DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL SCIENCES

SIMLIFIED NOTES: - PHYSICS- 5124

- Electromagnetic induction
- Introduction to electronics
- Atomic physics- Radioactivity

Electromagnetic induction is the production of an induced e.m.f. in a conductor

(coil) when there is a change in a magnetic field.
When the permanent magnet is pushed
into the solenoid the galvanometer
pointer deflects to one direction This
shows that electromotive force is
induced in the coil. The diagram shows a magnet being pushed into the coil and the
direction of induced current.
MAGNET AT REST
When the magnet is at rest (stationary) inside or outside the solenoid no e.m.f.
current is induced the galvanometer pointer is on zero mark - no induced current
( no deflection).
This is because there is no magnetic field induced around the solenoid.
NOTE: When the solenoid and the magnet move with the same speed in the same
direction there is no induction.

PULLING THE MAGNET FROM THE SOLENOID

When the magnet is pulled out the
pointer on the sensitive galvanometer
deflects to the opposite direction.
The direction of induced current is
reversed when the magnet is moved
out of the solenoid.

Summary
 Moving a magnet inside the solenoid induces an electric current in the
conductor.
 The induced current sets up a magnetic field around the solenoid.
 The direction of the magnetic field around the solenoid is determined by the
direction of the induced current.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE STRENGTH OF AN INDUCED CURRENT

.
(a) The strength of a magnet.
A stronger magnet will produce more current in the coil than a weak one.
Reason being that strong magnet has more field lines cutting the wires of the
conductor than a weak magnet.
(b) Number of turns on the coil.
A solenoid with more turns will have more wires being exposed to the magnetic field
than the one with few wires.
(c) the rate of rotation of coil or magnet / rate at which field lines are cut.
Rate of insertion of a magnet in and out of the solenoid is proportional to the
magnitude of induced current.

FARADAY’S LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

States that: the magnitude of an induced e.m.f. is proportional to the rate of
change of magnetic flux.

LENZ’S LAW
State that the direction of induced current is such that it opposes the change
producing it.
The induced e.m.f. (current) in the solenoid sets up it’s own magnetic field, which
opposes the motion of a permanent magnet by repulsion- Lenz’s law
The N-pole of a magnet is moving towards the solenoid.

The change that induces current is the N-pole moving towards the solenoid.
According to Lenz’s law the direction
of induced current opposes the change
producing it. To oppose the N-pole
moving to the coil, the induced current
must produce a N-pole at the end Q.
hence, the direction of the induced
current is as shown.

The N-pole of a magnet moving away from the solenoid.

The change that induces current is the N-
pole moving out the solenoid. According
to Lenz’s law the direction of induced
current opposes the change producing it.
To oppose N-pole moving out of the coil,
induced current must produce a S-pole at
the end Q.

DIRECTION OF INDUCED CURRENT

The direction of induced current is determined by the right hand grip rule.

Grab the solenoid with your right

hand as shown the thumb is
pointing to N-pole and your
curled fingers shows the
direction of current.

APPLICATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

The process of electromagnetic induction is used in; -

(a) Generators / dynamos
(b) Transformers

A SIMPLE A.C. GENERATOR

An a.c. generator / dynamo converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
It is made up of a coil, which rotates in
the magnetic field of a permanent
magnet. The coil is wound around a soft
iron armature. At the end of the
armature are two slip rings with carbon
brushes resting against each carbon ring. Coils are made from copper because copper good
conductor of electricity

How a simple a.c generator works

As the coil rotates it wires cut the magnetic field lines inducing an Electromotive force in
the wires of the coil. The induced e.m.f. causes current to flow in the coil.
The direction of the induced e.m.f. and current changes every time the coil rotates half its
cycle. The slip rings maintain the changing direction of current resulting into alternating
current output, which is conducted always by carbon brushes.

Graph of a.c. output

An a.c generator produces an alternating current and because of this it is known as
the alternator
(a) When the coil is in vertical position there is a small current induced or no
induced current because the magnetic field lines cut few or no wires.

(b) When the coil is horizontal position after quarter (1/4) cycle, maximum a.c. is
induced in the coil in one direction (+). As the coil changes position, towards
vertical, induced a.c. reduces until it become zero when the coil is vertical. At
this point half (1/2) cycle, current changes direction (-). Maximum current is
produced when coil reaches horizontal position ( 3/4) cycle induced a.c. starts
decreasing as coil goes towards vertical position until it becomes zero ( 1 cycle) .
(c) Induced electromotive force and therefore current changes direction 50 times
in one second. Hence its frequency is 50Hz.
NOTE: the e.m.f. or current induced in a generator can be increased by:-
(i) Increase the speed of rotation of the coil
(ii) Increasing the number of turns of the coil
(iii) Increasing the strength of the magnetic field
(iv) Winding the coil on a laminated soft iron core

Therefore electricity produced by the generator is stepped up by the transformer

and then transmitted.

