new rulers of the country. Sometimes the motive is somewhat different: the imitator does not necessarily admire those whom he imitates, but wishes to be identified with them and thus be treated as they are. The results are not distinguishable, and we can leave to psychologists the sorting out of the fine shades of differences. The prestige motive is constantly operative in dialect borrowings; it becomes important in language borrowing only under special conditions. When spekes of two different languages live intermingled in a single region, usually one of the languages is that spoken by that in power: this is the upper or dominant languages, and the other is the lower. Such a state of affairs has most really by peaceful migration. The prestige factor leads to extensive borrowings from the dominant language into the lower. Borrowings in the other direction are much more limited and largely ascribable to the other principle motive. The Need-filling Motive the most obvious other motive for borrowing is to fill a gap in the borrowing idiolect. New dialects, new objects and practices, bring new words into a language. Tea, coffee, tobacco, sugar, cocoa, tomato have spread all over the world in recent times, along with the objects to which the words refer. Typhoons and monsoons have not spread, but direct or indirect experience with them has. Immigrates to the United States in the last seventy-five years have drawn heavily on English for new words, partly on the prestige basis and partly for need-filling purpose: the two motives must often be mingled, and we cannot always say which was more important in a given instance [14, 384-388]. In exchange, however, American English has acquired only a spare scattering of need filling loans from the various languages of the immigrants: delicatessen, hamburger, from immigrant German; chili con carne, tortilla from Mexican Spanish; spaghetti from Italian to stick to the sphere of humble foodstuffs. If a local dialect gains ascendancy for political and economic reasons, then one expects extensive borrowings from that dialects have to be explained and usually, if the records are not too scanty, explanation on the need-filling basis is possible. 3.Classification of borrowings according to the borrowed aspect There are the following groups: phonetic borrowings, translation loans, semantic borrowings, morphemic borrowings. Phonetic borrowings are most characteristic in all languages; they are called loan words proper. Words are borrowed with their spelling, pronunciation and meaning. Then they undergo assimilation, each sound of the

borrowing language. In some cases the spellingis changed. The structure of the word can also be changed. The position of the stress is very often influenced by the phonetic system of the borrowing language. The paradigm of the word, and sometimes the meaning of the borrowed word are also changed. Such words as: labor, travel, table, chair, people are phonetic borrowings from French; apparatchic, nomenclature, sputnik are borrowings from Russian; bank, soprano, duet are phonetic borrowings from Italian etc. [16, 114-117] Translation loans are word-for-word (or morpheme-for-morpheme) translations of some foreign word expressions. In such cases the notion is borrowed from a foreign language but it is expressed by native lexical units, to takethe bull by the horns(Latin), living space(German) etc. Some translation loans appeared in English from Latin already in the Old English period, for example Sunday (solis dies) There are translation loans from the language of Indians, such as :pipe of peace, pale-faced from German masterpiece, homesickness,superman. Semantic borrowings are such units when a new meaning of the unit existing in the language is borrowed. It can happen when we havetwo relative languages which have common words with different meanings, for example there are semantic borrowings between Scandinavian and English, such as the meaning to live for the word to dwell which in Old English had the meaning to wander. Or else the meaning for the word gift which in Old English had the meaning Semantic borrowing can appear when an English word borrowed into some other language, developed there a new meaning and this meaning was borrowed back into English, for example brigade was borrowed into Russian and formed the meaning a working collective, . This meaning was borrowed back into English as a Russian borrowing. The same is true of the English word pioneer. Morphemic borrowings are borrowings of affixes which occur in the language when many words with identical affixes are borrowed from one language into another, so that the morphemic structure of borrowed words becomes familiar to the people speaking the borrowing language, for example we can find a lot of Romanic affixes in English word-building system, that is why there are a lot words- hybrids in English where different morphemes have different origin, for example goddes, beautiful etc. 4.Classification of borrowings according to the degree of assimilation The degree of assimilation of borrowings depends on the following factors: a) from what group of languages to which the borrowing language belongs it is assimilated easier, b) in what way the word is borrowed: orally or in the written form, words borrowed orally assimilated quicker;, c) how often the borrowing is used in the language, the greater the frequency of its usage, the quicker it is assimilated, d) how long the word lives in the language, the longer it lives, more than assimilated it- is.

