Introduction Deformation Analysis Stress Analysis Constitutive Relationships The Virtual Work Principle Theory of Beams Theory of

From Continuum Mechanics to Finite Element Analysis

For an Interaction of Physicists and Engineers

Ciro Del Vecchio1

1 NationalInstitute for Astrophysics
Arcetri Astrophysical Observatory
Florence, Italy
[email protected]

May 2020

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 Introduction Deformation Analysis Stress Analysis Constitutive Relationships The Virtual Work Principle Theory of Beams Theory of

Outline

1 Introduction 9 Finite Element Method

2 Deformation Analysis Introduction
3 Stress Analysis Element Stiffness Matrix
4 Constitutive Relationships Global Stiffness Matrix
5 The Virtual Work Principle
6 Theory of Beams
Tension/Compression
Bending
Torsion
Shear
7 Theory of Beam Assemblies
8 Theory of Plates
Flat Tick Rectangular Plates
Flat Thin Rectangular Plates
Flat Circular Plates
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 Introduction Deformation Analysis Stress Analysis Constitutive Relationships The Virtual Work Principle Theory of Beams Theory of

Outline

1 Introduction 9 Finite Element Method

2 Deformation Analysis Introduction
3 Stress Analysis Element Stiffness Matrix
4 Constitutive Relationships Global Stiffness Matrix
5 The Virtual Work Principle
6 Theory of Beams
Tension/Compression
Bending
Torsion
Shear
7 Theory of Beam Assemblies
8 Theory of Plates
Flat Tick Rectangular Plates
Flat Thin Rectangular Plates
Flat Circular Plates
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 Introduction Deformation Analysis Stress Analysis Constitutive Relationships The Virtual Work Principle Theory of Beams Theory of

Primary and Derived Quantities and their Relationships

Two kinds of equations

Primary quantities
applicable to all bodies (balance
geometry (point, line, equations)
length, . . . )
geometric balance, or congruence
time
mechanical balance, or equilibrium
force (typically static and
thermal balance (OT)
dynamic)
mass describing the particular essence of
temperature bodies (constitutive equations, e.g.
body f = kδ)
Derived quantities Both kinds are usually differential equations
velocity, acceleration
work they are to be carefully written

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Assumptions
The Continuous Model

Objection Answer

As the body is builds of atoms or Only the continuous model can solve
particles it isn’t regular systematically the problem

Moreover, the continuous model [1], [2]:

can separate the mechanical effects from other effects (e.g. magnetic, thermal)
gives good results at a macroscopic level
uses the classical differential/integral calculus

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 Introduction Deformation Analysis Stress Analysis Constitutive Relationships The Virtual Work Principle Theory of Beams Theory of

Outline

1 Introduction 9 Finite Element Method

2 Deformation Analysis Introduction
3 Stress Analysis Element Stiffness Matrix
4 Constitutive Relationships Global Stiffness Matrix
5 The Virtual Work Principle
6 Theory of Beams
Tension/Compression
Bending
Torsion
Shear
7 Theory of Beam Assemblies
8 Theory of Plates
Flat Tick Rectangular Plates
Flat Thin Rectangular Plates
Flat Circular Plates
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 Introduction Deformation Analysis Stress Analysis Constitutive Relationships The Virtual Work Principle Theory of Beams Theory of

Definitions

Definition (Configuration)
The place of a body in a 3D
space

Definition (Deformation state)

X ∈ V → X ? ∈ V ? according to
Eq. 1

x1 = x1 (X1 , X2 , X3 )
x2 = x2 (X1 , X2 , X3 ) (1)
x3 = x3 (X1 , X2 , X3 )
Figure 1 Credits: Wikipedia
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Assumptions and Restrictions

Fact
The functions must be sufficiently regular, i.e. must be
continuous along with their partial derivatives, so that
e.g. no break is allowed.
∂x1 ∂x1 ∂x1
Fact
∂X1 ∂X2 ∂X3
Eq. 1 must be locally invertible (Eq. 2) 3D → 2D ∂x2 ∂x2 ∂x2
isn’t allowed. J= 6= 0 (2)
∂X1 ∂X2 ∂X3
∂x3 ∂x3 ∂x3
Fact
∂X1 ∂X2 ∂X3
The deformations
u1 = x1 − X1 , u2 = x2 − X2 , u3 = x3 − X3 must be
∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3
small, i.e. , ,...,  1, so that the linear
∂X1 ∂X1 ∂X3
classic theory is applicable.
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From Motion to Deformation I

Definition
As stresses depend on deformations instead of motions, we focus on the gradient of
the deformation (Eq. 3)