MUTUAL INDUCTION
It is the production of an electromotive force and current in the secondary coil by
changing magnetic flux in the primary coil. When the current is flowing in the
primary coil it sets up a magnetic field which induces an electromotive force and
current in the secondary coil.
When the switch is closed in the primary coil the, pointer deflects on the
galvanometer connected in the secondary coil. This deflection suggests that current
has been induced because of the changing magnetic field created in the primary coil
as a result of the current flowing. This effect is known as mutual induction.

TRANSFORMER
It is a device used to alter the voltage of an a.c. supply.
It consist of two coils, the primary (input) coil and the secondary (output) coil
which are wound round a soft iron core which is made up of laminations of soft iron
insulated from each other.

TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS
Are two types of transformers
(a) Step-up transformer
(b) Step-down transformer

STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER

It is a transformer with more turns on the primary coil than the secondary coil. It
is used to reduce high voltage to low voltage that is useable.
SYMBOL
When an alternating voltage (e.m.f.) is supplied to
the primary (input) coil a reduced alternating
voltage (e.m.f.) is induced in the secondary (out put)
coil.

Example
If the transformer has 300 turns on the primary coil and 50 turns on the secondary
coil, what will be the voltage output if the mains input is 240V?
Data: Np= 300 turns, Ns= 50 turns, Vp=240V, Vs=?
STEP-UP TRANSFORMER

It is a transformer with less turns on the primary (input coil) than the secondary
(out put) coil.
SYMBOL
When an alternating voltage (e.m.f.) is supplied to the
primary (input) coil an increased alternating voltage
(e.m.f.) is induced in the secondary (out put) coil.
Example
If the transformer has 4000 turns on the primary coil and 8000 turns on the
secondary coil, what will be the voltage output if the main input is 120 V?

HOW A TRANSFORMER WORKS

When an alternating current is applied at the terminals of the primary (input) coil, it sets up an
alternating magnetic flux in the soft iron core. This induces electromotive force of the same
frequency in the secondary (output) coil due to electromagnetic induction which, depends on the
alternating voltage supply and the number of turns coil.
POWER AND CURRENT IN A TRANSFORMER
If the transformer is well designed or it is an ideal transformer then it should be
100% efficiency.
In practical no transformer is 100% efficiency because of the energy which is
wasted.
Power=V
I

HOW ENERGY IS LOST IN A TRANSFORMER

There are four main causes of energy loss in a transformer, namely

(a) Resistance in the wires of the coil which result into heating effect.
Solution: making coils of thicker wires reduces resistance.
(b) Heating of soft iron core due to eddy currents, which are induced in the core
by changing magnetic field.
Solution: Laminating the soft iron core reduces heating.
(Laminating it means making it of many sheets of iron separated by
glue / vanish which is a bad conductor of electricity.)
(c) Magnetisation and demagnetisation of the core. (Hysteresis loss)
The core is continuously magnetised and demagnetised by the alternating
current and the reversal of molecular magnet energy is wasted.
Solution: energy loss by Hysteresis is minimised by using the core of a soft
magnetic material which magnetises and demagnetise easily. E.g. soft iron
(d) Flux leakage- All the magnetic flux produced by the primary may not link with
the secondary coil, hence reducing e.m.f. induced in the secondary.
Solution: flux leakage is reduced by winding the secondary coil over the primary coil
or winding the coils next to each other.

NOTE – the oil used in transformers also helps to reduce heat loss because oil
itself is a poor conductor of heat.

TRANSMISSION OF POWER

Cables which carry electricity are long; therefore, power is lost because of the
heating effect of current. Therefore, it is advantage to use high voltage when
transmitting electrical energy through long distance cables because at high
voltages, the same electrical power can be transmitted at lower currents. This
reduces heating losses in the cables and thinner cables can used saving material
costs.
Power lost due to heating effect of current is given by
Power lost = resistance(R) x (current) (I2)
Plost =RI2
or
Power lost = voltage(V2) / I
Plost =V2 / I

Plost =RI2 or Plost = V2/ I

Example
Two aluminium cables of resistance 20 ohms supply 8000W of power.
(a) Calculate the power loss in each cable if power is transmitted at 1000V and
2000V respectively.
(b) Give reasons why aluminium is used to make transmission cables.
(a) Solutions
I =P therefore Plost = RI2
V
I = 8000W Plost = 20 ohms x (8.0)2
1000V Plost =1.28W

I = 8.0A

I =P therefore Plost = RI2

V
I = 8000W Plost =20.0 Ohms x (4.0)2
2000V
I = 4.0A Plost = 320W

(b) Solutions
i. Aluminium is light and easy to suspend on poles.
ii. Aluminium does not corrode so it can be used for a long period of time
Question one
. The diagram below shows the equipment, which can be used to generate electricity
from magnets.

