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Spain
Spain,[g] or the Kingdom of Spain,[h][i] is a country located
in Southwestern Europe, with parts of its territory in the Kingdom of Spain
Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea and Africa.[11][j] It is the Reino de España (Spanish)
largest country in Southern Europe and the fourth-most 7 other names[a] [show]
populous European Union member state. Spanning across the Aragonese: Reino d'Espanya
majority of the Iberian Peninsula, its territory also includes the Asturian: Reinu d'España
Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean, the Balearic Islands in Catalan: Regne d'Espanya
the Mediterranean Sea, and the autonomous cities of Ceuta Basque: Espainiako Erresuma
and Melilla in Africa. Peninsular Spain is bordered to the north Galician: Reino de España
by France, Andorra, and the Bay of Biscay; to the east and Occitan: Reiaume d'Espanha
south by the Mediterranean Sea and Gibraltar; and to the west Valencian: Regne d'Espanya
by Portugal and the Atlantic Ocean. Spain's capital and largest
city is Madrid, and other major urban areas include Barcelona,
Valencia, Zaragoza, Seville, Málaga, Murcia, Palma de
Mallorca, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, and Bilbao.

In early antiquity, the Iberian Peninsula was inhabited by Flag Coat of arms
Celtic and Iberian tribes, along with other local pre-Roman
Motto: Plus ultra (Latin)
peoples. With the Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, (English: "Further Beyond")
the province of Hispania was established. Following the
Anthem: Marcha Real (Spanish)[1]
Romanization and Christianization of Hispania, the fall of the
(English: "Royal March")
Western Roman Empire ushered in the inward migration of
0:54
tribes from Central Europe, including the Visigoths, who
formed the Visigothic Kingdom centred on Toledo. In the early
eighth century, most of the peninsula was conquered by the
Umayyad Caliphate, and during early Islamic rule, Al-Andalus
became a dominant peninsular power centred in Córdoba.
Several Christian kingdoms emerged in Northern Iberia, chief
among them Asturias, León, Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and
Portugal; made an intermittent southward military expansion
and repopulation, known as the Reconquista, repelling Islamic
rule in Iberia, which culminated with the Christian seizure of
the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada in 1492. The dynastic union of
the Crown of Castile and the Crown of Aragon in 1479 under
the Catholic Monarchs is often considered the de facto
unification of Spain as a nation-state. Show globe
Show map of Europe
During the Age of Discovery, Spain pioneered the exploration Show all
of the New World and the first circumnavigation of the Location of Spain (dark green)
globe.[12] At the same time, it formed one of the largest – in Europe (green & dark grey)
empires in history through colonization. The Spanish empire – in the European Union (green)
reached a global scale and spread across continents, Capital Madrid
underpinning the rise of a global trading system fueled and largest city 40°26′N 3°42′W

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primarily by precious metals. The 18th century was marked by Official language Spanish[b]
extensive reforms and, notably, the Bourbon reforms
Recognized regional Aragonese · Asturian
centralized mainland Spain.[13] In the 19th century, after the
languages[c] · Basque · Catalan ·
Napoleonic occupation and the victorious Spanish War of Galician · Leonese ·
independence, the following political divisions between liberals Occitan · Valencian
and absolutists led to the breakaway of most of the American
Nationality (2024)[3] 86.5% Spanish
colonies. These political divisions finally converged in the 20th
13.5% foreigners
century with the Spanish Civil War, giving rise to the Francoist
dictatorship that lasted until 1975. With the restoration of Religion (2023)[4] 56.0% Roman
democracy and its entry into the European Union, the country Catholicism
37.5% non-
experienced an economic boom that profoundly transformed it practicing
socially and politically. Since the Siglo de Oro, Spanish art, Catholic
architecture, music, poetry, painting, literature, and cuisine 16.5% practicing
have been influential worldwide, particularly in Western Catholic
Europe and the Americas. Spain is one of the main nations of 14.9% atheist
12.6% agnostic
Latin Europe and a cultural superpower.[14][15] As a reflection
12.3% indifferent or
of its large cultural wealth, Spain is the world's second-most
no religion
visited country, has one of the world's largest numbers of
2.7% other religion
World Heritage Sites, and it is the most popular destination for 1.5% unanswered
European students.[16] Its cultural influence extends to over
600 million Hispanophones, making Spanish the world's Demonym(s) Spaniard · Spanish
second-most spoken native language and the world's most Government Unitary parliamentary
widely spoken Romance language.[17] constitutional
monarchy
Spain is a secular parliamentary democracy and a • Monarch Felipe VI
constitutional monarchy,[18] with King Felipe VI as head of • Prime Minister Pedro Sánchez
state. It is a major advanced capitalist economy,[19] with the • President of the Francina Armengol
world's fifteenth-largest economy by nominal GDP (fourth of Congress of
Deputies
the European Union) and the fifteenth-largest by PPP. Spain is
• President of the Pedro Rollán
a member of the United Nations, the European Union, the Senate
eurozone, North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a
Legislature Cortes Generales
permanent guest of the G20, and is part of many other
international organizations such as the Council of Europe • Upper house Senate
• Lower house Congress of
(CoE), the Organization of Ibero-American States (OEI), the
Deputies
Union for the Mediterranean, the Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development (OECD), the Organization for Formation
Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), and the World • Dynastic Union 20 January 1479
Trade Organization (WTO). • Sole Sovereign 14 March 1516
• Centralized State 9 June 1715
• First Constitution 19 March 1812
Etymology • Current Constitution 29 December 1978
The name of Spain (España) comes from Hispania, the name • EEC Accession[d] 1 January 1986
used by the Romans for the Iberian Peninsula and its provinces Area
during the Roman Empire. The etymological origin of the term • Total 505,990[5] km2
Hispania is uncertain, although the Phoenicians referred to the (195,360 sq mi)
(51st)
region as Spania (meaning "Land of rabbits"), therefore, the
• Water (%) 0.89[6]
most accepted theory is the Phoenician one.[20] There have
been a number of accounts and hypotheses about its origin: Population
• 2024 estimate 48,692,804[7] (30th)

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Jesús Luis Cunchillos argued that the root of the term span is • Density 97/km2 (251.2/sq mi)
the Phoenician word spy, meaning "to forge metals". (121th)
Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean "the land where metals are GDP (PPP) 2024 estimate
forged".[21] It may be a derivation of the Phoenician I-Shpania, • Total $2.516 trillion[8]
meaning "island of rabbits", "land of rabbits" or "edge", a (15th)
reference to Spain's location at the end of the Mediterranean; • Per capita $52,012[8] (37th)
Roman coins struck in the region from the reign of Hadrian GDP (nominal) 2024 estimate
show a female figure with a rabbit at her feet,[22] and Strabo • Total $1.647 trillion[8]
called it the "land of the rabbits".[23] The word in question (15th)
actually means "Hyrax", possibly due to the Phoenicians • Per capita $34,045[8] (32nd)
confusing the two animals.[24]
Gini (2022) 32.0[9]
medium
There is also the claim that "Hispania" derives from the Basque
word Ezpanna, meaning "edge" or "border", another reference HDI (2022) 0.911[10]
to the fact that the Iberian Peninsula constitutes the southwest very high (27th)
corner of the European continent.[25] Currency Euro[e] (€) (EUR)

Time zone UTC⁠±0 to +1 (WET

History and CET)
• Summer (DST) UTC+1 to +2 (WEST
and CEST)
Prehistory and pre-Roman peoples Note: most of Spain
observes CET/CEST,
Archaeological research at Atapuerca indicates the Iberian except the Canary
Peninsula was populated by hominids 1.3 million years ago.[26] Islands which
observe WET/WEST.
Modern humans first arrived in Iberia from the north on foot
Date format dd/mm/yyyy (CE)
about 35,000 years ago.[27] The best-known artefacts of these
prehistoric human settlements are the paintings in the Driving side right
Altamira cave of Cantabria in northern Iberia, which were Calling code +34
created from 35,600 to 13,500 BCE by Cro-Magnon.[28][29]
ISO 3166 code ES
Archaeological and genetic evidence suggests that the Iberian
Peninsula acted as one of several major refugia from which Internet TLD .es[f]
northern Europe was repopulated following the end of the last
ice age.

The two largest groups inhabiting the Iberian Peninsula before the
Roman conquest were the Iberians and the Celts. The Iberians inhabited
the Mediterranean side of the peninsula. The Celts inhabited much of the
interior and Atlantic sides of the peninsula. Basques occupied the
western area of the Pyrenees mountain range and adjacent areas;
Phoenician-influenced Tartessians flourished in the southwest; and Celtic castro in Galicia
Lusitanians and Vettones occupied areas in the central west. Several
cities were founded along the coast by Phoenicians, and trading outposts
and colonies were established by Greeks in the East. Eventually, Phoenician-Carthaginians expanded inland
towards the meseta; however, due to the bellicose inland tribes, the Carthaginians settled on the coasts of the
Iberian Peninsula.

Roman Hispania and the Visigothic Kingdom

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During the Second Punic War, roughly between 210 and 205 BCE, the
expanding Roman Republic captured Carthaginian trading colonies along
the Mediterranean coast. Although it took the Romans nearly two
centuries to complete the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, they
retained control of it for over six centuries. Roman rule was bound
together by law, language, and the Roman road.[30]

The cultures of the pre-Roman populations were gradually Romanised

(Latinised) at different rates depending on what part of the peninsula
The Roman Theatre in Mérida
they lived in, with local leaders being admitted into the Roman
aristocratic class.[k][31]

Hispania served as a granary for the Roman market, and its harbours exported gold, wool, olive oil, and
wine. Agricultural production increased with the introduction of irrigation projects, some of which remain in
use. Emperors Hadrian, Trajan, Theodosius I, and the philosopher Seneca were born in Hispania.[l]
Christianity was introduced into Hispania in the 1st century CE, and it became popular in the cities in the
2nd century.[31] Most of Spain's present languages and religions, as well as the basis of its laws, originate
from this period.[30] Starting in 170 CE, incursions of North-African Mauri in the province of Baetica took
place.[32]

The Germanic Suebi and Vandals, together with the Sarmatian Alans,
entered the peninsula after 409, weakening the Western Roman Empire's
jurisdiction over Hispania. The Suebi established a kingdom in north-
western Iberia, whereas the Vandals established themselves in the south
of the peninsula by 420 before crossing over to North Africa in 429. As
the western empire disintegrated, the social and economic base became
greatly simplified; the successor regimes maintained many of the
institutions and laws of the late empire, including Christianity and
Votive crown of Reccesuinth from
assimilation into the evolving Roman culture.
the Treasure of Guarrazar

The Byzantines established an occidental province, Spania, in the south,

with the intention of reviving Roman rule throughout Iberia. Eventually, however, Hispania was reunited
under Visigothic rule.

Muslim era and Reconquista

From 711 to 718, as part of the expansion of the Umayyad Caliphate, which had conquered North Africa from
the Byzantine Empire, nearly all of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered by Muslims from across the Strait of
Gibraltar, resulting in the collapse of the Visigothic Kingdom. Only a small area in the mountainous north of
the peninsula stood out of the territory seized during the initial invasion. The Kingdom of Asturias-León
consolidated upon this territory. Other Christian kingdoms such as Navarre and Aragon in the mountainous
north eventually surged upon the consolidation of counties of the Carolingian Marca Hispanica.[33] For
several centuries, the fluctuating frontier between the Muslim and Christian controlled areas of the
peninsula was along the Ebro and Douro valleys.

Conversion to Islam proceeded at an increasing pace. The muladíes (Muslims of ethnic Iberian origin) are
believed to have formed the majority of the population of Al-Andalus by the end of the 10th century.[34][35]

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A series of Viking incursions raided the coasts of the Iberian Peninsula in

the 9th and 10th centuries.[36] The first recorded Viking raid on Iberia
took place in 844; it ended in failure with many Vikings killed by the
Galicians' ballistas; and seventy of the Vikings' longships captured on the
beach and burned by the troops of King Ramiro I of Asturias.