∂x1 ∂x1 ∂x1

 
 ∂X ∂X2 ∂X3 
 1 
 
 ∂x2 ∂x2 ∂x2 
F =
 ∂X
 (3)
 1 ∂X2 ∂X3 

 
 ∂x3 ∂x3 ∂x3 
∂X1 ∂X2 ∂X3
?
Defining P 0 = X1 + dX1 , X2 + dX2 , X3 + dX3 and P 0 = x1 + dx1 , x2 + dx2 , x3 + dx3
as two points in the undeformed and deformed states, respectively, we want to
−−−→? −−→
calculate P ? P 0 = [dx1 ; dx2 ; dx3 ] as a function of P P 0 = [dX1 ; dX2 ; dX3 ]
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From Motion to Deformation II

Recalling Eq. 1 we have:

∂x1 ∂x1 ∂x1

dx1 = dX1 + dX2 + dX3
∂X1 ∂X2 ∂X3
∂x2 ∂x2 ∂x2
dx2 = dX1 + dX2 + dX3 (4)
∂X1 ∂X2 ∂X3
∂x3 ∂x3 ∂x3
dx3 = dX1 + dX2 + dX3
∂X1 ∂X2 ∂X3
or, because of Eq. 3:
−
→ −→
dx = F dX (5)

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An Example I

Example
What if x1 = aX12 + bX2 , x2 = aX2 , x3 = aX3 ?

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An Example II

From Eq. 4:

dx1 = 2a X1 dX1 + b dX2

dx2 = a dX2 (6)
dx3 = a dX3

Fulfills the requests?

is regular because is continuous with its derivatives
is locally invertible (Eq. 2) if |J| = 2a3 X1 6= 0, i.e. if a 6= 0 and X1 6= 0
produces small deformations if a  1

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An Example III
−−−→? 2 
−−→0 2

Let’s compute P ? P 0 =f PP

−−→0 2 −−−−→ ?
2 
∂x1
2 
∂x2
2 
∂x3
2
P P = dX12 + dX22 + dX32 , P ?P 0 = dX1 + . . . + dX1 + . . . + dX1 + . . .
∂X1 ∂X1 ∂X1

⇓
−−−→? 2 3
∂xr ∂xr
P ?P 0
X
= dXi dXj (7)
i,j,r=1
∂Xi ∂Xj

Eq. 6 gives dx21 + dx22 + dx23 = 4a2 dX12 + 4ab2 dX1 dX2 + b2 dX22 + a2 dX22 + a2 dX32

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The Deformation Symmetry I

Recalling the displacement definition u1 = x1 − X1 , u2 = x2 − X2 , u3 = x3 − X3 ,
Eq. 7 becomes

−−−→? 3
!
2
∂Xr ∂ur ∂Xr ∂ur
 
P ?P 0
X
= + + dXi dXj (8)
i,j,r=1
∂Xi ∂Xi ∂Xj ∂Xj

∂ur ∂ur
or, neglecting the second order terms and defining
∂Xi ∂Xj
δij = 1 if i = j, δij = 0 if i 6= j:

−−−→? 3 3
!
2
∂ui ∂uj
P ?P 0
X X
= dxr dxr = δij + + dXi dXj (9)
r=1 i,j=1
∂Xj ∂Xi

−−→ 2
where δij dXi dXj = dX12 + dX22 + dX32 = P P 0 .
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The Deformation Symmetry II

Theorem
−−−→? −−→
Eq. 9 defines the length of P ? P 0 in terms of P P 0 . Such variations depend only on
∂ui ∂uj
the symmetric components + , defined as 2εij = 2εji the symmetric
∂Xj ∂Xi
tensor ε completely defines the deformations.

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The Physical Meaning of ε I

Example
If P P 0 k X1 and P = [0; 0; 0], from Eqs. 7and 9, as |P P 0 |2 = dX12 , we have:
∂u1 2 ∂u2 2 ∂u3 2 ∂u1
      h i
? 0? 2 2 2
|P P | = 1+ + + dX1 ≈ 1 + 2 dX1
∂X1 ∂X1 ∂X1 ∂X1
r
∂u1 ∂u1
?
 
|P ? P 0 | = 1+2 dX1 ≈ 1 + dX1 = (1 + ε11 ) dX1
∂X1 ∂X1

Fact
εii (i = 1, 2, 3) gives length variations of elements parallel to axes.