(a) Describe what would happen to the ammeter reading if the north pole (N) of the
magnet were pushed into the coil, held stationary for a while, and then pulled
out again more quickly than it was pushed in.
(b) What name is given to this effect?
(c) What changes would you see in this experiment if you used: -
i. a strong magnet.
ii. a coil with more turns.
iii. the south pole of the magnet.
(f) Name two devices, which make use of the effect you, have mentioned in (b).

Question two

(a) Using the diagram below determine the direction of the induced current

(b) If the galvanometer was replaced with an electric bulb as shown in the
diagram below.

(i) State and explain three ways in which

the brightness of a bulb can be
increased.
(ii) Explain why the wires used are made
from copper
(iii) Suggest why solenoids are mostly
made from soft iron core
Question three

The diagram below represents a transformer with primary coil 400 turns and
secondary coil of 200 turns.

If the primary is connected to the 240V a.c main supply, what will be the secondary
voltage?
(b) If the primary current is 3A and secondary current are 5A. Calculate,
i. the power input.
ii.

the power out put.

iii. the efficiency of the transformer.
(c) Describe three features in a transformer design, which help to achieve high
efficiency.

Question four

The primary coil of a transformer is connected to an a.c. supply and secondary coil
to a bulb rated 12 V 36W. There are 4000 turns on the primary coil and 200turns
on the secondary coil. If the bulb is delivering it’s rated power. Find
i. the voltage supply.
ii. the current through the primary coil.
iii. power taken from the supply. (Assuming that the transformer is not losing any
energy in any form)
(a) High voltages are used to transmit electrical power through long-distance
cables. Explain the advantage of using high voltages.

Question five

With help of aid of a labelled diagram describe a simple form of a generator and
give an account of how the generator produces an e.m.f.
(a) Sketch a graph of voltage against time for an a.c. generator.
 (b) On the same axis, sketch two graphs to show the output of the generator
when:-
(i) the number of turns is halved.
(ii) the number of turns is doubled.

Question six

The diagram below shows a simple transformer used to light a lamp. The lamp is
labelled24V, 36W. When the mains supply is switched on, the lamp is very dim.
(b) State two ways in which the potential difference across the lamp increased
without changing the mains supply.
(c) Explain why the core is made from iron rather than steel.

Question seven

A Nokia N 70-battery charge works from the 240 mains supply transformer. If
there are 6400 turns on the primary coil and 400 turns on the secondary coil
(a) Calculate the output voltage.
(b) Assuming that the transformer is an ideal one, calculate the current flowing
through the primary coil.

Question eight

(a) State the two laws of electromagnetic induction

(b) Explain the source of electrical energy supplied by the generator.
The diagram below shows two copper coils mounted close together on an iron core

When the switch is closed the deflection is seen on the Galvanometer.

(a) What name is given to this effect?
(b) Complete the diagram on the primary coil to show the direction of current

………………………………………………………………END………………………………………………………………….
 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONNICS

Electronics
This is the branch of physics that deals with the emission of electrons and with the
use of electronic devices such as digital camera, television set, computer, printer,
fax machine, cell phone e.t.c.

Basis of electronics
The basis of electronics is emission of electrons (liberation of free electrons from
a surface of a substance caused by the external energy transferred to the
electrons).

Ways of emitting electrons

BY HOT PEACE OF METAL

Any piece of metal heated at a very high temperature gives off or emits electrons.
This phenomenon is known as thermionic emission.
o Thermionic emission (the flow of electrons from a metal or metal oxide
surface, caused by thermal vibration energy overcoming the electrostatic
forces holding electrons to the surface.

BY LIGHT FALLING ONTO A METAL PLATE

When light strike a metal surface it transfers some of its energy to the surface
electrons. This extra energy is given to electrons enable them to escape. This
phenomenon is called photoelectric effect.
o Photoelectric emission (liberation of electrons from a metallic surface upon
exposure to, and absorption of, electromagnetic radiation (light).
o Field emission (liberation of surface electrons of a negative metal plate by a
high voltage positive plate placed very close).
o Secondary emission (liberation of metal surface electrons by particle
bombardment).