In the 11th century, the Caliphate of Córdoba collapsed, fracturing into a

series of petty kingdoms (Taifas),[37] often subject to the payment of a
form of protection money (Parias) to the Northern Christian kingdoms,
which otherwise undertook a southward territorial expansion. The
capture of the strategic city of Toledo in 1085 marked a significant shift
in the balance of power in favour of the Christian kingdoms. The arrival The Mihrab in the Mosque of
from North Africa of the Islamic ruling sects of the Almoravids and the Cordoba
Almohads achieved temporary unity upon the Muslim-ruled territory,
with a stricter, less tolerant application of Islam, and partially reversed
some Christian territorial gains.

The Kingdom of León was the strongest Christian kingdom for centuries.
In 1188, the first form (restricted to the bishops, the magnates, and 'the
elected citizens of each city') of modern parliamentary session in Europe
was held in León (Cortes of León).[38] The Kingdom of Castile, formed
from Leonese territory, was its successor as strongest kingdom. The kings
and the nobility fought for power and influence in this period. The
example of the Roman emperors influenced the political objective of the Catholic Monarchs of Spain.
Crown, while the nobles benefited from feudalism.

Muslim strongholds in the Guadalquivir Valley such as Córdoba (1236) and Seville (1248) fell to Castile in
the 13th century. The County of Barcelona and the Kingdom of Aragon entered in a dynastic union and
gained territory and power in the Mediterranean. In 1229 Majorca was conquered, so was Valencia in 1238.
In the 13th and 14th centuries, the North-African Marinids established some enclaves around the Strait of
Gibraltar. Upon the conclusion of the Granada War, the Nasrid Sultanate of Granada (the remaining
Muslim-ruled polity in the Iberian Peninsula after 1246) capitulated in 1492 to the military strength of the
Catholic Monarchs, and it was integrated from then on in the Crown of Castile.[39]

Spanish Empire
In 1469, the crowns of the Christian kingdoms of Castile and
Aragon were united by the marriage of their monarchs, Isabella I
and Ferdinand II, respectively. In 1492, Jews were forced to choose
between conversion to Catholicism or expulsion;[40] as many as
200,000 Jews were expelled from Castile and Aragon. The year
1492 also marked the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the New
World, during a voyage funded by Isabella. Columbus's first voyage
Late 16th-century Seville, the harbor
crossed the Atlantic and reached the Caribbean Islands, beginning enjoying the exclusive right to trade with
the European exploration and conquest of the Americas. The Treaty the New World
of Granada guaranteed religious tolerance towards Muslims,[41] for
a few years before Islam was outlawed in 1502 in Castile and 1527

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in Aragon, leading the remaining Muslim population to become nominally Christian Moriscos. About four
decades after the War of the Alpujarras (1568–1571), over 300,000 moriscos were expelled, settling
primarily in North Africa.[42]

The unification of the crowns of Aragon and Castile by the marriage

of their sovereigns laid the basis for modern Spain and the Spanish
Empire, although each kingdom of Spain remained a separate
country socially, politically, legally, and in currency and
language.[43][44]

Habsburg Spain was one of the leading world powers throughout

the 16th century and most of the 17th century, a position reinforced Diachronic map of the Spanish Empire
by trade and wealth from colonial possessions and became the
world's leading maritime power. It reached its apogee during the
reigns of the first two Spanish Habsburgs—Charles V/I (1516–1556) and Philip II (1556–1598). This period
saw the Italian Wars, the Schmalkaldic War, the Dutch Revolt, the War of the Portuguese Succession, clashes
with the Ottomans, intervention in the French Wars of Religion and the Anglo-Spanish War.[45]

Through exploration and conquest or royal marriage alliances and

inheritance, the Spanish Empire expanded across vast areas in the
Americas, the Indo-Pacific, Africa as well as the European
continent (including holdings in the Italian Peninsula, the Low
Countries and the Franche-Comté). The so-called Age of Discovery
featured explorations by sea and by land, the opening-up of new
trade routes across oceans, conquests and the beginnings of
European colonialism. Precious metals, spices, luxuries, and Main trade routes of the Spanish Empire

previously unknown plants brought to the metropole played a

leading part in transforming the European understanding of the globe.[46] The cultural efflorescence
witnessed during this period is now referred to as the Spanish Golden Age. The expansion of the empire
caused immense upheaval in the Americas as the collapse of societies and empires and new diseases from
Europe devastated American indigenous populations. The rise of humanism, the Counter-Reformation and
new geographical discoveries and conquests raised issues that were addressed by the intellectual movement
now known as the School of Salamanca, which developed the first modern theories of what are now known as
international law and human rights.

Spain's 16th-century maritime supremacy was demonstrated by the victory over the Ottoman Empire at the
Battle of Lepanto in 1571 and over Portugal at the Battle of Ponta Delgada in 1582, and then after the setback
of the Spanish Armada in 1588, in a series of victories against England in the Anglo-Spanish War of 1585–
1604. However, during the middle decades of the 17th century Spain's maritime power went into a long
decline with mounting defeats against the Dutch Republic (Battle of the Downs) and then England in the
Anglo-Spanish War of 1654–1660; by the 1660s it was struggling to defend its overseas possessions from
pirates and privateers.

The Protestant Reformation increased Spain's involvement in religiously charged wars, forcing ever-
expanding military efforts across Europe and in the Mediterranean.[47] By the middle decades of a war- and
plague-ridden 17th-century Europe, the Spanish Habsburgs had enmeshed the country in continent-wide
religious-political conflicts. These conflicts drained it of resources and undermined the economy generally.
Spain managed to hold on to most of the scattered Habsburg empire, and help the imperial forces of the
Holy Roman Empire reverse a large part of the advances made by Protestant forces, but it was finally forced
to recognise the separation of Portugal and the United Provinces (Dutch Republic), and eventually suffered
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some serious military reverses to France in the latter stages of the immensely destructive, Europe-wide
Thirty Years' War.[48] In the latter half of the 17th century, Spain went into a gradual decline, during which it
surrendered several small territories to France and England; however, it maintained and enlarged its vast
overseas empire, which remained intact until the beginning of the 19th century.

18th century
The decline culminated in a controversy over succession to the throne
which consumed the first years of the 18th century. The War of the
Spanish Succession was a wide-ranging international conflict combined
with a civil war, and was to cost the kingdom its European possessions
and its position as a leading European power.[49]

During this war, a new dynasty originating in France, the Bourbons, was
installed. The Crowns of Castile and Aragon had been long united only by
the Monarchy and the common institution of the Inquisition's Holy
Office.[50] A number of reform policies (the so-called Bourbon Reforms) The family of Philip V. During the
Enlightenment in Spain a new royal
were pursued by the Monarchy with the overarching goal of centralized
family reigned, the House of
authority and administrative uniformity.[51] They included the
Bourbon.
abolishment of many of the old regional privileges and laws,[52] as well as
the customs barrier between the Crowns of Aragon and Castile in 1717,
followed by the introduction of new property taxes in the Aragonese kingdoms.[53]

The 18th century saw a gradual recovery and an increase in prosperity through much of the empire. The
predominant economic policy was an interventionist one, and the State also pursued policies aiming towards
infrastructure development as well as the abolition of internal customs and the reduction of export tariffs.[54]
Projects of agricultural colonisation with new settlements took place in the south of mainland Spain.[55]
Enlightenment ideas began to gain ground among some of the kingdom's elite and monarchy.

Liberalism and nation state

In 1793, Spain went to war against the revolutionary new French
Republic as a member of the first Coalition. The subsequent War of the
Pyrenees polarised the country in a reaction against the gallicised elites
and following defeat in the field, peace was made with France in 1795 at
the Peace of Basel in which Spain lost control over two-thirds of the
island of Hispaniola. In 1807, a secret treaty between Napoleon and the
unpopular prime minister led to a new declaration of war against Britain
and Portugal. French troops entered the country to invade Portugal but
Ferdinand VII swears on the 1812
instead occupied Spain's major fortresses. The Spanish king abdicated
Constitution before the Cortes in
and a puppet kingdom satellite to the French Empire was installed with 1820
Joseph Bonaparte as king.

The 2 May 1808 revolt was one of many uprisings across the country against the French occupation.[56]
These revolts marked the beginning of a devastating war of independence against the Napoleonic regime.[57]
Further military action by Spanish armies, guerrilla warfare and an Anglo-Portuguese allied army, combined
with Napoleon's failure on the Russian front, led to the retreat of French imperial armies from the Iberian
Peninsula in 1814, and the return of King Ferdinand VII.[58]

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During the war, in 1810, a revolutionary body, the Cortes of Cádiz, was assembled to coordinate the effort
against the Bonapartist regime and to prepare a constitution.[59] It met as one body, and its members
represented the entire Spanish empire.[60] In 1812, a constitution for universal representation under a
constitutional monarchy was declared, but after the fall of the Bonapartist regime, the Spanish king
dismissed the Cortes Generales, set on ruling as an absolute monarch.

The French occupation of Mainland Spain created an opportunity for overseas criollo elites who resented the
privilege towards Peninsular elites and demanded retroversion of the sovereignty to the people. Starting in
1809 the American colonies began a series of revolutions and declared independence, leading to the Spanish
American wars of independence that put an end to the metropole's grip over the Spanish Main. Attempts to
re-assert control proved futile with opposition not only in the colonies but also in the Iberian peninsula and
army revolts followed. By the end of 1826, the only American colonies Spain held were Cuba and Puerto
Rico. The Napoleonic War left Spain economically ruined, deeply divided and politically unstable. In the
1830s and 1840s, Carlism (a reactionary legitimist movement supportive of an alternative Bourbon branch),
fought against the government forces supportive of Queen Isabella II's dynastic rights in the Carlist Wars.
Government forces prevailed, but the conflict between progressives and moderates ended in a weak early
constitutional period. The 1868 Glorious Revolution was followed by the 1868–1874 progressive Sexenio
Democrático (including the short-lived First Spanish Republic), which yielded to a stable monarchic period,
the Restoration (1875–1931).[61]

In the late 19th century nationalist movements arose in the Philippines and Cuba. In 1895 and 1896 the
Cuban War of Independence and the Philippine Revolution broke out and eventually the United States
became involved. The Spanish–American War was fought in the spring of 1898 and resulted in Spain losing
the last of its once vast colonial empire outside of North Africa. El Desastre (the Disaster), as the war became
known in Spain, gave added impetus to the Generation of '98. Although the period around the turn of the
century was one of increasing prosperity, the 20th century brought little social peace. Spain played a minor
part in the scramble for Africa. It remained neutral during World War I. The heavy losses suffered by the
colonial troops in conflicts in northern Morocco against Riffians forces brought discredit to the government
and undermined the monarchy.

Industrialisation, the development of railways and incipient capitalism developed

in several areas of the country, particularly in Barcelona, as well as Labour
movement and socialist and anarchist ideas. The 1888 Barcelona Universal
Exposition and the 1870 Barcelona Labour Congress are good examples of this. In
1879, the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party was founded. A trade union linked to
this party, Unión General de Trabajadores, was founded in 1888. In the anarcho-
Opening ceremony of sindicalist trend of the labour movement in Spain, Confederación Nacional del
the 1888 Barcelona Trabajo was founded in 1910 and Federación Anarquista Ibérica in 1927.
Universal Exposition
Catalanism and Vasquism, alongside other nationalisms and regionalisms in Spain,
arose in that period: the Basque Nationalist Party formed in 1895 and Regionalist
League of Catalonia in 1901.