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The Physical Meaning of ε II

Example
If P P 0 khX1 , P P 00 k X2 , and P = [0; 0; 0],
i we have:
0 ∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3
|P P | = 1+ dX1 ; dX1 ; dX1
∂X1  ∂X1 ∂X1
∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3
h i
|P P 00 | = dX2 ; 1 + dX2 ; dX2
∂X2 ∂X2 ∂X2

−−→0 −→ ∂u1 ∂u2
? P P · P P 00 ∂X2
+ ∂X 1
+ . . . dX1 dX2
cos(γ ) = 0 00
= ≈ 2ε12
|P P ||P P | (1 + ε11 ) dX1 (1 + ε22 ) dX2

Fact
εij (i = 1, 2, 3) gives angular variations of elements parallel to axes.

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The Physical Meaning of ε III

Example
−−→ −−→
If P P 0 = [dX1 ; 0; 0], P P 00 = [0; dX2 ; 0] and P = [0; 0; 0], the undeformed area dA = dX1 dX2 and
−−−−→? −−−−→ ?
the deformed area dA? = P ? P 0 × P ? P 00 , by dropping the infinitesimal terms of higher order, are
?
related by dA = dA(1 + ε11 + ε22 ).

Fact
ε11 + ε22 , ε22 + ε33 , and ε11 + ε33 give the coefficients of surface expansion.

Example
−−→ −−→ −−−→
If P P 0 = [dX1 ; 0; 0], P P 00 = [0; dX2 ; 0], P P 000 = [0; 0; dX3 ], and P = [0; 0; 0], the undeformed
−−−−→? −−−−→? − −−−− →?
volume dV = dX1 dX2 dX3 and the deformed volume dV ? = |P ? P 0 ||P ? P 00 ||P ? P 000 |, by dropping
?
the infinitesimal terms of higher order, are related by dV = dV (1 + ε11 + ε22 + ε33 ).

Fact
ε11 + ε22 + ε33 gives the coefficient of volume expansion.

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Principal Strains
Problem
What if the axes are rotated?
∂u01 ∂x1 ∂u01 ∂x2 ∂u01 ∂u01
If u3 = 0 u1 = u1 n11 + u2 n12 and ε011 = + = n 11 + n21 .
∂x1 ∂x01 ∂x2 ∂x01 ∂x1 ∂x2
3
X X3
In the most general case we have u0h = ui nih and ε0hk = εi,j nih nik .
i=1 i,j=1

Is there any direction along which the deformation is maximum?

Theorem
∃ 3 axes X1? , X2? , X3? , mutually orthogonal, along which the deformation tensor is diagonal,
according to Eq. 10. They are computed by solving det|ε − λ I| = 0.

ε?11
"
0 0
#
?
ε = 0 ε?22 0 (10)
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 Introduction Deformation Analysis Stress Analysis Constitutive Relationships The Virtual Work Principle Theory of Beams Theory of

The Congruence Equation

u1 = u u2 = v u3 = w u = [u; v; w] X1 = x X2 = y X3 = z

∂
 
∂u 0 0
εxx =    ∂x
∂x εxx 


∂v    0
 ∂ 
εyy = 0 
∂y  εyy  
   ∂y 
 
∂  u
   
∂w   
 εzz   0 0
εzz =  
∂z 
∂z
  
 =  v (12)

  (11)    ∂
γxy   ∂ 
1 ∂u ∂v γxy 0 
  
εxy = εxy = + =    ∂y ∂x  w
2 ∂y ∂x 2   
γxz   ∂
   
  ∂ 
1 ∂u ∂w γxz 0
εxz = εxz = + =
   
 ∂z ∂x 
2 ∂z ∂x 2 γyz  
   ∂ ∂ 
1 ∂v ∂w γyz 0
εyz = εyz = + = ∂z ∂y
2 ∂z ∂y 2
1
(∇u) + (∇u)T


= (13)
2
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 Introduction Deformation Analysis Stress Analysis Constitutive Relationships The Virtual Work Principle Theory of Beams Theory of

Outline

1 Introduction 9 Finite Element Method

2 Deformation Analysis Introduction
3 Stress Analysis Element Stiffness Matrix
4 Constitutive Relationships Global Stiffness Matrix
5 The Virtual Work Principle
6 Theory of Beams
Tension/Compression
Bending
Torsion
Shear
7 Theory of Beam Assemblies
8 Theory of Plates
Flat Tick Rectangular Plates
Flat Thin Rectangular Plates
Flat Circular Plates
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Force Classification
Basic Definitions

Forces are basic quantities, defined by vectors, classified as

external (known)
1 contact-less forces (e.g. gravitational, magnetic) [N × m−3 ]
2 contact forces [N × m−2 ]
internal (unknown)
3 contact-less forces [N × m−3 ]
4 contact forces [N × m−2 ]
Problem
As forces # 3 are mostly negligible, the core problem of continuum mechanics is
computing forces # 4 as a function of the given external forces # 1 and # 2.