DEFLECTIONS OF ELECTRONS

Electrons are negatively charged particles. As a result of their nature, an electric

field and a magnetic field can deflect electrons.
When charged particles are brought towards each other they exert a force on each
other. This force is due to the electric force called an electric field, around each
particle.

DEFLECTION IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD

A beam of electrons is deflected (bent) when it is passed between two metal plates
that have a potential difference between them. Electric field deflection
Magnetic field deflection
 The beam of electrons (cathode ray) is
deflected towards the positive plate,
reason being that unlike charges attract
while like repel.
The electron beam is seen as a bright
sport on the fluorescent screen magnetic
field deflection.

DEFLECTION IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

When a beam of electrons (cathode ray) is passed through a magnetic field it is

deflected.

Flemings Left Hand Rule gives the direction of deflected beam of electrons in a
magnetic field.

Flemings left hand rule

If you position the first three fingers of the
left palm such that they are at right angles to
each other then, the thuMb points in the
direction of motion of charge, the first finger
in the direction of magnetic field and the
second finger in the same direction as the
electrons or current (opposite direction of
conventional current).

STRUCTURE AND OPERATION OF THE CATHODE

RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (C.R.O.)
The main features of the cathode ray oscilloscope are the;

(a) Electron gun

(b) Deflection system
(c) The screen
THE ELECTRON GUN

 Is made up of filament, cathode and two cathodes.

 Two anodes are at high positive potential, their main function is to accelerate
the electrons and converge/ focus them on the screen.
 the grid- controls the brightness and brilliance of the screen
 The brightness of the screen depends on the rate at which electrons strike the
fluorescent screen.

DEFLECTION SYSTEM

 Consist of the X-plates and the Y-plates

 The X-plates deflects the beam horizontally (side ways) across the fluorescent
screen. If the potential difference across the x-plate is increased steadily, the
sport moves across the screen with constant speed. It is done by applying a
potential difference, which smoothly increases and then suddenly decreases.
 The Y-plates deflects the beam vertically (up and down) on the fluorescent
screen. This vertical deflection depends on the potential difference between
the to plates.
 If the alternating potential difference is applied to the y-plates the bright spot
moves up and down 50 times per second making a bright straight line on the
screen.
NOTE: The length of the straight line is the measure of the maximum potential
difference

THE SCREEN
The screen of the cathode ray oscilloscope is coated with material, which
fluoresces when electrons strike it.
E.g. zinc sulphide and phosphor
This instrument can be used to
 Waveform display.
 e.g. the sound wave can be studied by connecting a microphone to the input
terminals.
 Measure potential difference

As the deflection of the spot is depends on the voltage applied to the input
terminals.
CRO can be used as voltmeter

 Measuring frequency

The frequency of an A.C. voltage can be found by making the horizontal

measurements on its waveform on the screen.
for example if the time base control of the C.R.O. is set at 5ms/cm, this means
that the spot takes 5 milliseconds to move 1 cm horizontally across the screen.

REVISION QUESTIONS

The diagram below shows an experiment to demonstrate thermionic emission.

(a) Explain what is meant by the term thermionic emission.

(b) Name the two electrodes in the glass tube.
(c) Suggest why the glass tube should be a vacuum.
(d) How do you tell that the particles are being emitted from the cathode
filament?
(e) Suggest what would happen if the current were switched off through the
filament.
(f) Explain what will happen if the cathode and anode connections are reversed.
(g) What is the charge of the particle being emitted.
(h) Give a reason for your answer.
The diagram below shows the construction of a simple Cathode ray oscilloscope
(C.R.O).

(a) Name the three (3) main features of the cathode ray oscilloscope.
(b) Explain how electrons in the oscilloscope are: -
(i) emitted
(ii) given kinetic energy
(c) Suggest the function of the

(i) Grid.
(ii) Anodes

(d) Name the parts labelled p and Q

(e) State the function of

(i) P (ii) Q
(e) When there is voltage of 150V across the plate labelled P, the dot on the screen
is deflected by 13mm.
(j) Estimate the deflection of the dot when the voltage across increased to 250V.

(ii) Explain the normal use of the plate labelled P in an oscilloscope when the
oscilloscope is used to display a waveform.
The diagram below shows the wave form produced on the screen of the C.R.O.

If the gain control is set to 50mV/cm

and the time base control to 10ms/cm.
Calculate the
(a) Peak voltage.

when an A.C is supply is connected to the input terminals.

(b) Period.
(c) Frequency.

Q2. Fig. 2.0 shows a trace obtained on an oscilloscope screen.