Political corruption and repression weakened the democratic system of the constitutional monarchy of a two-
parties system.[62] The July 1909 Tragic Week events and repression exemplified the social instability of the
time.

The La Canadiense strike in 1919 led to the first law limiting the working day to eight hours.[63]

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After a period of Crown-supported dictatorship from 1923 to 1931, the

first elections since 1923, largely understood as a plebiscite on Monarchy,
took place: the 12 April 1931 municipal elections. These gave a
resounding victory to the Republican-Socialist candidacies in large cities
and provincial capitals, with a majority of monarchist councilors in rural
areas. The king left the country and the proclamation of the Republic on
14 April ensued, with the formation of a provisional government.

A constitution for the country was passed in October 1931 following the Demonstration in Barcelona during
the 1909 Tragic Week events
June 1931 Constituent general election, and a series of cabinets presided
by Manuel Azaña supported by republican parties and the PSOE
followed. In the election held in 1933 the right triumphed and in 1936, the left. During the Second Republic
there was a great political and social upheaval, marked by a sharp radicalization of the left and the right.
Instances of political violence during this period included the burning of churches, the 1932 failed coup
d'état led by José Sanjurjo, the Revolution of 1934 and numerous attacks against rival political leaders. On
the other hand, it is also during the Second Republic when important reforms to modernize the country were
initiated: a democratic constitution, agrarian reform, restructuring of the army, political decentralization
and women's right to vote.

Civil War and Francoist dictatorship

The Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936: on 17 and 18 July, part of the military carried out a coup d'état that
triumphed in only part of the country. The situation led to a civil war, in which the territory was divided into
two zones: one under the authority of the Republican government, that counted on outside support from the
Soviet Union and Mexico (and from International Brigades), and the other controlled by the putschists (the
Nationalist or rebel faction), most critically supported by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. The Republic was
not supported by the Western powers due to the British-led policy of non-intervention. General Francisco
Franco was sworn in as the supreme leader of the rebels on 1 October 1936. An uneasy relationship between
the Republican government and the grassroots anarchists who had initiated a partial social revolution also
ensued.

The civil war was viciously fought and there were many atrocities
committed by all sides. The war claimed the lives of over 500,000 people
and caused the flight of up to a half-million citizens from the
country.[64][65] On 1 April 1939, five months before the beginning of
World War II, the rebel side led by Franco emerged victorious, imposing
a dictatorship over the whole country. Thousands were imprisoned after
the civil war in Francoist concentration camps.
Republican volunteers at Teruel,
The regime remained nominally "neutral" for much of the Second World 1936
War, although it was sympathetic to the Axis and provided the Nazi
Wehrmacht with Spanish volunteers in the Eastern Front. The only legal
party under Franco's dictatorship was the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS (FET y de las
JONS), formed in 1937 upon the merging of the Fascist Falange Española de las JONS and the Carlist
traditionalists and to which the rest of right-wing groups supporting the rebels also added. The name of
"Movimiento Nacional", sometimes understood as a wider structure than the FET y de las JONS proper,
largely imposed over the later's name in official documents along the 1950s.

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After the war Spain was politically and economically isolated, and was
kept out of the United Nations. This changed in 1955, during the Cold
War period, when it became strategically important for the US to
establish a military presence on the Iberian Peninsula as a counter to any
possible move by the Soviet Union into the Mediterranean basin. US Cold
War strategic priorities included the dissemination of American
educational ideas to foster modernization and expansion.[66] In the
1960s, Spain registered an unprecedented rate of economic growth which
was propelled by industrialisation, a mass internal migration from rural Spanish leader Francisco Franco
and Adolf Hitler at the Meeting at
areas to Madrid, Barcelona and the Basque Country and the creation of a
Hendaye, 1940
mass tourism industry. Franco's rule was also characterised by
authoritarianism, promotion of a unitary national identity, National
Catholicism, and discriminatory language policies.

Restoration of democracy
In 1962, a group of politicians involved in the opposition to Franco's
regime inside the country and in exile met in the congress of the
European Movement in Munich, where they made a resolution in favour
of democracy.[67][68][69]

With Franco's death in November 1975, Juan Carlos succeeded to the

position of King of Spain and head of state in accordance with the
Juan Carlos I before the Cortes
Francoist law. With the approval of the new Spanish Constitution of 1978
Españolas, during his proclamation
and the restoration of democracy, the State devolved much authority to
as King on 22 November 1975
the regions and created an internal organisation based on autonomous
communities. The Spanish 1977 Amnesty Law let people of Franco's
regime continue inside institutions without consequences, even perpetrators of some crimes during
transition to democracy like the Massacre of 3 March 1976 in Vitoria or 1977 Massacre of Atocha.

In the Basque Country, moderate Basque nationalism coexisted with a radical nationalist movement led by
the armed organisation ETA until the latter's dissolution in May 2018.[70] The group was formed in 1959
during Franco's rule but had continued to wage its violent campaign even after the restoration of democracy
and the return of a large measure of regional autonomy.

On 23 February 1981, rebel elements among the security forces seized the Cortes in an attempt to impose a
military-backed government. King Juan Carlos took personal command of the military and successfully
ordered the coup plotters, via national television, to surrender.[71]

During the 1980s the democratic restoration made possible a growing open society. New cultural movements
based on freedom appeared, like La Movida Madrileña. In May 1982 Spain joined NATO, followed by a
referendum after a strong social opposition. That year the Spanish Socialist Workers Party (PSOE) came to
power, the first left-wing government in 43 years. In 1986 Spain joined the European Economic Community,
which later became the European Union. The PSOE was replaced in government by the Partido Popular (PP)
in 1996 after scandals around participation of the government of Felipe González in the Dirty war against
ETA.

On 1 January 2002, Spain fully adopted the euro, and Spain experienced strong economic growth, well above
the EU average during the early 2000s. However, well-publicised concerns issued by many economic
commentators at the height of the boom warned that extraordinary property prices and a high foreign trade
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deficit were likely to lead to a painful

economic collapse.[72]

In 2002, the Prestige oil spill occurred with

big ecological consequences along Spain's
Atlantic coastline. In 2003 José María Aznar
supported US president George W. Bush in
the Iraq War, and a strong movement
against war rose in Spanish society. In
March 2004 a local Islamist terrorist group Felipe González signing the treaty
inspired by Al-Qaeda carried out the largest of accession to the European
terrorist attack in Western European history Economic Community on 12 June
when they killed 191 people and wounded 1985
The 1992 Summer more than 1,800 others by bombing
Olympics in Barcelona
commuter trains in Madrid.[73] Though
initial suspicions focused on the Basque terrorist group ETA, evidence of
Islamist involvement soon emerged. Because of the proximity of the 2004 Spanish general election, the issue
of responsibility quickly became a political controversy, with the main competing parties PP and PSOE
exchanging accusations over the handling of the incident.[74] The PSOE won the election, led by José Luis
Rodríguez Zapatero.[75]

In the early 2000s, the proportion of Spain's foreign born population increased rapidly during its economic
boom but then declined due to the financial crisis.[76] In 2005, the Spanish government legalised same sex
marriage, becoming the third country worldwide to do so.[77] Decentralisation was supported with much
resistance of Constitutional Court and conservative opposition, so did gender politics like quotas or the law
against gender violence. Government talks with ETA happened, and the group announced its permanent
cease of violence in 2010.[78]

The bursting of the Spanish property bubble in 2008 led to the 2008–16
Spanish financial crisis. High levels of unemployment, cuts in
government spending and corruption in Royal family and People's Party
served as a backdrop to the 2011–12 Spanish protests.[79] Catalan
independentism also rose. In 2011, Mariano Rajoy's conservative People's
Party won the election with 44.6% of votes.[80] As prime minister, he
implemented austerity measures for EU bailout, the EU Stability and
Growth Pact.[81] On 19 June 2014, the monarch, Juan Carlos, abdicated
Demonstration against the crisis and
in favour of his son, who became Felipe VI.[82] high youth unemployment in Madrid,
15 October 2011
In October 2017 a Catalan independence referendum was held and the
Catalan parliament voted to unilaterally declare independence from
Spain to form a Catalan Republic[83][84] on the day the Spanish Senate was discussing approving direct rule
over Catalonia as called for by the Spanish Prime Minister.[85][86] On the same day the Senate granted the
power to impose direct rule and Rajoy dissolved the Catalan parliament and called a new election.[87] No
country recognised Catalonia as a separate state.[88]

In June 2018, the Congress of Deputies passed a motion of no-confidence against Rajoy and replaced him
with the PSOE leader Pedro Sánchez.[89] Since 2018, Spain has faced an institutional crisis surrounding the
mandate of the General Council of the Judiciary (CGPJ.[90] In January 2020, the COVID-19 virus was
confirmed to have spread to Spain, causing life expectancy to drop by more than a year.[91] In March 2021,

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Spain became the sixth nation in the world to make active euthanasia legal.[92] Following the general
election on 23 July 2023, Prime Minister Pedro Sánchez once again formed a coalition government, this time
with Sumar (successors of Unidas Podemos).[93]

Geography
At 505,992 km2 (195,365 sq mi), Spain is the world's fifty-second largest
country and Europe's fourth largest country. It is some 47,000 km2
(18,000 sq mi) smaller than France. Mount Teide (Tenerife) is the
highest mountain peak in Spain and is the third largest volcano in the
world from its base. Spain is a transcontinental country, having territory
in both Europe and Africa.

Spain lies between latitudes 27° and 44° N, and longitudes 19° W and 5°
E.

On the west, Spain is bordered by Portugal; on the south, it is bordered Topographic map of Spain
by Gibraltar and Morocco, through its exclaves in North Africa (Ceuta (excluding Canary Islands)
and Melilla, and the peninsula of de Vélez de la Gomera). On the
northeast, along the Pyrenees mountain range, it is bordered by France
and Andorra. Along the Pyrenees in Girona, a small exclave town called Llívia is surrounded by France.

Extending to 1,214 km (754 mi), the Portugal–Spain border is the longest uninterrupted border within the
European Union.[94]

Islands
Spain also includes the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean Sea, the
Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean and a number of uninhabited
islands on the Mediterranean side of the Strait of Gibraltar, known as
plazas de soberanía ("places of sovereignty", or territories under Spanish
sovereignty), such as the Chafarinas Islands and Alhucemas. The
peninsula of de Vélez de la Gomera is also regarded as a plaza de
soberanía. The isle of Alborán, located in the Mediterranean between Aerial view of Mallorca island
Spain and North Africa, is also administered by Spain, specifically by the
municipality of Almería, Andalusia. The little Pheasant Island in the
River Bidasoa is a Spanish-French condominium.

There are 11 major islands in Spain, all of them having their own governing bodies (Cabildos insulares in the
Canaries, Consells insulars in Baleares). These islands are specifically mentioned by the Spanish
Constitution, when fixing its Senatorial representation (Ibiza and Formentera are grouped, as they together
form the Pityusic islands, part of the Balearic archipelago). These islands include Tenerife, Gran Canaria,
Lanzarote, Fuerteventura, La Palma, La Gomera and El Hierro in the Canarian archipelago and Mallorca,
Ibiza, Menorca and Formentera in the Balearic archipelago.