Accordingly borrowings are subdivided into: completely assimilated, partly assimilated and non-assimilated (barbarisms) [17, 368-372] Completely assimilated borrowings are not as foreign words in language , the French word sport and the native word start. Completely assimilated verbs belong to regular verbs, for example correct-corrected. Completely assimilated nouns form their plural by means of s-inflection, for example gate-gates. In completely assimilated French words the stress has been shifted from the last syllable to the last but one. Semantic assimilation of borrowed words depends on the words existing in the borrowing language, if it is polysemantic, for example the Russian borrowing sputnik is used in English only in one of its meaning. Partly assimilated borrowings are subdivided into the following groups: Borrowings non-assimilated semantically, because they denote objects and notions peculiar to the country from the language of which they were borrowed, for example sari, sombrero, taiga, kvass etc. Borrowings non-assimilated grammatically, for example nouns borrowed from Latin and Greek retain their plural forms (bacillus-bacilli, phenomenon-phenomena, datum-data, genius-genii etc. Borrowings non-assimilated phonetically. Here belong words with the initial sounds /v/ and /z/, for example voice, zero. In native words these voiced consonants are used only in the intervocalic position as allophones of sounds /f/ and /s/ (loss-lose, lifelive). Some Scandinavian borrowings have consonants and combinations of consonants which were not palatalized for example /sk/ in the words: sky, skate, ski etc(in native word we have the palatalized sounds denoted by the digraph sh, for example shirt); sounds /k/ and /g/ before front vowels are not palatalized for example girl, get, give, kid, kill, kettle. In native words we have palatalization, for example German, child. Some French borrowings retain special combinations of sounds, for example /a:3? In the words: camouflage, bourgeois, some of them retain the combination of sounds /wa:/ in the words: memoir, boulevard. Borrowings can be partly assimilated graphically, for example in Greek borrowings y can be spelled in the middle of the word (symbol, synonym), ph denotes the sound /f/ (phoneme, morpheme), ch denotes the sound /k/ (chemistry, chaos) nad ps denotes the sound /s/ (psychology). Latin borrowings retain their polysyllabic structure, have double consonants, as a rule, the final consonant of the prefix is assimilated with the initial consonant of the stem, (accompany, affirmative). French borrowings which came into English after 1650 retain their spelling, for example consonants p,t s is not pronounced at the end of the word (buffet, coup, and debris), and Specially French combination of letters eau /ou/ can be found in the borrowings: beau, chateau, trousseau. Some of digraphs retain their French

pronunciation: ch is pronounced as /sh/, for example chic, parachute, qu is pronounced as /k/ for example bouquet, ou is pronounced as /u:/, for example rouge; some letters retain their French pronunciation, for example I is pronounced as /i:/, for example chic, machine; g is pronounced as /3/, for example rouge. Modern German borrowings also have some peculiarities in their spelling: common nouns are spelled with a capital letter for example Autobahn, Lebensraum; some vowels and digraphs retain their German pronunciation, for example a is pronounced as /a:/ (dictat), u is pronounced as /u:/ (Kuchen), au is pronounced as /au/ (Hausfrau), / is pronounced ei (Reich); some consonants are also pronounced in the German way, for example s before a vowel is pronounced as /z/ (Sitskrieg), v is pronounced as /f/(Volkswagen), w is pronounced as/v/, ch is pronounced as /h/ (Kutchen). Non-assimilated borrowings (barbarisms)narenborrowings which are used by Englishmen rather seldom and are non-assimilated, for example addio (Italian), tete-atete(French), dolce vita(Italian) duende (Spanish) an home a femme (French), gonzo (Italian) etc. The role of loan words in the formation and development of English vocabulary is dealt with in the history of the language. It is there that the historical circumstances are discussed under which words borrowed from Latin, from Scandinavian dialects, from Norman and Parisian French and many other languages, including Russian, were introduced into English. Lexicology, on the other hand, has in these connection tasks of its own, being chiefly concerned with the material and results of assimilation. The main problems of etymology and borrowed words as they concern the English language are comprehensively and consistently treated. It deals with these issues mainly in terms of word sameness reflecting his methodological approach to word theory [18, 456-485] In the present paragraph attention must be concentrated on the assimilation of loan words as a way of their interaction with the system of the language as a whole. The term assimilation of a loan word is used to denote a a partial or total conformation to the phonetically, graphical and morphological standards of the receiving language and its semantic system. The degree of assimilation depends upon the length of period during which the word has been used in the receiving language, upon its importance for communication purpose and its frequency. Oral borrowings due to personal contacts are assimilated more completely and more rapidly than literary borrowings, i.e. borrowings through written speech. A classification of loan words according to the degree of assimilation can be only very general as no rigorous procedure for measuring it has so far been developed. The following three groups may be suggested: completely assimilated loan words, partially assimilated loan words may be subdivided depending on the aspect that remains