The time base is set at 10ms/cm

i. Determine the time for one complete oscillation on the screen.

ii. Calculate the frequency of the signal applied to the oscilloscope.

……………………………………………End………………………………………
 NUCLEAR & ATOMIC PHYSICS

Atomic structure
An atom consists of tiny sub-atomic particles, these include:-
 Protons
 Neutrons
 Electrons

The diagram below gives some idea on the structure of an atom; it also includes
some important definitions and notation used to describe atomic structure.

Nuclide notation for an element shows the element’s symbol, mass number and the
atomic number. E.g

The atomic number (Z) is also known as the proton number. The mass number (A)
is also known as the nucleon number. The neutron number (N) = mass number (A)
- atomic number (Z). Protons and neutrons are the 'nucleons' present in the
nucleus and the negative electrons are held by the positive nucleus in 'orbits'
called energy levels or shells

Nuclear stability.

Stable nuclides have a proton to neutron ratio of about 1:1. However, as atoms get
heavier, (increasing mass number) there is a marked deviation from this ratio, with
number of neutrons far superseding that of protons. This result in nuclear
instability, when this happen the nucleus is likely to disintegrate/decay/decompose
in an attempt to achieve stability.

Radioactivity

 Radioactivity is the spontaneous random emission of radiation from the

nucleus of unstable nuclei. The process is spontaneous meaning it is a natural
process which can not be affected by such external factors as temperature,
pressure or chemical composition. It is also a random process because one
cannot predict with certainty the type and number of particles to be
emitted.
 An atom that emits radiation of any kind transmutes to another. This
process is called nuclear transmutation. The resulting atom is referred to as
daughter while the original is called parent.
  When a nuclide emits the radiations, it is said to undergo radioactive decay.
During the decay, the nuclide will emit alpha or beta and this may be
accompanied by release of energy in form of gamma radiations.

Types of radioactive radiations

 Alpha particles
 Beta particle

 Gamma particles

Radiations emitted by radioactive elements are identified according to the

properties they exhibit.

The radiations behave differently when subjected to strong magnetic /electric

fields.

Electric field deflection Magnetic field deflection

  The radioactive source is placed in

a thick lead box with a small opening.
 When strong magnetic field is introduced perpendicular to the path of
radiations, some are deflected. Using Fleming’s left-hand rule while in an
electric field positively charged radiation move to the negative plate and
negatively charged move towards the positive plate.
 The positively charged radiation is beta called alpha particle, the negative
charged beta and the uncharged gamma radiations. It is further observed
the alpha particles are deflected less compared to the beta particles, this is
because alpha particles are heavier than beta particles.

Nature/ characteristics of radioactive particles

All forms of radioactive particle have certain features n common. These

include:-
(i) They cause certain materials to fluoresce e.g mineral salts like ZnS. When
this material is stuck by the radioactive particle it glows (produces light)
 (ii) They are harmful to the health of the living things because they cause
mutation, cancer etc.
(iii)They affect photographic film.
(iv) They under go decay.
(v) They cause ionization of gas molecules.

Properties of radioactive radiations

Properties of Alpha particles Beta particles Gamma rays

radiation (α) (ß) (γ)
Nature of Helium nucleus Fast moving electron Electromagnetic wave
particle

Weak Strong
Penetrating power Low penetration, Medium Very highly penetrating, because of
smallest mass and charge
because of biggest
mass and charge

Ionizing power Strong Very weak

-the ability to remove Very strong ionising Medium/weak The lowest ionising power of the
electrons from atoms to power, because of three, because it carries no
form positive ions the biggest mass electric charge and has virtually no
and charge, hence mass, so not much ability to knock
more ability to off electrons when colliding with an
knock off electrons atom
Slightly Greatly deflected
Magnetic / deflected High deflection n, because of Not deflected
smallest mass and charge
electric field Low deflection,
because of biggest
deflection mass and charge

Electrical Positively Negatively charged No charge

Charge charged -e
+2e
Relative 4 1/1840 Negligible
Mass
velocity 1/20 of velocity 3-99% velocity of light Velocity of light
of light

Absorbed by Thin paper Aluminium plate Thick block of lead

Thick layer of steel or
concrete

Penetration of Matter

Though the most massive and most energetic of radioactive emissions, the alpha
particle is the shortest in range because of its strong interaction with matter. The
electromagnetic gamma ray is extremely penetrating, even penetrating considerable
thicknesses of concrete. The electron of beta radioactivity strongly interacts with
matter and has a short range.