Mountains and rivers

Mainland Spain is a rather mountainous landmass, dominated by high plateaus and mountain chains. After
the Pyrenees, the main mountain ranges are the Cordillera Cantábrica (Cantabrian Range), Sistema Ibérico
(Iberian System), Sistema Central (Central System), Montes de Toledo, Sierra Morena and the Sistema
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Bético (Baetic System) whose highest peak, the 3,478-metre-high (11,411-

foot) Mulhacén, located in Sierra Nevada, is the highest elevation in the
Iberian Peninsula. The highest point in Spain is the Teide, a 3,718-metre
(12,198 ft) active volcano in the Canary Islands. The Meseta Central
(often translated as 'Inner Plateau') is a vast plateau in the heart of
peninsular Spain split in two by the Sistema Central.
Teide, still an active volcano in
There are several major rivers in Spain such as the Tagus (Tajo), Ebro,
Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary
Guadiana, Douro (Duero), Guadalquivir, Júcar, Segura, Turia and Minho
Islands, is the tallest peak in Spain.
(Miño). Alluvial plains are found along the coast, the largest of which is
that of the Guadalquivir in Andalusia.

Climate
Three main climatic zones can be separated, according to geographical
situation and orographic conditions:[95]

The Mediterranean climate is characterised by warm/hot and dry

summers and is the predominant climate in the country. It has two
varieties: Csa and Csb according to the Köppen climate
classification.
The Csa zone is associated with areas with hot summers. It is
predominant in the Southern Mediterranean (except
southeastern) and Southern Atlantic coast and inland throughout
Andalusia, Extremadura and much of the centre of the country.
Some areas of Csa, mainly those inland, such as some areas of
Extremadura, Castilla-La-Mancha, Madrid and even parts of
Andalusia, have cool winters with some continental influences,
while the regions with a Mediterranean climate close to the sea
Köppen climate classification map of
have mild winters.
Spain.
The Csb zone has warm rather than hot summers, and extends to
additional cool-winter areas not typically associated with a
Mediterranean climate, such as much of central and northern-
central of Spain (e.g. western Castile–León, northeastern Castilla-
La Mancha and northern Madrid) and into much rainier areas
(notably Galicia).
The semi-arid climate (BSk, BSh) is predominant in the southeastern
quarter of the country, but is also widespread in other areas of Spain.
It covers most of the Region of Murcia, southern and central-eastern
Valencia, eastern Andalusia, various areas of Castilla-la-Mancha,
Madrid and some areas of Extremadura. Further to the north, it is
predominant in the upper and mid reaches of the Ebro valley, which Urriellu peak (Naranjo de Bulnes)
crosses southern Navarre, central Aragon and western Catalonia. It is from Pozo de La Oracion, Picos de
also found in a small area in northern Andalusia and in a small area Europa
in central Castilla-León. Precipitation is limited with dry season
extending beyond the summer and average temperature depends on
altitude and latitude.
The oceanic climate (Cfb) is located in the northern quarter of the country, especially in the Atlantic
region (Basque Country, Cantabria, Asturias, and partly Galicia and Castile–León). It is also found in
northern Navarre, in most highlands areas along the Iberian System and in the Pyrenean valleys, where
a humid subtropical variant (Cfa) also occurs. Winter and summer temperatures are influenced by the
ocean, and have no seasonal drought.

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Apart from these main types, other sub-types can be found, like the alpine climate in areas with very high
altitude, the humid subtropical climate in areas of northeastern Spain and the continental climates (Dfc, Dfb
/ Dsc, Dsb) in the Pyrenees as well as parts of the Cantabrian Range, the Central System, Sierra Nevada and
the Iberian System, and a typical desert climate (BWk, BWh) in the zone of Almería, Murcia and eastern
Canary Islands. Low-lying areas of the Canary Islands average above 18.0 °C (64.4 °F) during their coolest
month, thus having influences of tropical climate, although they cannot properly be classified as tropical
climates, as according to AEMET, their aridity is high, thus belonging to an arid or semi-arid climate.[96]

Climate change
Spain is one of the countries that is most affected by the climate crisis in Europe. Spain could see 2 °C
(3.6 °F) warming compared to pre-industrial levels in the next twenty years, in the worst-case scenario Spain
will reach 4 °C (7.2 °F) warming by the end of the century. Due to declining rainfall Spain's droughts which
are already one of the worst in Europe will be ten times worse compared to 2023. The WHO estimated that
4,000 people died in 2022 due to heat related stress in Spain.[97] 74% of the country is at risk of
desertification[98]

Spain's per capita emissions was 4.92 tonnes in 2021, around 1.5 tonnes lower than the EU average. Spain
was in 2021 responsible for 0.87% of cumulative global emissions. Spain committed to reduce 23% of
emissions compared to 1990 levels in 2030 and to be net zero in 2050.[99]

Fauna and flora

The fauna presents a wide diversity that is due in large part to the
geographical position of the Iberian peninsula between the Atlantic and
the Mediterranean and between Africa and Eurasia, and the great
diversity of habitats and biotopes, the result of a considerable variety of
climates and well differentiated regions.

The vegetation of Spain is varied due to several factors including the

diversity of the terrain, the climate and latitude. Spain includes different
The Iberian wolf in Castile and
phytogeographic regions, each with its own floral characteristics Leon. The region has 25% of the
resulting largely from the interaction of climate, topography, soil type land covered by Natura 2000
and fire, and biotic factors. The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape protected natural spaces.
Integrity Index mean score of 4.23/10, ranking it 130th globally out of
172 countries.[100]

Within the European territory, Spain has the largest number of plant species (7,600 vascular plants) of all
European countries.[101]

In Spain there are 17.804 billion trees and an average of 284 million more grow each year.[102]

Politics
The constitutional history of Spain dates back to the constitution of 1812. In June 1976, Spain's new King
Juan Carlos dismissed Carlos Arias Navarro and appointed the reformer Adolfo Suárez as Prime
Minister.[103][104] The resulting general election in 1977 convened the Constituent Cortes (the Spanish
Parliament, in its capacity as a constitutional assembly) for the purpose of drafting and approving the
constitution of 1978.[105] After a national referendum on 6 December 1978, 88% of voters approved of the
new constitution. As a result, Spain successfully transitioned from a one-party personalist dictatorship to a

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multiparty parliamentary democracy composed of 17

autonomous communities and two autonomous cities. These
regions enjoy varying degrees of autonomy thanks to the
Spanish Constitution, which nevertheless explicitly states the
indivisible unity of the Spanish nation.

Governance

The Crown
Felipe VI, Pedro Sánchez,
The Spanish King of Spain Prime Minister of
The independence of the
Constitution provides Spain
Crown, its political neutrality
for a separation of
and its wish to embrace and
powers between five
reconcile the different
branches of government, which it refers to as "basic State
ideological standpoints enable it
institutions".[m][107][108] Foremost amongst these institutions is the
to contribute to the stability of
Crown (La Corona), the symbol of the Spanish state and its
our political system, facilitating
permanence.[109] Spain's "parliamentary monarchy" is a constitutional
a balance with the other
one whereby the reigning king or queen is the living embodiment of
constitutional and territorial
the Crown and thus head of state.[n][110][109][111] Unlike in some other
bodies, promoting the orderly
constitutional monarchies however, namely the likes of Belgium,
functioning of the State and
Denmark, Luxembourg, The Netherlands, Norway, or indeed the
providing a channel for
United Kingdom, the monarch is not the fount of national sovereignty
cohesion among Spaniards.[106]
or even the nominal chief executive.[112][113][114][115][116][117] Rather,
the Crown, as an institution, "...arbitrates and moderates the regular
King Felipe VI, 2014
functioning..." of the legislative, executive, judicial, and compliance
branches of the Spanish state.[109] As such, the monarch resolves
disputes and crises affecting the disparate branches and prevents the
abuse of power.[118][119][120][121]

In these respects, the Crown constitutes a fifth "moderating branch" that does not make public policy or
administer public services, functions which rightfully rests with Spain's duly elected legislatures and
governments at both the national and regional level. Instead, the Crown personifies the democratic Spanish
state, sanctions legitimate authority, ensures the legality of means, and guarantees the execution of the
public will.[122][123] Put another way, the monarch fosters national unity at home, represents Spain abroad
(especially with regard to nations of its historical community), and upholds the constitutional processes
fundamental for safeguarding representative democracy and providing for the orderly operation and
continuity of the Spanish state.[o][108] This stabilising role is in keeping with the monarch's solemn oath
upon accession "...to faithfully carry out [my] duties, to obey the Constitution and the laws and ensure that
they are obeyed, and to respect the rights of citizens and the Self-governing Communities."[125]

A number of constitutional powers, duties, rights, responsibilities, and functions are assigned to the
monarch in his or her capacity as head of state. However, the Crown enjoys inviolability in the performance
of these prerogatives and cannot be prosecuted in the very courts which administer justice in its name.[126]
For this reason, every official act done by the monarch requires the countersignature of the prime minister
or, when appropriate, the president of the Congress of Deputies to have the force of law. The countersigning
procedure or refrendo in turn transfers political and legal liability for the royal prerogative to the attesting

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parties.[127]This provision does not apply to the Royal Household, over which the monarch enjoys absolute
control and supervision, or to membership in the Order of the Golden Fleece, which is a dynastic order in the
personal gift of the House of Bourbon-Anjou.[128]

The royal prerogatives may be classified by whether they are ministerial acts or reserve powers. Ministerial
acts are those royal prerogatives that are, pursuant to the convention established by Juan Carlos I,
performed by the monarch after soliciting the advice of the Government, the Congress of Deputies, the
Senate, the General Council of the Judiciary, or the Constitutional Tribunal, as the case may be. On the other
hand, the reserve powers of the Crown are those royal prerogatives that are exercised in the monarch's
personal discretion.[124] Most of the Crown's royal prerogatives are ministerial in practice, meaning the
monarch has no discretion in their execution and primarily performs them as a matter of state ceremonial.[r]
Nevertheless, the monarch enjoys several reserve powers he or she may invoke when necessary to maintain
the continuity and stability of state institutions.[148] For example, the monarch has the right to be kept
informed on affairs of state through regular audiences with the Government. For this purpose, the monarch
may preside at any time over meetings of the Council of Ministers, but only when requested by the prime
minister.[149] In a similar vein, the monarch:

1. Dissolves the Congress of Deputies, the Senate, or both houses of the Cortes in their entirety before the
expiration of their four-year term and, in consequence thereof, concurrently calls for snap elections. The
monarch exercises this prerogative on the request of the prime minister, after the matter has been
discussed by the Council of Ministers. The monarch may choose to accept or refuse the request.[150]
2. Proclaims national referendums on the proposal of the prime minister and with the prior authorization of
the Cortes Generales. The monarch may choose to accept or refuse the request.[151]
3. Appoints the 20 members of the General Council of the Judiciary. Of these counselors, twelve are
nominated by the supreme, appellate and trial courts, four are nominated by the Congress of Deputies
by a majority of three-fifths of its members, and four are nominated by the Senate with the same majority.
The monarch may choose to accept or refuse a nomination.[152]
4. Appoints the twelve magistrates of the Constitutional Tribunal. Of these magistrates, four magistrates are
nominated by the Congress of Deputies by a majority of three-fifths of its members, four magistrates are
nominated by the Senate with the same majority, two magistrates are nominated by the Government,
and two magistrates are nominated by the General Council of the Judiciary. The monarch may choose to
accept or refuse a nomination.[153]
However, it is the monarch's reserve powers concerning Government formation that are perhaps the most
visible. The monarch nominates a candidate for prime minister and, as the case may be, appoints or removes
him or her from office based on the prime minister's ability to maintain the confidence of the Congress of
Deputies.[154] If the Congress of Deputies fails to give its confidence to a new Government within two
months, and is thus incapable of governing as a result of parliamentary gridlock, the monarch may dissolve
the Cortes Generales and call for fresh elections. The monarch makes use of these reserve powers in his own
deliberative judgment after consulting the president of the Congress of Deputies.[155]

Cortes Generales
Legislative authority vests in the Cortes Generales (English: Spanish Parliament, lit. 'General Courts'), a
democratically elected bicameral parliament that serves as the supreme representative body of the Spanish
people. Aside from the Crown, it is the only basic State institution that enjoys inviolability.[156] It comprises
the Congress of Deputies (Congreso de los Diputados), a lower house with 350 deputies, and the Senate
(Senado), an upper house with 259 senators.[157][158] Deputies are elected by popular vote on closed lists via

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proportional representation to serve four-year terms.[159]

On the other
hand, 208 senators are directly elected by popular vote using a limited
voting method, with the remaining 51 senators appointed by the regional
legislatures to also serve four-year terms.[160]

Government
Executive authority rests with the Government (Gobierno de España),
which is collectively responsible to the Congress of Deputies.[161][162] It The hemicycle of the Congress of
Deputies
consists of the prime minister, one or more deputy prime ministers, and
the various ministers of state.[163] These characters together constitute
the Council of Ministers which, as Spain's central executive authority, conducts the business of the
Government and administers the civil service.[164] The Government remains in office so long as it can
maintain the confidence of the Congress of Deputies.