unaltered, i.e. according to whether the word retains features of spelling, pronunciation, morphology or denotation (when the word denotes some specific regalia) that are not English. The third group form part of the English vocabulary, because they occur in speech only, but do not enter the language. Completely assimilated loan words are found in all the layers of older borrowings. They may belong to the first layer of Latin borrowings, e.g. cheese, street, wall or wine. Among Scandinavian loan words we find such frequent nouns as husband, fellow, gate, root, wing; such verbs as call, die, take, want and adjectives like happy, ill, low, odd and wrong. Completely assimilated French words are extremely numerous and frequent. Suffice it to mention such everyday words as table and chair, face and figure, finish and matter. A considerable number of Latin words borrowed during the revival of learning are at present almost indistinguishable from the rest of the vocabulary. Neither animal nor article differs noticeably from native words. The number of completely assimilated loan words follow all morphological, phonetical and as dominant words in synonymic groups. They take an active part in word-formation. Moreover, their morphological structure and motivation remain transparent, so that they arre morphologically analyzable and therefore supply the English vocabulary not only with free forms but also with bound forms, as affixes are easily perceived and separated in series of loan words that contain them. Such are , for instance, the French suffixes age, -ance, -ment, and English modification of French eese and fier,which provide speech material to produce hybrids like shortage, godless, hindrance, specify and endearment. The free forms, on the other hand, are readily combined with native affixes, e.g. pained, painful, painfully, painless, painlessness, all formed from pain Fr. Peine Lat. Poena Gr. Poine penalty. The subject of hybrids has already been dealt with in the chapter on derivation [19, 106-107]. Completely assimilated loan words are also indistinguishable phonetically. It is impossible to say judging by the sound of the words sport and start whether they are borrowed or native. In fact start is native, derived from ME sterten, whereas sport is a shortening of disport Fr. deto amuse oneself, to carry oneself away from ones work (ultimately derived from Lat portare to carry). This last example brings us to the problem of semantic assimilation. Ths problem deserves far more attention than has hitherto been given to it. Its treatment has been limited so far to passing remarks in works dealing with other subjects. The first thing that needs stressing is that a loan word never brings into the receiving language the whole of its semantic structure if it is polysemantic in the original language. And even the borrowed variants are for the most part changed and specialized in the new system. The word sport can serve as an illustration. It had a much wider scope in Old French denoting pleasures. Making merry and entertainments in general. It was borrowed into many European languages and became international. This process of