(a) (b)
 Alpha particles are able to penetrate through thin metal foil, but are
stopped by a paper of few millimeters thick. Their range in air is about 5cm.
 Beta particles are able to penetrate thin metal foil, paper but stopped by
Aluminium about 3mm.
 Gamma is capable of penetrating material and is substantially minimized by
thick lead block.
 Gamma rays can penetrate most materials are only stopped by a lead of
about 5cm thick and a very thick concrete.

Dangers of radioactive radiations

When alpha, beta or gamma radioactive emissions hit living cells they cause
ionisation (ionization) effects, they can kill cells directly or cause genetic damage
eg to the DNA molecules. High radiation doses cause burn effects and can kill cells.
However, low doses don't kill the cells, but if they are genetically damaged and can
still replicate, these mutations can lead to the formation of cancerous cells and
tumor development later. When alpha, beta and gamma radiation collide with
neutral atoms or molecules they knock off electrons and convert them into
charged or ionised particles (ions). Positive ions are formed on electron loss and
negative ions are formed by electron gain. The positive ions maybe unstable and
very reactive and cause other chemical changes in the cell molecules. The 3
radiations have different capacities to cause cell damage.

 If the radioactive source gets inside the body the 'danger' order is alpha
> beta > gamma. The bigger the mass or charge of the particle, the bigger
its ionising impact on atoms or molecule. BECAUSE the order of mass is 4 >
1
/1850 > 0, and for electric charge the order is 2+ > -1 > 0. If the radioisotope
is in the body the radiation impacts directly on cells with the consequences
described above.
 However, if the radioactive source is outside the body, the order danger
is reversed to gamma > beta > alpha because the danger order follows the
pattern of penetrating power. The smaller the mass and charge the more
penetrating the radiation (reverse the order of above). Gamma and beta are
the most penetrating and will reach vital organs in the body and be
absorbed. Most gamma passes through soft tissue but some is inevitably
 absorbed by cells. Alpha radiation would not penetrate clothing and is highly
unlikely to reach living cells.
 Because of the dangers of this ionising or atomic radiation, all workers and
medical staff who are likely to be near radioactive or ionising sources must
wear lapel radiation badges containing photographic film to monitor their
exposure to radiation. The film is regularly developed and the darker the
film the more radiation would have impacted on the person.

Alpha decay/emission/disintegration

Is the emission of an alpha particle (Helium nucleus) from the nucleus of a

radioactive atom. The following changes occur;
o Mass # of parent atom/nucleus decreases by four (4)
o Atomic # reduces by two (2)
o A new atom is formed

Example
Actinium emits an alpha particle during its disintegration.
(a) Describe the nuclear changes
(b) Show the changes in form of an equation.
(c) Write down name of the new element

Solutions
(a) Nucleon # goes down by 4, atomic # decreases by 2 and a new atom is
formed.

(b)

(c) Francium

Beta decay/emission/disintegration

Is the emission of a beta particle (fast moving electron) from the nucleus of a
radioactive atom. The following changes take place;
o Mass # of parent atom/nucleus remains same
o Atomic # increases by one (1)
o A new atom is formed
Example

Uranium, decays by emitting a beta particle.

(a) Describe the nuclear changes
(b) Show the changes in form of an equation.
(c) Write down name of the new element

Solutions
(a) Mass # remains unchanged, atomic # increases by 1 and a new atom is
formed.

(b)

Neptunium
Gamma decay/emission/disintegration

Is the emission of electromagnetic rays from a high-energy level atom/nucleus.

This emission does not result in any change concerning either the mass # or atomic
#. The atom changes from excited state (high-energy level) to unexcited state
(ground-energy level).

Example

Thorium disintegrates by emitting electromagnetic rays.

(a) Describe the nuclear changes
(b) Show the changes in form of an equation.
(c) Write down name of the new element

Solutions
(a) Mass # and atomic # remain constant but nucleus becomes less energetic.

(b)
(c) Thorium
BACKGROUND RADIATION

It is the radiation due to natural radioactivity in the Earth’s core and air.

Background Radiation sources

 Radiation from outer space e.g cosmic rays from the Sun.
 Radioactivity from naturally occurring radioisotopes in rocks at the surface
eg there are traces of radioisotopes of uranium in granite rocks.
 Natural and artificial radioisotopes.
 Emissions from nuclear power stations (governed by health and safety
legislation, they are allowed to emit tiny amounts of radioactive material into
the environment).
 Radioisotope tracers are used in industry and hospitals and so their use
and disposal must be carefully controlled.

 Nuclear accidents, the worst being at Chernobyl power station in Russia.

 Atomic weapons testing in the 40's, 50's and 60's. The 'super powers' were
testing their latest nuclear bombs in the air or on the surface, producing
contaminated dust in the atmosphere. Some of the radioisotopes formed in
the explosions, like strontium-90, are still around.