The prime minister, as head of government, enjoys primacy over the other ministers by virtue of his or her
ability to advise the monarch as to their appointment and dismissal.[165] Moreover, the prime minister has
plenary authority conferred by the Spanish Constitution to direct and coordinate the Government's policies
and administrative actions.[166] The Spanish monarch nominates the prime minister after consulting
representatives from the different parliamentary groups and in turn formally appoints him or her to office
upon a vote of investiture in the Congress of Deputies.[167]

Administrative divisions

Autonomous communities
Spain's autonomous communities are the first Asturias
Cantabria
Basque France
level administrative divisions of the country. Country
Galicia Navarre Andorra
They were created after the current constitution La Rioja
came into effect (in 1978) in recognition of the Castile Catalonia
and León Aragon
right to self-government of the "nationalities and
regions of Spain".[168] The autonomous Community of
Madrid Balearic
communities were to comprise adjacent Islands
provinces with common historical, cultural, and Castilla– Valencian
economic traits. This territorial organisation, PortugalExtremadura La Mancha Community
based on devolution, is known in Spain as the
"State of Autonomies" (Estado de las Region of
Murcia Mediterranean Sea
Autonomías). The basic institutional law of each
Andalusia
autonomous community is the Statute of
Autonomy. The Statutes of Autonomy establish Atlantic Canary
Ocean Gibraltar (UK) Islands
the name of the community according to its
Ceuta
historical and contemporary identity, the limits Melilla
Morocco
of its territories, the name and organisation of Atlantic
Ocean
the institutions of government and the rights they
enjoy according to the constitution.[169] This ongoing process of devolution means that, while officially a
unitary state, Spain is nevertheless one of the most decentralised countries in Europe, along with federations
like Belgium, Germany, and Switzerland.[170]

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Catalonia, Galicia and the Basque Country, which identified themselves as nationalities, were granted self-
government through a rapid process. Andalusia also identified itself as a nationality in its first Statute of
Autonomy, even though it followed the longer process stipulated in the constitution for the rest of the
country. Progressively, other communities in revisions to their Statutes of Autonomy have also taken that
denomination in accordance with their historical and modern identities, such as the Valencian
Community,[171] the Canary Islands,[172] the Balearic Islands,[173] and Aragon.[174]

The autonomous communities have wide legislative and executive autonomy, with their own elected
parliaments and governments as well as their own dedicated public administrations. The distribution of
powers may be different for every community, as laid out in their Statutes of Autonomy, since devolution was
intended to be asymmetrical. For instance, only two communities—the Basque Country and Navarre—have
full fiscal autonomy based on ancient foral provisions. Nevertheless, each autonomous community is
responsible for healthcare and education, among other public services.[175] Beyond these competencies, the
nationalities—Andalusia, the Basque Country, Catalonia, and Galicia—were also devolved more powers than
the rest of the communities, among them the ability of the regional president to dissolve the parliament and
call for elections at any time. In addition, the Basque Country, the Canary Islands, Catalonia, and Navarre
each have autonomous police corps of their own: Ertzaintza, Policía Canaria, Mossos d'Esquadra, and
Policía Foral respectively. Other communities have more limited forces or none at all, like the Policía
Autónoma Andaluza in Andalusia or BESCAM in Madrid.[176]

Provinces and municipalities

Autonomous communities are divided into provinces, which served as their territorial building blocks. In
turn, provinces are divided into municipalities. The existence of both the provinces and the municipalities is
guaranteed and protected by the constitution, not necessarily by the Statutes of Autonomy themselves.
Municipalities are granted autonomy to manage their internal affairs, and provinces are the territorial
divisions designed to carry out the activities of the State.[177]

The current provincial division structure is based—with minor changes—on the 1833 territorial division by
Javier de Burgos, and in all, the Spanish territory is divided into 50 provinces. The communities of Asturias,
Cantabria, La Rioja, the Balearic Islands, Madrid, Murcia and Navarre are the only communities that
comprise a single province, which is coextensive with the community itself. In these cases, the administrative
institutions of the province are replaced by the governmental institutions of the community.

Foreign relations
After the return of democracy following the death of Franco in 1975,
Spain's foreign policy priorities were to break out of the diplomatic
isolation of the Franco years and expand diplomatic relations, enter the
European Community, and define security relations with the West.

As a member of NATO since 1982, Spain has established itself as a

participant in multilateral international security activities. Spain's EU
membership represents an important part of its foreign policy. Even on Royal Palace of Pedralbes in
Barcelona, headquarters of the
many international issues beyond western Europe, Spain prefers to
Union for the Mediterranean
coordinate its efforts with its EU partners through the European political
co-operation mechanisms.

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Spain has maintained its special relations with Hispanic America and the Philippines. Its policy emphasises
the concept of an Ibero-American community, essentially the renewal of the concept of "Hispanidad" or
"Hispanismo", as it is often referred to in English, which has sought to link the Iberian Peninsula with
Hispanic America through language, commerce, history and culture. It is fundamentally "based on shared
values and the recovery of democracy."[178]

The country is involved in a number of territorial disputes. Spain claims

Gibraltar, an Overseas Territory of the United Kingdom, in the
southernmost part of the Iberian Peninsula.[179][180][181] Another dispute
surrounds the Savage Islands; Spain claims that they are rocks rather
than islands, and therefore does not accept the Portuguese Exclusive
Economic Zone (200 nautical miles) generated by the islands.[182][183]
Spain claims sovereignty over the Perejil Island, a small, uninhabited
rocky islet located in the South shore of the Strait of Gibraltar; it was the
Aerial view showing the Rock of
subject of an armed incident between Spain and Morocco in 2002. Gibraltar, the isthmus of Gibraltar
Morocco claims the Spanish cities of Ceuta and Melilla and the plazas de and the Bay of Gibraltar
soberanía islets off the northern coast of Africa. Portugal does not
recognise Spain's sovereignty over the territory of Olivenza.[184]

Military
The Spanish Armed Forces are divided into three branches: Army
(Ejército de Tierra); Navy (Armada); and Air and Space Force (Ejército
del Aire y del Espacio).[185]

The armed forces of Spain are known as the Spanish Armed Forces
(Fuerzas Armadas Españolas). Their commander-in-chief is the King of
Spain, Felipe VI.[186] The next military authorities in line are the Prime
Minister and the Minister of Defence. The fourth military authority of the
Amphibious assault ship-aircraft
State is the Chief of the Defence Staff (JEMAD).[187] The Defence Staff carrier Juan Carlos I
(Estado Mayor de la Defensa) assists the JEMAD as auxiliary body.

The Spanish armed forces are a professional force with a strength in 2017 of 121,900 active personnel and
4,770 reserve personnel. The country also has the 77,000 strong Civil Guard which comes under the control
of the Ministry of defense in times of a national emergency. The Spanish defense budget is 5.71 billion euros
(US$7.2 billion) a 1% increase for 2015. The increase comes because of security concerns in the country.[188]
Military conscription was suppressed in 2001.[189]

Human rights
The Spanish Constitution of 1978 "protect all Spaniards and all the peoples of Spain in the exercise of human
rights, their cultures and traditions, languages and institutions".[190]

According to Amnesty International (AI), government investigations of alleged police abuses are often
lengthy and punishments were light.[191] Violence against women was a problem, which the Government
took steps to address.[192][193]

Spain provides one of the highest degrees of liberty in the world for its LGBT community. Among the
countries studied by Pew Research Center in 2013, Spain is rated first in acceptance of homosexuality, with
88% of those surveyed saying that homosexuality should be accepted.[194]
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The Cortes Generales approved the Gender Equality Act in 2007 aimed at furthering equality between
genders in Spanish political and economic life.[195] According to Inter-Parliamentary Union data as of 1
September 2018, 137 of the 350 members of the Congress were women (39.1%), while in the Senate, there
were 101 women out of 266 (39.9%), placing Spain 16th on their list of countries ranked by proportion of
women in the lower (or single) House.[196] The Gender Empowerment Measure of Spain in the United
Nations Human Development Report is 0.794, 12th in the world.[197]

Economy
Spain's capitalist mixed economy is the 14th largest worldwide and the
4th largest in the European Union, as well as the eurozone's 4th largest.
The centre-right government of former prime minister José María Aznar
worked successfully to gain admission to the group of countries
launching the euro in 1999. Unemployment stood at 17.1% in June
2017,[198] below Spain's early 1990s unemployment rate of at over 20%.
The youth unemployment rate (35% in March 2018) is extremely high
compared to EU standards.[199] Perennial weak points of Spain's Cuatro Torres Business Area in
economy include a large informal economy,[200][201][202] and an Madrid
education system which OECD reports place among the poorest for
developed countries, along with the United States.[203]

Since the 1990s some Spanish companies have gained multinational

status, often expanding their activities in culturally close Latin America.
Spain is the second biggest foreign investor there, after the United States.
Spanish companies have also expanded into Asia, especially China and
India.[204] Spanish companies invested in fields like renewable energy
commercialisation (Iberdrola was the world's largest renewable energy Torre Glòries and the 22@ business
operator [205] ), technology companies like Telefónica, Abengoa, district in Barcelona
Mondragon Corporation (which is the world's largest worker-owned
cooperative), Movistar, Hisdesat, Indra, train manufacturers like CAF,
Talgo, global corporations such as the textile company Inditex, petroleum companies like Repsol or Cepsa
and infrastructure, with six of the ten biggest international construction firms specialising in transport being
Spanish, like Ferrovial, Acciona, ACS, OHL and FCC.[206]

The automotive industry in Spain is one of the largest employers in the country. In 2015 Spain was the 8th
largest automobile producer country in the world[207] and still in 2022 the 2nd largest car manufacturer in
Europe after Germany.[208] By 2016, the automotive industry was generating 8.7 percent of Spain's gross
domestic product, employing about nine percent of the manufacturing industry.[207] By 2008 the automobile
industry was the 2nd most exported industry[209] while in 2015 about 80% of the total production was for
export.[207] German companies poured €4.8 billion into Spain in 2015, making the country the second-
largest destination for German foreign direct investment behind only the U.S. The lion's share of that
investment—€4 billion—went to the country's auto industry.[207]

Tourism
In 2017, Spain was the second most visited country in the world, recording 82 million tourists which marked
the fifth consecutive year of record-beating numbers.[210] The headquarters of the World Tourism
Organization are located in Madrid.

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Spain's geographic location, popular coastlines, diverse landscapes,

historical legacy, vibrant culture, and excellent infrastructure have made
the country's international tourist industry among the largest in the
world. In the last five decades, international tourism in Spain has grown
to become the second largest in the world in terms of spending, worth
approximately 40 billion Euros or about 5% of GDP in 2006.[211][212]
Benidorm, one of Europe's largest
Castile and Leon is the Spanish leader in rural tourism linked to its coastal tourist destinations
environmental and architectural heritage.