semantic specialization in borrowing is even more evident in such loan words from Russian as Soviet and sputnik, whose Russian prototypes are polysemantic. In the light of current ideas, it is convenient to classify and study loan words as oppositions of the words as they exist in the receiving language with their prototypes in the source language, on the one hand, nad with words of the same lexica-grammatical class or (depending on the level chosen) of the same morphological or phonetically pattern in the receiving language. Specialization is primarily due to the fact that the receiving system has at its disposal words for the older notions, and it is only the notion that needs a new name. Even so, the borrowing of a new word leads as a rule to semantic changes in words already existing in the language. The interaction of linguistic and extra linguistic, i.e. political, economical and cultural factors in this has been investigated [20, 178-179]. The conformity of the completely assimilated loan words to morphological patterns of the English paradigms may be illustrated by Scandinavian loans taking the plural ending s; eggs, gates, laws; or Latin loan verbs with dental suffix of the Past indefinite and Participle II: acted, corrected, disturbed. To illustrate the frequency of completely assimilated words it is sufficient to mention that many of them are included in the list of 500 most frequent words are : act (Lat), age(F), army(Fr), bill(Lat), case(Fr), die(Scand) [21, 202-205]. The second group containing partially assimilated loan words can be subdivided into subgroups. The oppositions are equipollent. Loan words not assimilated semantically, because they denote objects and notions peculiar to the country from which they come. They may denote foreign clothing: mantilla, sombrero; foreign titles and professions: shah, rajah, sheik, bei, toreador; forign vehicles: caique (Turkish), rickshaw (Chineese); food and drinks: pilaw (Persian); sherbet(Arabian); foreign currency:krone(Denmark), rupee(India), zloty (Poland) peseta(Spain), rouble(USSR), etc. Loan words not assimilated grammatically, for example, nouns borrowed from Latin or Greek which keep their original plural forms: bacillus-bacilli; crisis-crises; formula-formulae; index-indices;phenomenon-phenomena. Some of these are also used in English plural forms, but in that case there may be a difference in lexical meaning, as in indices-indexes. Loan words not completely assimilated phonetically. The French words borrowed after 1650 afford good examples. Some of them keep the accent on the final syllable: machine, cartoon, and police. Others, along side with peculiarities in stress, contain sounds or combinations of sounds that are not standardnfor the English language and do not occur in native words. The examples are [3]-bourgeois, camouflage, prestige,regime,sabotage; {wa}-as in memoir, or the nasalized [a], [o]-melange. In many cases it is different from the rest of the vocabulary, as in some of the Italian and

Spanish borrowings: confetti, incognito, macaroni, opera, sonata, soprano and tomato, potato, tobacco. The pronunciation of words where the process of assimilation is phonetically incomplete will often vary, as in [foiei] or [fwaje] for foyer and [bu:lva:] [bu:hva:], [bu:leva:], [bu:lva:d] for boulevard [22,369-373]. Loan words not completely assimilated graphically. It is fairly large and variegated. There are, for instance, words borrowed from French in which the final consonant is riot pronounced, e.g. ballet, buffet, corps. Some may keep a diacritic mark: caf, clich. Specifically French digraphs (ch, qu, our, etc/) may be retained in spelling: bouquet, brioche. Some have variant spellings. It goes without saying that these sets are interesting, i.e. one and the same loan word often shows incomplete assimilation in several respects simultaneously. The third group of borrowings comprises the so-called barbarisms; i.e. words from other languages used by English people in conversation or in writing but not assimilated in any way, and for which there are corresponding English equivalents. The examples are Italian addio, ciao good-bye, the French affiche for placard and coup or coup dEtat a sudden seizure of state power by a small group, the Latin ad libitum at pleasure and the like. The incompleteness of assimilation results in some specific features which permit us to judge of the origin of words. They may serve as formal indications of loan words of Greek, Latin, French or other origin. 5.The role of borrowings in the development of English vocabulary Etymologically the vocabulary of the English language is far from being homogenous. It consists of two layers the native stock of words and the borrowed stock of words. Numerically the borrowed stock of words is considerably larger than the native stock of words. In fact native words comprise only 30% of the total number of words in the English vocabulary but the native words form the bulk of the most frequent words actually used in speech and writing. Besides, the native words have a wider range of lexical and grammatical valency, they are highly polysemantic and productive in forming word clusters and set expressions. Borrowed words or loanwords are words taken from another language and modified according to the patterns of the receiving language. In many cases a borrowed word especially one borrowed long ago is practically indistinguishable from a native word without a through etymological analysis. The number of the borrowings in the vocabulary of the language and the role played by themis determined by the historical development of the nation speaking the language. The most effective ways of borrowing is direct borrowing from another language

as the result of the contacts with other nations. Though, a word be also borrowed indirectly not from the source language but through another language. When analyzing borrowed words one should distinguish between two termssource of borrowing and origin of borrowing. The first term is applied to the language from which the word was immediately borrowed and second-to the language to which the word may be different approaches to classifying the borrowe stock of words.The borrowed stock of words may be classified according to the nature of the borrowing itself as borrowing proper, loans translation and semantic loans. Loan translation or calque is a phrase borrowed from another language by literal word-for-word translation. Semantic loan is the borrowing of the meaning for aword already existing in the English language.

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