Assumption
As we assume small displacement and deformations, all the upcoming
computations are carried out in the undeformed configuration.
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The Basic Assumptions

In order to characterize the internal contact forces, we need to define the

equilibrium with the following assumptions
Euler’s principle
0
An arbitrary subset V of the volume V can be independently analyzed provided
that all the forces applied by V − V 0 on V 0 are considered.

Cauchy’s principle
1 Internal contact forces are pressures.
2 The contact pressure ~t depends only on the point coordinates and the normal
~n, i.e. ~t = ~t (X1 , X2 , X3 , ~n).

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Cauchy’s Theorem

Theorem
If all kinds of forces are equilibrated, ~t depends linearly on ~n, according to t = σn
in Eq. 14, where σ11 , σ12 , . . . , σ33 are suitable coefficients.

t1 = σ11 n1 + σ12 n2 + σ13 n3

t2 = σ21 n1 + σ22 n2 + σ23 n3 (14)
t3 = σ31 n1 + σ32 n2 + σ33 n3

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Cauchy’s Theorem Consequences: the Translational Equilibrium I

As, given σ11 , σ12 , . . . , σ33 , ∀P ∈ V , ~t can be calculated, we must relate σij with
the (known) data: the surface forces Fk and the volume fk .
0 0
In
Z a volume Z V bounded by the surface S the translational equilibrium equation is
~t dS + f~ dV = 0, which, according to Cauchy (Eq. 14), can be expressed as
S0 V0
Z Z
(σ11 n1 + σ12 n2 + σ13 n3 ) dS + f1 dV = 0
0 0
ZS ZV
(σ21 n1 + σ22 n2 + σ23 n3 ) dS + f2 dV = 0 (15)
0 0
ZS ZV
(σ31 n1 + σ32 n2 + σ33 n3 ) dS + f3 dV = 0
S0 V0

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Cauchy’s Theorem Consequences: the Translational Equilibrium II

Z I
According to Gauss’s theorem, (∇ · G)dV = (G · n)dS, Eq. 15 can be
V S
rewritten as
∂σ11 ∂σ12 ∂σ13
Z  
+ + + f1 dV = 0
V 0 ∂X1 ∂X2 ∂X3
∂σ21 ∂σ22 ∂σ23
Z  
+ + + f2 dV = 0 (16)
V0 ∂X1 ∂X2 ∂X3
∂σ31 ∂σ32 ∂σ33
Z  
+ + + f3 dV = 0
V0 ∂X1 ∂X2 ∂X3

As V 0 is arbitrary, Eq. 16 is satisfied if the integrands of the integrals are null, i.e.:
3
X ∂σij
+ fj = 0 ; (i = 1, 2, 3) (17)
i=1
∂Xi

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Cauchy’s Theorem Consequences: the Rotational Equilibrium

0
Z a volume V bounded
In by the surface S 0 the rotational equilibrium equation is
−−→0
Z
−
−→
OP × ~t dS + OP × f~ dV = 0, which, according to Cauchy (Eq. 14), can be expressed as
S0 V0
Z Z
x02 (n1 σ31 + n2 σ32 + n3 σ33 ) − x03 (n1 σ21 + n2 σ22 + n3 σ23 ) dS +
 
(f3 X2 − f2 X3 ) dV
ZS ZV
x03 (n1 σ11 + n2 σ12 + n3 σ13 ) − x01 (n1 σ31 + n2 σ32 + n3 σ33 ) dS +
 
(f1 X3 − f3 X1 ) dV (18)
ZS ZV
x01 (n1 σ21 + n2 σ22 + n3 σ23 ) − x02 (n1 σ11 + n2 σ12 + n3 σ13 ) dS +
 
(f2 X1 − f1 X2 ) dV
S V

Applying the Gauss theorem to Eq. 18, substituting Eq. 17, and developing the integral
calculation, yields, because of the arbitrarity of V :
σ12 = σ21 , σ13 = σ31 , σ23 = σ32 σij = σji (19)

Fact
According to the translational and rotational equilibrium equations, the stress state in a point is
completely defined by the 6 quantities σ11 , σ22 , σ33 , σ12 , σ13 , and σ23 σ in Eq. 14 is symmetric.
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Cauchy’s Theorem Outcome