Energy
In 2010 Spain became the solar power world leader when it overtook the
United States with a massive power station plant called La Florida, near
Alvarado, Badajoz.[213][214] Spain is also Europe's main producer of wind
energy.[215][216] In 2010 its wind turbines generated 16.4% of all
electrical energy produced in Spain.[217][218][219] On 9 November 2010,
wind energy reached a historic peak covering 53% of mainland electricity
demand[220] and generating an amount of energy that is equivalent to
that of 14 nuclear reactors.[221] Other renewable energies used in Spain The Solucar Complex, with the
are hydroelectric, biomass and marine.[222] PS10 Solar Power Plant in the
foreground and the PS20 in the
Non-renewable energy sources used in Spain are nuclear (8 operative background
reactors), gas, coal, and oil. Fossil fuels together generated 58% of
Spain's electricity in 2009, just below the OECD mean of 61%. Nuclear
power generated another 19%, and wind and hydro about 12% each.[223]

Science and technology

The Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) is the leading
public agency dedicated to scientific research in the country. It ranked as
the 5th top governmental scientific institution worldwide (and 32nd
overall) in the 2018 SCImago Institutions Rankings.[224] Spain was
ranked 29th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.[225]

Higher education institutions perform about a 60% of the basic research

in the country.[226] Likewise, the contribution of the private sector to
The Gran Telescopio Canarias at
R&D expenditures is much lower than in other EU and OECD sunset
countries.[227]

Transport
The Spanish road system is mainly centralised, with six highways connecting Madrid to the Basque Country,
Catalonia, Valencia, West Andalusia, Extremadura and Galicia. Additionally, there are highways along the
Atlantic (Ferrol to Vigo), Cantabrian (Oviedo to San Sebastián) and Mediterranean (Girona to Cádiz) coasts.
Spain aims to put one million electric cars on the road by 2014 as part of the government's plan to save
energy and boost energy efficiency.[229] The former Minister of Industry Miguel Sebastián said that "the
electric vehicle is the future and the engine of an industrial revolution."[230]

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Spain has the most extensive high-speed rail network in Europe, and the
second-most extensive in the world after China.[231][232] As of 2019,
Spain has a total of over 3,400 km (2,112.66 mi) of high-speed tracks[233]
linking Málaga, Seville, Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia and Valladolid, with
the trains operated at commercial speeds up to 310 km/h (190 mph).[234]
On average, the Spanish high-speed train is the fastest one in the world,
followed by the Japanese bullet train and the French TGV.[235] Regarding
punctuality, it is second in the world (98.5% on-time arrival) after the High-speed AVE Class 103 train
Japanese Shinkansen (99%).[236] Should the aims of the ambitious AVE near Vinaixa, Madrid-Barcelona line.
Spain has the longest high-speed
programme (Spanish high speed trains) be met, by 2020 Spain will have
rail network in Europe.[228]
7,000 km (4,300 mi) of high-speed trains linking almost all provincial
cities to Madrid in less than three hours and Barcelona within four hours.

There are 47 public airports in Spain. The busiest one is the airport of
Madrid (Barajas), with 50 million passengers in 2011, being the world's
15th busiest airport, as well as the European Union's fourth busiest. The
airport of Barcelona (El Prat) is also important, with 35 million
passengers in 2011, being the world's 31st-busiest airport. Other main
airports are located in Majorca, Málaga, Las Palmas (Gran Canaria), and
Alicante.
The Port of Valencia, one of the
busiest in the Golden Banana
Demographics
In 2024, Spain had a population of 48,692,804 people as recorded by
Spain's Instituto Nacional de Estadística.[237] Spain's population
density, at 97/km2 (248.7/sq mi), is lower than that of most Western
European countries and its distribution across the country is very
unequal. With the exception of the region surrounding the capital,
Madrid, the most populated areas lie around the coast. The population of
Spain has risen 2 1/2 times since 1900, when it stood at 18.6 million,
principally due to the spectacular demographic boom in the 1960s and Population density by municipality in
early 1970s.[238] Spain, 2018

In 2017, the average total fertility rate (TFR) across Spain was 1.33
children born per woman,[239] one of the lowest in the world, below the replacement rate of 2.1, it remains
considerably below the high of 5.11 children born per woman in 1865.[240] Spain subsequently has one of the
oldest populations in the world, with the average age of 43.1 years.[241]

Native Spaniards make up 88% of the total population of Spain. After the birth rate plunged in the 1980s and
Spain's population growth rate dropped, the population again trended upward initially upon the return of
many Spaniards who had emigrated to other European countries during the 1970s, and more recently,
fuelled by large numbers of immigrants who make up 12% of the population. The immigrants originate
mainly in Latin America (39%), North Africa (16%), Eastern Europe (15%), and Sub-Saharan Africa
(4%).[242]

In 2008, Spain granted citizenship to 84,170 persons, mostly to people from Ecuador, Colombia and
Morocco.[243] Spain has a number of descendants of populations from former colonies, especially Latin
America and North Africa. Smaller numbers of immigrants from several Sub-Saharan countries have

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recently been settling in Spain. There are also sizeable numbers of Asian immigrants, most of whom are of
Middle Eastern, South Asian and Chinese origin. The single largest group of immigrants are European;
represented by large numbers of Romanians, Britons, Germans, French and others.[244]

Urbanisation
Largest cities or towns in Spain
Instituto Nacional de Estadística (2023) (https://ine.es/dynt3/inebase/es/index.htm?padre=52
Autonomous Municipal5) Autonomous
Rank Name Rank Name Pop.
community pop. community
Community Basque
1 Madrid 3,332,035 11 Bilbao 346,096
of Madrid Country
2 Barcelona Catalonia 1,660,122 12 Córdoba Andalusia 323,763
Valencian Castile and
3 Valencia 807,693 13 Valladolid 297,459
Community León
4 Seville Andalusia 684,025 14 Vigo Galicia 293,652
5 Zaragoza Aragon 682,513 15 L'Hospitalet Catalonia 274,455
Principality of
Madrid 6 Málaga Andalusia 586,384 16 Gijón 258,313 Valencia
Asturias
Region of Vitoria- Basque
7 Murcia 469,177 17 255,886
Murcia Gasteiz Country
Balearic
8 Palma 423,350 18 A Coruña Galicia 247,376
Islands
Barcelona Las Canary Valencian Seville
9 378,027 19 Elche 238,293
Palmas Islands Community
Valencian
10 Alicante 349,282 20 Granada Andalusia 230,595
Community

Immigration
According to the official Spanish statistics (INE) there were 5.4 million
foreign residents in Spain in 2020 (11.4%)[245] while all citizens born
outside of Spain were 7.2 million in 2020, 15.23% of the total
population.[246]

According to residence permit data for 2011, more than 860,000 were
Romanian, about 770,000 were Moroccan, approximately 390,000 were
British, and 360,000 were Ecuadorian.[247] Other sizeable foreign
Distribution of the foreign population
communities are Colombian, Bolivian, German, Italian, Bulgarian, and in Spain in 2005 by percentage
Chinese. There are more than 200,000 migrants from Sub-Saharan
Africa living in Spain, principally Senegaleses and Nigerians.[248] Since
2000, Spain has experienced high population growth as a result of immigration flows, despite a birth rate
that is only half the replacement level. This sudden and ongoing inflow of immigrants, particularly those
arriving illegally by sea, has caused noticeable social tension.[249]

Within the EU, Spain had the 2nd highest immigration rate in percentage terms after Cyprus, but by a great
margin, the highest in absolute numbers, up to 2008.[250] The number of immigrants in Spain had grown up
from 500,000 people in 1996 to 5.2 million in 2008 out of a total population of 46 million.[251] In 2005
alone, a regularisation programme increased the legal immigrant population by 700,000 people.[252] There
are a number of reasons for the high level of immigration, including Spain's cultural ties with Latin America,

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its geographical position, the porosity of its borders, the large size of its underground economy and the
strength of the agricultural and construction sectors, which demand more low cost labour than can be
offered by the national workforce.

Another statistically significant factor is the large number of residents of EU origin typically retiring to
Spain's Mediterranean coast. In fact, Spain was Europe's largest absorber of migrants from 2002 to 2007,
with its immigrant population more than doubling as 2.5 million people arrived.[253] In 2008, prior to the
onset of the economic crisis, the Financial Times reported that Spain was the most favoured destination for
Western Europeans considering a move from their own country and seeking jobs elsewhere in the EU.[254]

In 2008, the government instituted a "Plan of Voluntary Return" which encouraged unemployed immigrants
from outside the EU to return to their home countries and receive several incentives, including the right to
keep their unemployment benefits and transfer whatever they contributed to the Spanish Social
Security.[255] The programme had little effect.[256] Although the programme failed to, the sharp and
prolonged economic crisis from 2010 to 2011, resulted in tens of thousands of immigrants leaving the
country due to lack of jobs. In 2011 alone, more than half a million people left Spain.[257] For the first time in
decades the net migration rate was expected to be negative, and nine out of 10 emigrants were
foreigners.[257]

Languages
Spain is a multilingual state.[258] Spanish—featured in the 1978 Spanish
Constitution as castellano ('Castilian')—has effectively been the official
language of the entire country since 1931.[259] As allowed in the third
article of the Constitution, the other 'Spanish languages' can also become
official in their respective autonomous communities. The territoriality
created by the form of co-officiality codified in the 1978 Constitution
creates an asymmetry, in which Spanish speakers' rights apply to the
entire territory whereas vis-à-vis the rest of co-official languages, their
Languages of Spain
speakers' rights only apply in their territories.[260]

Besides Spanish, other territorialized languages include Aragonese,

Aranese, Astur-Leonese, Basque, Ceutan Arabic (Darija), Catalan, Galician, Portuguese and Tamazight, to
which the Romani Caló and the sign languages may add up.[261] The number of speakers varies widely and
their legal recognition is uneven, with some of the most vulnerable languages lacking any sort of effective
protection.[262] Those enjoying recognition as official language in some autonomous communities include
Catalan (in Catalonia, the Balearic Islands and the Valencian Community, where it is referred to as
'Valencian'); Galician (in Galicia); Basque (in the Basque Country and part of Navarre); and Aranese in
Catalonia.

Spanish is natively spoken by 74%, Catalan by 17%, Galician by 7% and Basque by 2% of the Spanish
population.[263]

Some of the most spoken foreign languages used by the immigrant communities include Moroccan Arabic,
Romanian and English.[264]

Education

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State education in Spain is free and compulsory from the age of six to
sixteen. The current education system is regulated by the 2006
educational law, LOE (Ley Orgánica de Educación), or Fundamental
Law for the Education.[265] In 2014, the LOE was partially modified by
the newer and controversial LOMCE law (Ley Orgánica para la Mejora
de la Calidad Educativa), or Fundamental Law for the Improvement of
the Education System, commonly called Ley Wert (Wert Law).[266] Since
1970 to 2014, Spain has had seven different educational laws (LGE,
LOECE, LODE, LOGSE, LOPEG, LOE and LOMCE).[267] University of Salamanca one of the
first European universities
The levels of education are preschool education, primary education,[268]
secondary education[269] and post-16 education.[270] In regards to the
professional development education or the vocational education, there are three levels besides the university
degrees: the Formación Profesional Básica (basic vocational education); the Ciclo Formativo de Grado
Medio or CFGM (medium level vocation education) which can be studied after studying the secondary
education, and the Ciclo Formativo de Grado Superior or CFGS (higher level vocational education), which
can be studied after studying the post-16 education level.[271]

The Programme for International Student Assessment coordinated by the OECD currently ranks the overall
knowledge and skills of Spanish 15-year-olds as significantly below the OECD average of 493 in reading
literacy, mathematics, and science.[272][273]

Health
The health care system of Spain (Spanish National Health System) is considered one of the best in the world,
in 7th position in the ranking elaborated by the World Health Organization.[274] The health care is public,
universal and free for any legal citizen of Spain.[275] The total health spending is 9.4% of the GDP, slightly
above the average of 9.3% of the OECD.