RADIATION DETECTORS

Detection of the radioactive radiation is based on the detection of the ionising

effect of the radiation. All instruments detecting the radioactive radiation detect
ions produced in the medium/substances where the radiation has passed. Some of
the instruments used to detect radioactive radiation include:-

(a) The Geiger-Muller tube and counter

(b) The diffusion cloud chamber

(c) The photographic film

(d) Charged gold leaf electroscope

GEIGER-MULLER TUBE AND THE COUNTER

When a radioactive substance is placed in front of the window, the emitted

radiations enter the tube through the window and ionize the argon gas. The
negative ions move towards the anode, while the positive ions move towards
cathode. As the ions accelerate, they collide with more particles on their way
resulting in further ionisation. A pulse current therefore flows. The Geiger-Muller
(GM) tube and counter electronically amplifies the ionising effect of the radiation
and is used for very accurate measurements of radioactivity.
NOTE: A Geiger-Muller (GM) tube and counter is set up in the laboratory may
records a background radiation first.

Therefore, when finding the amount of radiation, always subtract the background
radiation from the total/actual count rate.

Actual count rate = total count rate – background radiation.

DIFFUSION CLOUD CHAMBER

The diffusion cloud chamber is made up of the transparent container. It is

divided into two
compartments. The
upper compartment is
fitted with a
transparent Perspex
lid and its top is lined
with a thin strip of
felt of soaked in
alcohol or water. The
bottom compartment
is fitted with a sponge
and closed with removable cover. The upper compartment contains air, which is at
room temperature at the top. The air at the bottom is at a temperature about -78
o
C due to a layer of dry ice placed in the lower compartment. The felt ring at the
top is soaked in alcohol. This vaporizes in the upper warm region, diffuses down
and is then cooled.

At a certain height above the base of the chamber, the air contains layer of
saturated alcohol vapour. Here the alcohol droplets form on the air ions produced
by the radiation. These are seen as tracks along the path of radiation. The tracks
are well defined in an electric field is created by frequently rubbing the Perspex
lid of the chamber with a piece of cloth.
 The tracks obtained in the above
cloud chamber vary according to the
type of radiation. The tracks due to
alpha particles are short, straight
and thick. This is because alpha
particles Cause heavy/strong
ionization, rapid losing energy, hence their short range. They are massive and
their path cannot therefore be changed by air molecules.

The tracks formed by beta particles are generally thin and irregular in direction.
This is because beta particles are lighter and faster, cause less ionization of air
molecules.

Gamma rays produces scanty disjoined or meander tracks. This is because the
rays eject electrons from their molecules. These electrons behave like weak beta
particle, which are responsible for the tracks seen.

PHTOGRAPHIC FILM

Photographic film reacts to radioactive radiation in the same way as it does to light
(the film is blackened). Special photographic plate /film wrapped inside a light
proof paper are used to detect gamma and beta radiations. If the photographic film
is used to detect alpha particle, they must be uncovered and used in the dark.
Tracks of beta and alpha particles are produced on this photographic plate/ film
and these indicate the path of radiation. In genera photographic plate are
blackened by ionising radiations such as gamma, x-rays beta particles and alpha.

HALF-LIFE

Some atomic nuclei are very unstable and only exist for a few seconds or minutes.
Others are very stable and take millions of years to decay away to form another
atom. A measure of the stability of a radioisotope is given by its half-life
Half-life Is the average time it takes for half of the remaining radioactive
atoms to decay to a different atom. It means in one half-life of time, on average,
half of the undecayed unstable nuclei of a particular isotope disintegrate. It can
vary from a fraction of a second to millions of years.

The radioactivity of any sample will decrease with time as the unstable atoms
decay to more stable atoms, e.g. 92U isotopes continues to decay until eventually
decay to 82Pb isotopes which is much stable.

Example

Decay curve

A radioactive element Radium has mass of 2g and half-life of 1 600 years.

(a) What mass will remain after:- (i) 3200 yrs (ii) 6400 yrs

(b) What mass has decayed after;- (i) 3200 yrs (ii) 6400 yrs

Solutions

No. of yrs No. of half- Mass decayed(g) Mass remaining(g)

lives
0 0 0 2
1600 1 1 1
3200 2 11/2 1
/2
4800 3 1 3/4 1
/4
6400 4 17/8 1
/8

Example

The half-life of a certain radioactive element is 16 years.

(a)What fraction of the element will remain after 48 years?
(b)What fraction of the element will remain after 64 years?
 Application of radioactive radiations

The following must be considered when selecting radioisotope for use.