Theorem
As with the deformation ten-
Fact sor, ∃ 3 axes X1? , X2? , X3? , mutu-
! ally orthogonal, along which the
1 ∂ui ∂uj
analogy to + stress tensor is diagonal (Eq. 20).
2 ∂Xj ∂Xi
They are computed by solving
Cauchy’s equations are valid for fi det|σ − λ I| = 0.
∂σij
continuous as well for continuous
∂Xi
 
?
σ11 0 0
fi include the inertia forces ?  ?
σ =  0 σ22 0 

(20)
0 ?
0 σ33

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Outline

1 Introduction 9 Finite Element Method

2 Deformation Analysis Introduction
3 Stress Analysis Element Stiffness Matrix
4 Constitutive Relationships Global Stiffness Matrix
5 The Virtual Work Principle
6 Theory of Beams
Tension/Compression
Bending
Torsion
Shear
7 Theory of Beam Assemblies
8 Theory of Plates
Flat Tick Rectangular Plates
Flat Thin Rectangular Plates
Flat Circular Plates
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Do We Need More Equations? I

The problem statement

data boundary conditions (needed to

f~ in V : body forces
solve the PDE)
F~ in S2 : surface forces ~ui = ~ûi in S1
~û in S1 : surface displacements ti = Fi in S2
unknowns
~u in V : volume displacements
εij in V : volume deformations
σij in V : volume stresses
available equations (field equations)
 
1 ∂ui ∂uj
εij = + in V
2 ∂Xj ∂Xi
3
X ∂σij
= + fi = 0 in V
i=1
∂Xi
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Do We Need More Equations? II

The general solution

Problem
3 ~u + 6 εij + 6 σij = 15 unknowns
6 εij + 3 σij = 9 equations
The problem isn’t solvable, unless we introduce further equations, able to link σij
with the kinematic variables.

Fact
We define as constitutive relationship an equation able to connect σij with dis-
placements, deformations, coordinates, and time (displacements and deformations
depend on the history of the material, like fatigue and work-hardening), i.e.:
σij = f (u1 (τ ), u2 (τ ), u3 (τ ), εij (τ ), X1 , X2 , X3 , t).

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Do We Need More Equations? III

Assumptions and restrictions

The 3 axioms (Noll, 1954)

determinism the stress state of P at t is affected only by the motion history of all the points of
the body for −∞ < τ < t
local action the motion history of points at finite distances from P doesn’t affect the
constitutive relationship of P
material regardlessness the material response isn’t affected by the coordinate system, i.e. the
constitutive relationships don’t depend on rigid rotations of the coordinate system

The 2 experimental deductions

t isn’t an explicit variable
elastic materials1 : σij = f (εij , X1 , X2 , X3 )
1
Structural materials are mostly elastic; besides, many materials behave elastically if smoothly
loaded.

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A First Class of Materials I

The Cauchy’s definition

A further simplification derives from assuming a linear σ−ε relationship (Cauchy,
1829), with the 36 constants cijkl in Eq. 21, so that σij = cijkl kl . Such constants
are in principle dependent only on Xh and are with a good level of approximation
not dependent of the time derivative of load/unload.
   
c1111 c1122 ...

σ11 ε11
σ22   .. ε22 
 

σ  
  . 
ε 
 33   ..
 ..  33 
= . .  (21)
σ12   ε12 
  
  .
 
σ23   ..
  
 ε23
 
σ31 c3111 . . . c3131 ε31

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A First Class of Materials II

A subset of Cauchy’s definition

Additionally simplifying:
∂cijkl
if = 0 the material is homogeneous
∂Xh
given a coordinate system,
∂u1
if u1 6= 0 and u2 = u3 = 0, so that 6= 0 σ11 = c1111 ε11 ,
∂X1
∂u2
if u2 6= 0 and u1 = u3 = 0, so that 6= 0 σ22 = c2222 ε22 ,
∂X2
and so on.
Thus, generalizing, we have only 4 constants, i.e. the material is isotropic.

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A Second Class of Materials I

Some energy considerations

The energy balance equation in a body of volume V , subject to a body force f and
a surface force F in a given coordinate system, is

d
Z Z X Z Z
(W + K) dV = fj u˙j dV + Fj u˙j dS + Q dV (22)
dt V V j S V

where W , K, and Q are the internal, kinetic, and heat energies, respectively. If the
displacements are small (i.e. V doesn’t change), considering Eq. 17, Eq. 22 becomes
!
Z Z X X ∂σij Z Z
(Ẇ + K̇) dV = − u˙j dV + Fj u˙j dS + Q dV (23)
V V j i
∂Xi S V

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A Second Class of Materials II