Religion
Roman Catholicism, which has a long history in Spain, remains the dominant religion. Although it no longer
has official status by law, in all public schools in Spain students have to choose either a religion or ethics
class. Catholicism is the religion most commonly taught, although the teaching of Islam,[277] Judaism,[278]
and evangelical Christianity[279] is also recognised in law. According to a 2020 study by the Spanish Centre
for Sociological Research, about 61% of Spaniards self-identify as Catholics, 3% other faiths, and about 35%
identify with no religion.[280] Most Spaniards do not participate regularly in religious services.[281] Recent
polls and surveys suggest that around 30% of the Spanish population is irreligious.[281][282][283]

The Spanish constitution enshrines secularism in governance, as well as freedom of religion or belief for all,
saying that no religion should have a "state character", while allowing for the state to "cooperate" with
religious groups.

Protestant churches have about 1,200,000 members.[284] There are about 105,000 Jehovah's Witnesses. The
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has approximately 46,000 adherents in 133 congregations.[285]

A study made by the Union of Islamic Communities of Spain demonstrated that there were more than
2,100,000 inhabitants of Muslim background living in Spain as of 2019, accounting for 4–5% of the total
population of Spain. The vast majority was composed of immigrants and descendants originating from the

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Maghreb (especially Morocco) and other African countries. More than

879,000 (42%) of them had Spanish nationality.[286]

Judaism was practically non-existent in Spain from the 1492 expulsion until
the 19th century, when Jews were again permitted to enter the country.
Currently there are around 62,000 Jews in Spain, or 0.14% of the total
population.

Culture
Spain is a Western country and one of the major Latin countries of Europe,
and a cultural superpower.[287][288] Spanish culture is marked by strong Religious self-definition in
historic ties to the Catholic Church, which played a pivotal role in the Spain (CIS survey; sample
country's formation and subsequent identity.[289] Spanish art, architecture, size: 3,935; February
2023) [276]
cuisine, and music have been shaped by successive waves of foreign
invaders, as well as by the country's Mediterranean climate and geography.
Practicing Catholic (18.5%)
The centuries-long colonial era globalised Spanish language and culture,
Non-Practicing Catholic
with Spain also absorbing the cultural and commercial products of its
(37.5%)
diverse empire. Believer in another religion
(2.7%)
Agnostic (12.6%)
World Heritage Sites
Indifferent/Non-believer
Spain has 49 World Heritage Sites. These include the landscape of Monte (12.3%)
Perdido in the Pyrenees, which is shared with France, the Prehistoric Rock Atheist (14.9%)
Art Sites of the Côa Valley and Siega Verde, which is shared with Portugal, Did not answer (1.5%)
the Heritage of Mercury, shared with Slovenia and the Ancient and
Primeval Beech Forests, shared with other countries of Europe.[290] In
addition, Spain has also 14 Intangible cultural heritage, or "Human
treasures".[291]

Literature
Some early examples of vernacular Romance-based literature include
short snippets of Mozarabic Romance (such as refrains) sprinkled in
Arabic and Hebrew texts.[292] Other examples of early Iberian Romance Alhambra.
include the Glosas Emilianenses written in Latin, Basque and
Romance.[293]

Early Medieval literature in Christian Iberia was written in Latin, which remained as the standard literary
language up until the mid-13th century, whereas Ibero-Romance vernaculars and Basque were spoken.[294]
A decisive development ensued in the 13th century in Toledo, where Arabic scholarship was translated to the
local vernacular, Castilian. In the scope of lyric poetry Castilian co-existed alongside Galician-Portuguese
across the Crown of Castile up until the 16th century.[295] The Romance variety preferred in Eastern Iberia
for lyrical poetry, Occitan, became increasingly Catalanised in the 14th and 15th centuries.[296] Major literary
works from the Middle Ages include the Cantar de Mio Cid, Tirant lo Blanch, The Book of Good Love and
Coplas por la muerte de su padre. Genres such as Mester de Juglaría and Mester de Clerecía were cultivated.

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Promoted by the monarchs in the late Middle Ages and even codified in
the late 15th century, Castilian (thought to be widespread known as
'Spanish' from the 16th century on) progressively became the language of
the elites in the Iberian Peninsula, which ushered in a Golden era of
Castilian literature in the 16th and 17th centuries, also in the science
domain, eclipsing Galician and Catalan.[297] Famous Early Modern
works include La Celestina and Lazarillo de Tormes. The famous Don
Quijote de La Mancha by Miguel de Cervantes was written in this time.
Other writers from the period are: Francisco de Quevedo, Lope de Vega,
Calderón de la Barca or Tirso de Molina. During the Enlightenment
authors included, Benito Jerónimo Feijóo, Gaspar Melchor de
Jovellanos, and Leandro Fernández de Moratín.

Steps of Spanish Romantic literature (initially a rebellion against French

classicism) have been traced back to the last quarter of the 18th century,
even if the movement had its heyday between 1835 and 1850, waning
thereafter.[298] In a broader definition encompassing the period from Bronze statues of Don Quixote and
1868 or 1874 to 1936, the so-called Silver Age of Spanish Culture Sancho Panza, at the Plaza de
ensued.[299][300] España in Madrid

The waning of Romantic literature was followed by the development of

Spanish Realism, which offered depictions of contemporary life and society 'as they were', rather than
romanticised or stylised presentations. The major realist writer was Benito Pérez Galdós.[301] The second
half of the 19th century also saw the resurgence of the literary use of local languages other than Spanish
under cultural movements inspired by Romanticism such as the Catalan Renaixença or the Galician
Rexurdimento.[302] Rarely used before in a written medium, the true fostering of the literary use of the
Basque language had to wait until the 1960s, even if some interest towards the language had developed in
the late 19th century.[303] 20th-century authors were classified in loose literary generations such as the
Generation of '98, the Generation of '27, Generation of '36 and the Generation of '50. Premio Planeta de
Novela and Miguel de Cervantes Prize are the two main awards in Spanish literature.

Philosophy
The construct pertaining a distinctive Spanish philosophical thought has been
variously approached by academia, either by diachronically tracing its development
throughout the centuries from the Roman conquest of Hispania on (with early
representatives such as Seneca, Trajan, Lucan, or Martial); by pinpointing its
origins to the late 19th century (associated to the Generation of 98); or simply by
outright denying its existence.[304] The crux around the existence of a Spanish
philosophy pitted the likes of Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo (chief architect of the
myth around it)[305] against Antonio Pérez.[306] Foreign imports such as Krausism
proved to be extremely influential in Spain in the 19th and early 20th
centuries.[307]
Statue of Averroes in
Córdoba
Art
Artists from Spain have been highly influential in the development of various European and American
artistic movements. Due to historical, geographical and generational diversity, Spanish art has known a great
number of influences. The Mediterranean heritage with Greco-Roman and some Moorish influences in

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Spain, especially in Andalusia, is still evident today. European influences

include Italy, Germany and France, especially during the Renaissance,
Spanish Baroque and Neoclassical periods. There are many other
autochthonous styles such as the Pre-Romanesque art and architecture,
Herrerian architecture or the Isabelline Gothic.

During the Golden Age painters working in Spain included El Greco, José
de Ribera, Bartolomé Esteban Murillo and Francisco Zurbarán. Also in
the Baroque period, Diego Velázquez created some of the most famous
Spanish portraits, such as Las Meninas and Las Hilanderas.[308]

Francisco Goya painted during a historical period that includes the

Spanish Independence War, the fights between liberals and absolutists,
and the rise of contemporary nations-states. Las Meninas by Diego Velázquez

Joaquín Sorolla is a well-known modern impressionist painter and there

are many important Spanish painters belonging to the modernism art movement, including Pablo Picasso,
Salvador Dalí, Juan Gris and Joan Miró.

Sculpture
The Plateresque style extended from beginnings of the 16th century until
the last third of the century and its stylistic influence pervaded the works
of all great Spanish artists of the time. Alonso Berruguete (Valladolid
School) is called the "Prince of Spanish sculpture". His main works were
the upper stalls of the choir of the Cathedral of Toledo, the tomb of
Cardinal Tavera in the same Cathedral, and the altarpiece of the
Visitation in the church of Santa Úrsula in the same locality. Other
notable sculptors were Bartolomé Ordóñez, Diego de Siloé, Juan de Juni
The Comb of the Wind of Eduardo
and Damián Forment.
Chillida in San Sebastián

There were two Schools: the Seville School, to which Juan Martínez
Montañés belonged, whose most celebrated works are the Crucifix in the Cathedral of Seville, another in
Vergara, and a Saint John; and the Granada School, to which Alonso Cano belonged, to whom an
Immaculate Conception and a Virgin of Rosary, are attributed.

Other notable Andalusian Baroque sculptors were Pedro de Mena, Pedro Roldán and his daughter Luisa
Roldán, Juan de Mesa and Pedro Duque Cornejo. In the 20th century the most important Spanish sculptors
were Julio González, Pablo Gargallo, Eduardo Chillida, and Pablo Serrano.

Cinema
After the first projection of a cinematographer in Spain by 1896, cinema developed in the following years,
with Barcelona becoming the largest production hub in the country (as well as a major European hub) on the
eve of the World War I.[309] The conflict offered the Spanish industry of silent films an opportunity for
further growth.[310] Local studios for sound films were created in 1932.[311] The government imposition of
dubbing of foreign films in 1941 accustomed Spanish audiences to watching dubbed films.[312]

Spanish cinema has achieved major international success including Oscars for recent films such as Pan's
Labyrinth and Volver.[313]

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Distinct exploitation genres that flourished in the second half of the 20th
century include the Fantaterror, the cine quinqui and the so-called
destape films.[314]

As of 2021, the festivals of San Sebastián and Málaga are ranked among
the top cultural initiatives in the country.[315]

Architecture Pedro Almodóvar and Penélope

Earth and gypsum are very common materials of the traditional Cruz in Oviedo
vernacular architecture in Spain (particularly in the East of the country,
where most of the deposits of gypsum are located).[316] Due to its
historical and geographical diversity, Spanish architecture has drawn
from a host of influences. Fine examples of Islamicate architecture,
belonging to the Western Islamic tradition, were built in the Middle Ages
in places such as Córdoba, Seville, or Granada. Similarly to the Maghreb,
stucco decoration in Al-Andalus became an architectural stylemark in the
high Middle Ages.[317]

Simultaneously, the Christian kingdoms also developed their own styles;

developing a pre-Romanesque style when for a while isolated from
contemporary mainstream European architectural influences during the
earlier Middle Ages, they later integrated the Romanesque and Gothic
streams. There was then an extraordinary flourishing of the Gothic style
that resulted in numerous instances being built throughout the entire
territory. The so-called Mudéjar style came to designate works by Basilica Sagrada Família in
Muslims, Christians and Jews in lands conquered from Muslims.[318] Barcelona

The arrival of Modernism produced much of the architecture of the 20th

century. An influential style centred in Barcelona, known as modernisme, produced a number of important
architects, of which Gaudí is one. The International style was led by groups like GATEPAC. Spain is currently
experiencing a revolution in contemporary architecture and Spanish architects like Rafael Moneo, Santiago
Calatrava, Ricardo Bofill as well as many others have gained worldwide renown.

Music and dance

Spanish music is often considered abroad to be synonymous with
flamenco, a West Andalusian musical genre, which, contrary to popular
belief, is not widespread outside that region. Various regional styles of
folk music abound. Pop, rock, hip hop and heavy metal are also popular.

