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Language Contact

Diglossia

A diglossic situation exists in a society when it has two distinct codes which show
clear functional separation; that is, one code is employed in one set of circumstances and the
other in an entirely different set. Ferguson (1959, p. 336) has defined diglossia as follows:
diglossia is a relatively stable language situation in which, in addition to the primary
dialects of the language (which may include a standard or regional standards), there
is a very divergent, highly codified (often grammatically more complex) superposed
variety, the vehicle of a large and respected body of written literature, either of an
earlier period or in another speech community, which is learned largely by formal
education and is used for most written and formal spoken purposes but is not used by
any sector of the community for ordinary conversation.
In the same article he identifies four language situations which show the major characteristics
of the diglossic phenomenon: Arabic, Swiss German, Haitian (French and Creole), and Greek.
In each situation there is a ‘high’ variety (H) of language and a ‘low’ variety (L). Each variety
has its own specialized functions, and each is viewed differently by those who are aware of
both.
In the Arabic situation the two varieties are Classical Arabic (H) and the various regional
colloquial varieties (L). In Switzerland they are Standard German (H) and Swiss German (L).
In Haiti the varieties are Standard French (H) and Haitian Creole (L). In Greece they are the
Katharévousa (H) and Dhimotiki, or Demotic (L), varieties of Greek.
What Ferguson describes are ‘narrow’ or ‘classic’ diglossic situations. They require
the use of very divergent varieties of the same language and there are few good examples.
Fishman has broadened or extended the term to include a wider variety of language situations.
For Fishman (1980, p. 3) diglossia is ‘an enduring societal arrangement, extending at least
beyond a three generation period, such that two “languages” each have their secure,
phenomenologically legitimate and widely implemented functions.’
Bilingualism and Multilingualism

Bilingualism is the ability to use one language. Multilingualism is the ability to use
multiple languages. People who are bilingual or multilingual do not necessarily have exactly
the same abilities in the languages. They can have an advanced level in one language and a
beginner level in another.
An interesting example of multilingualism exists among the Tukano of the northwest
Amazon, on the border between Colombia and Brazil. The Tukano are a multilingual people
because men must marry outside their language group; that is, no man may have a wife who
speaks his language, for that kind of marriage relationship is not permitted and would be
viewed as a kind of incest. Men choose the women they marry from various neighboring
tribes who speak other languages. Furthermore, on marriage, women move into the men’s
households. Consequently, in any village several languages are used: the language of the men;
the various languages spoken by women who originate from different neighboring tribes; and
a widespread regional ‘trade’ language. Children are born into this multilingual environment.

Mixture of Varieties

1. Code switching: It means moving from one code to another in a conversation. It can be
situational, where the change in the situation leads to a change in the code used, or
metaphorical, where the change in the topic leads to a change in the code.

2. Code mixing: It is to mix codes together in the same conversation. People mix codes in a
form of a linguistic cocktail when one code alone cannot be enough to convey their messages.

3. Borrowing: It means to mix varieties through taking some linguistic items from one code
and putting them into another code. In other words, it is a form that has spread from one
linguistic variety (the 'source') into another variety (the 'target’). The borrowed item can be
adapted to the conventions of the variety as it can remain with a foreign flavour.

Pidgins and Creoles

When people speaking different and mutually unintelligible languages came into
contact they may resort to a common language for communication. That language is called
lingua franca. Lingua franca can be any language used by people in contact to understand
each other. Lingua francas may also be created from the mixture of two existing languages.
These are pidgins, languages which are created for trade or other immediate purposes of
communication. However, pidgins have no native speakers. Pidgins are used to a limited
range of communication purposes. This limitation lies behind the limited vocabulary and
grammar and consequently the simplicity of the pidgin.
Some pidgins die out once the function they are created for disappear while others
develop and become creoles. A Creole is a pidgin which has native speakers which comes to
be learned by children as their first language. Creoles develop ways of systematic
grammatical categories (tense aspect …). They can be used in education, politics,
administration, government and literature and they are accepted as national languages.

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