Simplifying the energy equations

According
Z X to Gauss’s theorem,
Z X because, from Eq. 14,
(−σij ni ) u̇j dS = Fj u̇j dS, naming ρ the material density, Eq. 22
S j S j
becomes
∂σij
Z X Z X  Z
(Ẇ + ρ u̇j üj ) dV = u˙j dV + Q dV (24)
V j V ij
∂Xi V

∂uj
If the process is slow (u̇ ≈ 0) and adiabatic (Q = 0), recalling that εij = ,
∂Xi
Eq. 24 gives Z Z X
Ẇ dV = σij ε̇ij dV (25)
V V ij

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 Introduction Deformation Analysis Stress Analysis Constitutive Relationships The Virtual Work Principle Theory of Beams Theory of

A Second Class of Materials III

The Green’s materials
∂W ∂W ∂W
Supposing W = W (εij ), we have Ẇ = ε̇11 + ε̇22 + . . . + ε̇23 , and,
∂ε11 ∂ε22 ∂ε23
from Eq. 25,
∂W ∂W ∂W
Z       
− σ11 ε̇11 + − σ22 ε̇22 + . . . + − σ23 ε̇23 dV = 0 (26)
V ∂ε11 ∂ε22 ∂ε23
∂W
As V in Eq. 26 is arbitrary and if ε11 6= 0, ε22 , . . . , ε23 = 0 σ11 = , we have
∂ε11
∂W ∂W 1 ∂W ∂W
 
σ11 = , σ22 = , . . . , σ23 = + ,... (27)
∂ε11 ∂ε22 2 ∂ε23 ∂ε32

Fact
W is a potential function of σij .
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Comparing Cauchy’s and Green’s Materials I

As Cauchy’s materials are linear, according to σij = cijhk εhk , and Green’s
materials depend on the potential W , according to Eq. 27, we can state:
Fact (a Green’s material is also a Cauchy’s material if)
W is a quadratic function of εij
cijhk = chkij 2

2 ∂σ11 ∂2W ∂2W ∂σ22

because = = = , where the first term is c1122 and the last term is
∂ε22 ∂22 ∂11 ∂11 ∂22 ∂ε11
c2211 .

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Comparing Cauchy’s and Green’s Materials II

If a material is homogeneous and isotropic

homogeneous W doesn’t depend on Xi

isotropic W depends only on the three invariants of the deformation3 :
I = ε11 + ε22 + ε33
II = ε11 ε22 + ε22 ε33 + ε11 ε33 − ε212 − ε213 − ε223
III = det ε
Fact (homogeneous and isotropic materials)
Cauchy’s material ∩ Green’s material W = W (I, II, III), i.e., excluding
non-rational forms and the cubic term III,
B
W = A(ε11 + ε22 + ε33 )2 + (ε11 ε22 + ε22 ε33 + ε11 ε33 − ε212 − ε213 − ε223 ).
2
3
Analytically, I, II, and III don’t depend on the axis directions, but only on the coordinates of
the point.
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The Constitutive Relationship I

As a consequence, because of Eq. 27, the explicit form of the constitutive relationship is

σ11 = 2A(ε11 + ε22 + ε33 ) + B(ε22 + ε33 )

σ22 = 2A(ε11 + ε22 + ε33 ) + B(ε11 + ε33 )
σ33 = 2A(ε11 + ε22 + ε33 ) + B(ε11 + ε22 )
(28)
σ12 = −Bε12
σ13 = −Bε13
σ23 = −Bε23
B
Naming µ = − and λ = 2A + B, Eq. 28 may be rewritten in the compact form4
2
σij = 2µεij + δij λ (ε11 + ε22 + ε33 ) (29)
Inverting the Lamé equations (Eq. 29) gives:
4
Eq. 29 is matricially expressed as σ = λtr()I + 2µ.
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The Constitutive Relationship II

1
ε12 = σ12
2µ
1
ε13 = σ13
2µ
1
ε23 = σ23
2µ
(30)
1 λ
 
ε11 = σ11 − (σ11 + σ22 + σ33 )
2µ 2µ + 3λ
1 λ
 
ε22 = σ22 − (σ11 + σ22 + σ33 )
2µ 2µ + 3λ
1 λ
 
ε33 = σ33 − (σ11 + σ22 + σ33 )
2µ 2µ + 3λ

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The Constitutive Relationship III

1
ε12 = σ12
Naming 2G
1
ε13 = σ13
µ(2µ + 3λ) 2G
E= (Young’s modulus) 1
µ+λ ε23 = σ23
λ 2G (31)
ν= (Poisson’s modulus) 1
2(µ + λ) ε11 = [σ11 − ν (σ22 + σ33 )]
E E
G=µ= (Shear modulus) 1
2(1 + ν) ε22 = [σ22 − ν (σ11 + σ33 )]
E
1
Eq. 30 gives Eq. 31 ε33 = [σ33 − ν (σ11 + σ22 )]
E

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The Constitutive Relationship IV

Fact (The physical meaning of µ and λ)

The Lamé equations are invertible only if µ 6= 0 and 2µ + 3λ 6= 0. Such a condition
comes from the experience — there isn’t any material which exhibits µ ≤ 0 and
2µ + 3λ ≤ 0.