 Their penetrating power

 The ability to kill

Medicine

 Gamma rays, like x-rays, are used in the control/kill cancerous body
growths/cells. The radiations kill cancer cells when the tumour is subjected
to it.
 Used in the sterilization of medical equipment
 Killing pests or make them sterile

Archaeology – carbon -14 dating

 Carbon -14 is used to estimate the age of the fossil or remains of historical
animals and plants .e.g uranium -238 is used to estimate the age of rocks and
the earth by Geologists.

Thickness Gauge

 Measure the thickness of flat objects to produce the material of uniform

thickness. The thickness of materials such as paper metal plates carpets can
be determined or controlled by passing the through a radiation.

Detection of flaws
  Cracks and airspaces in welded joints can be detected using gamma radiation
from cobalt-60.the cobalt-60 is placed on one side of the joint and a
photographic film on the other. The film, when developed, will show any
weakness in the joint.

Detecting pipe leakages or bursts (Tracers)

 Underground pipes carrying water or oil many suffer bursts or leakages. If

the water or oil is mixed with radioactive substance from the source, the
mixture will seep out where there is leakage or an opening. If a detector is
passed on the ground near the area the radiation will be detected

Safety Precautions

 avoid unnecessary exposure

 Avoid direct contact with the source.
 Never point the source at any person.
 Do not pick radioactive substances by hand, use long forceps, tongs or by
means of remote control.
 When handling radioactive materials, wear special clothing and gloves.

Revision questions

Use your periodic table to enable you answer the following questions

Question one

(a) Uranium-234 decays to polonium-218 by emitting alpha particles.

(a) Write down the nuclear equation representing the decay.
(b) How many alpha particles are emitted?

(b) Uranium -238 undergo decay to become lead-206.

(i)Find the number of alpha and beta particles emitted in the process.
(ii)Write down the nuclear equation to show the decay.

(c) Bismuth undergoes a series of decay processes first by releasing two (2) alpha

particles, the one (1) beta particle followed by gamma rays.

(i)State the mass # of an alpha particle

(ii)Write down the charge on an alpha particle

(iii)Briefly describe how a beta particle is emitted

(d) Show, by way of constructing decay equations;

Question two

(a) Define the term half-life.

(b) A radioactive substance has a mass of 160g. Its half-life is 40 yrs.
 (i)How much of this substance will remain after 200 yrs.
(ii)How much of this substance will remain undecayed after 200 yrs?
(c)Using a graph, plot the graph of mass against time

(d)Radon -222 has half-life of 4 days. A sample of radon has mass 64g.
How many grams will remain after:-
(i) 4 days (ii) 8 days

(d)The graph below shows how some atoms of a radioactive substance decayed.
(i) State the value of the half-life of
the substance. Show how you
arrived at the answer your answer

(ii)The half-life of another substance

is 10 minutes. What is the fraction
of this sample has decayed after
30 minutes?
(c)(ii) What is the fraction of the
undecayed?

Question three

(a)Write down four uses of radioactive radiations

(b)List three dangers of radioactive radiations.
(c)State the precaution which must be taken when handling radio active substances.
(d)Describe how radio active substances are stored.

Question four

(a) Define the term radioactivity?

Explain why this process in (a) is known to be a:-

I. Random process
II. Spontaneous process

(b)A stream of charged particles is deflected in magnetic field. The diagram below
shows alpha beta and gamma radiations being emitted from a radioactive source
S into the region where there is magnetic field.

(a) (i)Suggest which one of the three tracks A, B or C shows the gamma
radiation.
(ii) Give a reason for your answer.

(b) The tracks A and C show opposite deflections. What does this tell you
about the difference between the radiation A and C?

(c) Suggest why the deflection of C is much stronger than that of A.

Question five

The following were obtained from the reading of a counter connected to a Geiger-
Muller tube placed in front of a radioactive source. Plot the graph of the count-rate
against time and deduce the Half-life of radioactive.

Time(s) 0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Corrected counts 120 74 48 30 20 12 8

(a) What is?

I. An alpha particle
II. Beta particle
III. Gamma particle

(a) A certain radioactive source emits particles which make straight tracks in a
cloud chamber. Explain how the tracks are formed and suggest why they are
all straight.[6]
Question six

(a) The diagram below shows the penetrating power of the 3 radioactive radiations.
Identify the radiations P, Q and R and suggest the absorbing material M, C
and J.

(c) The half-life of isotope x is 4 days and its initial mass is 32g.what mass of
the isotope will remain after 12 days?
(d) An element has a half-life of 2500 years. If there was 10g of radioactive
atom at the start, how much will be left out after 10 years.