In the field of classical music, Spain has produced a number of noted

composers such as Isaac Albéniz, Manuel de Falla and Enrique Granados
and singers and performers such as Plácido Domingo, José Carreras,
Flamenco is an Andalusian artistic
Montserrat Caballé, Alicia de Larrocha, Alfredo Kraus, Pablo Casals, form that evolved from Seguidilla.
Ricardo Viñes, José Iturbi, Pablo de Sarasate, Jordi Savall and Teresa
Berganza. In Spain there are over forty professional orchestras, including
the Orquestra Simfònica de Barcelona, Orquesta Nacional de España and the Orquesta Sinfónica de Madrid.
Major opera houses include the Teatro Real, the Gran Teatre del Liceu, Teatro Arriaga and the El Palau de
les Arts Reina Sofía.
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Thousands of music fans also travel to Spain each year for internationally recognised summer music festivals
Sónar which features pop and techno acts, and Benicàssim which tends to feature alternative rock and dance
acts.[319] The Vitoria-Gasteiz jazz festival is one of the main ones in its genre.

The most popular traditional musical instrument, the guitar, originated in Spain.[320] Typical of the north
are the traditional bag pipers or gaiteros, mainly in Asturias and Galicia.

Cuisine
Spanish cuisine consists of a great variety of dishes
which stem from differences in geography, culture
and climate. It is heavily influenced by seafood
available from the waters that surround the country,
and reflects the country's deep Mediterranean roots.
Spain's extensive history with many cultural
influences has led to a unique cuisine. In particular, Paella, a traditional Valencian Jamón ibérico is one of the
three main divisions are easily identified: dish[321] most expensive hams.​
[322][323]
Mediterranean Spain – coastal regions, from
Catalonia to Andalusia – heavy use of seafood, such
as pescaíto frito (fried fish); cold soups like gazpacho; and many rice-based dishes like paella from
Valencia[321] and arròs negre (black rice) from Catalonia.[324]

Inner Spain – Castile – hot, thick soups such as the bread and garlic-based Castilian soup, along with
substantial stews such as cocido madrileño. Food is traditionally preserved by salting, such as Spanish ham,
or immersed in olive oil, such as Manchego cheese.

Atlantic Spain – the Northern coast, including Asturian, Basque, Cantabrian and Galician cuisine –
vegetable and fish-based stews like caldo gallego and marmitako. Also, the lightly cured lacón ham. The
best known cuisine of the northern countries often rely on ocean seafood, as in the Basque-style cod,
albacore or anchovy or the Galician octopus-based polbo á feira and shellfish dishes.

Sport
While varieties of football have been played in Spain as far back as Roman times, sport in Spain has been
dominated by football since the early 20th century. Real Madrid CF and FC Barcelona are two of the most
successful football clubs in the world. The country's national men's football team won the UEFA European
Championship in 1964, 2008, and 2012 and the FIFA World Cup in 2010, and is the first team ever to win
three back-to-back major international tournaments. Spain's women's national team were champions of the
2023 FIFA World Cup, becoming one of only five nations to win a Women's World Cup. Barcelona Femení
has won a record 20 domestic trophies.

Basketball, tennis, cycling, handball, futsal, motorcycling and, lately, Formula One also can boast of Spanish
champions. Today, Spain is a major world sports powerhouse, especially since the 1992 Summer Olympics
and Paralympics that were hosted in Barcelona, which stimulated a great deal of interest in sports in the

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country. The tourism industry has led to an improvement in sports

infrastructure, especially for water sports, golf and skiing. In their
respective regions, the traditional games of Basque pelota and Valencian
pilota both are popular.

Public holidays and festivals

Public holidays celebrated in Spain include a mix of religious (Roman
Catholic), national and local observances. Each municipality is allowed to
declare a maximum of 14 public holidays per year; up to nine of these are
chosen by the national government and at least two are chosen
locally.[326] Spain's National Day (Fiesta Nacional de España) is
Spain or La Roja celebrating their
celebrated on 12 October.[327][328] 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup
victory. Football is the most popular
There are many festivals and festivities in Spain. One of the most famous and profitable[325] sport in the
is San Fermín, in Pamplona. While its most famous event is the encierro, country.
or the running of the bulls. It has become one of the most internationally
renowned fiestas in Spain, with over 1,000,000 people attending every
year.

Other festivals include La Tomatina tomato festival in Buñol, Valencia,

the carnivals in the Canary Islands, the Falles in Valencia or the Holy
Week in Andalusia and Castile and León.

See also
History of education in Spain
Outline of Spain
Topographical relief of Spain
History of the territorial organization of Spain

Notes
a. In Spain, some other languages enjoy co-official status in certain
regions in accordance with the latter's Statutes of Autonomy or they
enjoy some degree of recognition. In each of these, Spain's Carnival in Las Palmas de Gran
conventional long name for international affairs in Spanish laws and Canaria
the most used (Spanish: Reino de España, pronounced: Spanish
pronunciation: [ˈrejno ð(e) esˈpaɲa]) is as follows:
Spain portal
Aragonese: Reino d'Espanya, IPA: [ˈre̞ j.no ð̞ esˈpaɲ.ɟa]
Asturian: Reinu d'España, IPA: [ˈre̞ j.nu ð̞ esˈpa.ɲa] Europe portal
Catalan: Regne d'Espanya, IPA: [ˈreŋnə ðəsˈpaɲə]
Basque: Espainiako Erresuma, IPA: [es̺ paɲiako eres̺ uma]
Galician: Reino de España, IPA: [ˈrejnʊ ð(ɪ) esˈpaɲɐ]
Occitan: Reiaume d'Espanha, IPA: [reˈjawme ðesˈpaɲɔ]
Valencian: Regne d'Espanya, IPA: [ˈreŋnə ðəsˈpaɲə]
b. The official language of the State is established in the Section 3 of
the Constitution of Spain to be Castilian.[2]

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c. In some autonomous communities, Catalan, Valencian, Galician, Basque and Occitan (locally known as
Aranese) are co-official languages. Aragonese, Asturian, and Leonese have some degree of government
recognition at the regional level.
d. European Union (EU) since 1993
e. The Peseta before 2002
f. The .eu domain is also used, as it is shared with other European Union member states. Also, the .cat
domain is used in Catalonia, .gal in Galicia and .eus in the Basque-Country autonomous regions.
g. Spanish: España, [esˈpaɲa]
h. Reino de España
i. The Spanish Constitution does not contain any one official name for Spain. Instead, the terms España
(Spain), Estado español (Spanish State) and Nación española (Spanish Nation) are used throughout the
document, sometimes interchangeably. In 1984, the Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs established that
the denominations España (Spain) and Reino de España (Kingdom of Spain) are equally valid to
designate Spain in international treaties. The latter term is widely used by the government in national and
international affairs of all kinds, including foreign treaties as well as national official documents, and is
therefore recognised as the conventional name by many international organisations.[329]
j. See list of transcontinental countries.
k. The latifundia (sing., latifundium), large estates controlled by the aristocracy, were superimposed on the
existing Iberian landholding system.
l. The poets Martial, Quintilian and Lucan were also born in Hispania.
m. Those nationwide institutions are the Crown, the Cortes Generales, the Government, the Judiciary, and
the Constitutional Tribunal.
n. Most Spanish monarchs have been kings. However, a queen regnant – while uncommon – is possible
due to Spain’s adherence to male-preference primogeniture. Leonor, Princess of Asturias, will be Spain's
first queen regnant since Isabella II, who reigned from 1833 to 1868, should she someday succeed her
father Felipe VI as expected.
o. Former king Juan Carlos I's intervention and foiling of the 1981 Spanish coup attempt by some 200
disgruntled Civil Guard officers is but one example of the Crown exercising its influence as the
moderating branch to safeguard democracy and the rule of law.[124]
p. The Spanish state honours system comprises the Order of Charles III, the Order of Isabella the Catholic,
the Order of Civil Merit, the Civil Order of Alfonso X, the Wise, the Order of Saint Raymond of Peñafort,
and the Order of Constitutional Merit, among other orders, decorations and medals. The prime minister is
ex officio chancellor of the Order of Charles III. On the other hand, the ministers of foreign affairs,
education, and justice are the corresponding chancellors for the orders of Isabella the Catholic and of
Civil Merit, the Civil Order of Alfonso X, the Wise, and the orders of Saint Raymond of Peñafort and of
Constitutional Merit, respectively.
q. They being the Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, the Real Academia de Ciencias
Morales y Políticas, the Royal Academy of Engineering of Spain, the Real Academia de la Historia, the
Royal Academy of Jurisprudence and Legislation, the Royal Academy of Pharmacy, the Royal Spanish
Academy, and the Spanish Royal Academy of Sciences

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12/06/2024 19:57 Spain - Wikipedia

r. The ministerial acts performed by the Spanish monarch are as follows:

1. Sanctions and promulgates bills duly passed by the Cortes Generales, making them laws. The
Spanish Constitution mandates the monarch grant royal assent to each bill within fifteen days of its
passage; he or she does not have a right to veto legislation.[129][130]
2. Summons the Cortes Generales into session following a general election, dissolves the same upon
the expiration of its four-year term, and proclaims the election of the next Cortes. These functions are
performed in accordance with the strictures of the Spanish Constitution.[131][132][133][134][135]
3. Appoints and dismisses ministers of state on the advice of the prime minister.[136]
4. Appoints the president of the Supreme Court on the advice of the General Council of the
Judiciary.[137]
5. Appoints the president of the Consitutional Tribunal from among its members, on the advice of the full
bench, for a term of three years.[138]
6. Appoints the Fiscal General, who leads the Prosecution Ministry, on the advice of the Government.
Before tendering advice, the Government is required to consult the General Council of the
Judiciary.[139]
7. Appoints the presidents of the autonomous communities as elected by their respective
parliaments.[140]
8. Issues decrees approved in the Council of Ministers, confers civil service and military appointments,
and awards honours and distinctions in the gift of the state, all done on the advice of the prime
minister or another minister designated thereby.[p][141]
9. Exercises supreme command and control over the Armed Forces, on the advice of the prime
minister.[142]
10. Declares war and makes peace on the advice of the prime minister and with the prior authorization of
the Cortes Generales.[143]
11. Ratifies treaties, on the advice of the prime minister.[144]
12. Accredits Spanish ambassadors and ministers to foreign states and receives the credentials of
foreign diplomats to Spain, on the advice of the prime minister.[145]
13. Exercises the right of clemency, but without the authority to grant general pardons, on the advice of
the prime minister.[146]
14. Patronises the Royal Academies.[q][147]

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spread out across many cities. The fact that Germany is an economic powerhouse makes it an attractive
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Works cited
Gates, David (2001). The Spanish Ulcer: A History of the Peninsular War. Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-
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Marcos, F. Javier (2016). La Prehistoria Reciente del entorno de la Sierra de Atapuerca (Burgos,
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Further reading
Carr, Raymond, ed. Spain: a history. Oxford University Press, USA, 2000.
Callaghan O.F Joseph. A History of Medieval Spain Cornell University Press 1983

External links
Spain (https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/spain/). The World Factbook. Central
Intelligence Agency.
Spain (https://web.archive.org/web/20080821113429/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/spain.h
tm) from UCB Libraries GovPubs
Spain (https://curlie.org/Regional/Europe/Spain) at Curlie
Spain (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-17941641) from the BBC News
Key Development Forecasts for Spain (http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=ES)
from International Futures

Government

E-Government portal for Spain (https://administracion.gob.es/pag_Home/en/index.html#.XLTfN-gzaUk)

Maps

Wikimedia Atlas of Spain

Geographic data related to Spain (https://www.openstreetmap.org/relation/1311341) at
OpenStreetMap

Tourism

Official tourism portal for Spain (http://www.spain.info/en/)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spain&oldid=1226632318"

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