Fact (The physical meaning of ν and E)

In a straight bar A × h subject to F = pA, σ11 = . . . σ23 = 0 and σ33 = p. Thus,
p p
ε33 = and ε11 = ε22 = −ν .
E E

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Solving the Problem I

The Necessary and the Sufficient Condition

Problem
Given the body forces f~ in V , the surface forces F~ in S2 , and the surface
displacements ~û in S1 , find the 15 unknowns ui , σij , and εij .
!
1 ∂ui ∂uj
6 congruence equations εij = in V
2 ∂Xj ∂Xi
3
X ∂σij
3 Cauchy’s equations = + fi in V + BC
j
∂Xj
6 constitutive equations σij = 2µεij + δij λ (ε11 + ε22 + ε33 ) in V + BC

Fact
Although there are mathematical proofs that the system of 15 linear equations with
15 unknowns has a unique solution, we can further simplify the problem.
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Solving the Problem II

The Necessary and the Sufficient Condition

The solutions must:

exist (x=1 and 2x=1 isn’t allowed)
be unique (x+y=1 isn’t allowed)
be stable (small data perturbations small result perturbations)

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Outline

1 Introduction 9 Finite Element Method

2 Deformation Analysis Introduction
3 Stress Analysis Element Stiffness Matrix
4 Constitutive Relationships Global Stiffness Matrix
5 The Virtual Work Principle
6 Theory of Beams
Tension/Compression
Bending
Torsion
Shear
7 Theory of Beam Assemblies
8 Theory of Plates
Flat Tick Rectangular Plates
Flat Thin Rectangular Plates
Flat Circular Plates
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 Introduction Deformation Analysis Stress Analysis Constitutive Relationships The Virtual Work Principle Theory of Beams Theory of

The Virtual Work Principle

Theorem (VW)
Given a body of volume V subject to a body force fi , on which boundary S the
forces Fi are applied, if fi , Fi , and σij are equilibrated, i.e. Cauchy’s equations are
satisfied, the internal work Wi and the external work We are equal, provided that the
∂u?i
displacement field u?i is regular, |u?i |  D, and  1, as stated in Eq. 325 ,
∂Xj
∂u?j
!
? 1 ∂u?i
where εij = + .
2 ∂Xj ∂Xi

Z X Z X Z X
Wi = σij ε?ij dV = fi u?i dV + Fi u?i dS = We (32)
V i,j V i S i

5
See Appendix 10 for a demonstration of Eq. 32 and a relevant consequence.

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Consequences of the Virtual Work Principle

Fact
As any constitutive relationship is involved in the VW principle, it is valid also for
non-elastic bodies.

Lemma (Clapeyron’s Theorem)

If V is an elastic body according to Lamé and u?i = ui , ε?ij = εij , with ui small, as
1
Z X Z
εij σij dV = W dV because of Eq. 27, the external work is equal to two
2 V ij V
times the internal energy.

Lemma (Betti’s Theorem)

In a linear elastic body subject to two sets of forces fi0 , Fi0 and fi00 , Fi00 , the work done
by the first set through the displacements produced by the second set is equal to the
work done by the second set through the displacements produced by the first set.
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Tension/Compression
The Virtual Bending
Work Principle
Torsion Theory
Shear of Beams Theory of

Outline

1 Introduction 9 Finite Element Method

2 Deformation Analysis Introduction
3 Stress Analysis Element Stiffness Matrix
4 Constitutive Relationships Global Stiffness Matrix
5 The Virtual Work Principle
6 Theory of Beams
Tension/Compression
Bending
Torsion
Shear
7 Theory of Beam Assemblies
8 Theory of Plates
Flat Tick Rectangular Plates
Flat Thin Rectangular Plates
Flat Circular Plates
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 Introduction Deformation Analysis Stress Analysis Constitutive Relationships
Tension/Compression
The Virtual Bending
Work Principle
Torsion Theory
Shear of Beams Theory of

The Basic Assumptions

Geometrical and Physical Constraints

The beam theory (A. de Saint-Venant, 1855) deals with prismatic bodies,
on which we make the following assumptions

geometrical
slender prismatic bodies (D  l)
closed ( Appendix 14 ) cross sections
static
body force = 0
surface forces only at ends
translational and rotational equilibrium
constitutive: material isotropic and homogeneous according to Lamé

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 Introduction Deformation Analysis Stress Analysis Constitutive Relationships
Tension/Compression
The Virtual Bending
Work Principle
Torsion Theory
Shear of Beams Theory of

Outline

1 Introduction 9 Finite Element Method

2 Deformation Analysis Introduction
3 Stress Analysis Element Stiffness Matrix
4 Constitutive Relationships Global Stiffness Matrix
5 The Virtual Work Principle
6 Theory of Beams
Tension/Compression
Bending
Torsion
Shear
7 Theory of Beam Assemblies
8 Theory of Plates
Flat Tick Rectangular Plates
Flat Thin Rectangular Plates
Flat Circular Plates
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Tension/Compression
The Virtual Bending
Work Principle
Torsion Theory
Shear of Beams Theory of

The Axial Problem I

The data

Figure 2
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Tension/Compression
The Virtual Bending
Work Principle
Torsion Theory
Shear of Beams Theory of

The Axial Problem II

The data
We choose X2 k Z (the axis of the cylindrical body passing through the
cross-section centroid), and X1 and X2 as −x and y (the principal axes of the cross
section, Fig. 2), respectively, and naming −u1 ≡ u, u2 ≡ v, u3 ≡ w. Besides the
constitutive and congruence equations, we have the equations Eq. 33 in V with the
boundary conditions of Eq. 34 in S1 (the lateral surfaces) and Eq. 35 in S2 (the
bases), where ~n = [nx ; ny ; 0] and ~n = [0; 0; 1], respectively.
∂σxx ∂σxy ∂σxz
+ + =0
∂x ∂y ∂z σxx nx + σxy ny = 0 σzx = 0
∂σyx ∂σyy ∂σyz
+ + =0 (33) σxy nx + σyy ny = 0 (34) σzy = 0 (35)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂σzx ∂σzy ∂σzz σxz nx + σzy ny = 0 σzz = p
+ + =0
∂x ∂y ∂z

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Tension/Compression
The Virtual Bending
Work Principle
Torsion Theory
Shear of Beams Theory of

The Axial Problem III

The solution
The heuristic solution
σxx = σyy = σxy = σxz + σyz = 0, σzz = p
fulfills the boundary conditions and the Eq. 33, and is unique. Moreover, according
to the Lamé equations (Eq. 30), we have
σzz σzz
εxy = εxz = εyz = 0, εxx = εyy = −ν , εzz =
E E

Fact (De Saint-Venant Principle)

“The difference between the effects of two different but statically equivalent loads
becomesZvery small at sufficiently large distances from load” [1], i.e. the solution is
valid if p dA = N = p A @ z > D.
A
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 Introduction Deformation Analysis Stress Analysis Constitutive Relationships
Tension/Compression
The Virtual Bending
Work Principle
Torsion Theory
Shear of Beams Theory of

Outline

1 Introduction 9 Finite Element Method

2 Deformation Analysis Introduction
3 Stress Analysis Element Stiffness Matrix
4 Constitutive Relationships Global Stiffness Matrix
5 The Virtual Work Principle
6 Theory of Beams
Tension/Compression
Bending
Torsion
Shear
7 Theory of Beam Assemblies
8 Theory of Plates
Flat Tick Rectangular Plates
Flat Thin Rectangular Plates
Flat Circular Plates
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 Introduction Deformation Analysis Stress Analysis Constitutive Relationships
Tension/Compression
The Virtual Bending
Work Principle
Torsion Theory
Shear of Beams Theory of

The Bending Problem I

The Data

The data

Figure 3

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Tension/Compression
The Virtual Bending
Work Principle
Torsion Theory
Shear of Beams Theory of

The Bending Problem II

The Data

The data
If Fx = Fy =Z0 and Fz = b0 y, withZ b0 = const (Fig. 3), the bending moment Mx
Mx
is defined as Fz y dA = b0 Jx , as y 2 dA = Jx , so that b0 = . Besides the
A A Jx
constitutive and congruence equations, we have the equations Eq. 36 in V with the
boundary conditions of Eq. 37 in S1 (the lateral surfaces) and Eq. 38 in S2 (the
bases), where ~n = [nx ; ny ; 0] and ~n = [0; 0; 1], respectively.

∂σxx ∂σxy ∂σxz

+ + =0
∂x ∂y ∂z σzx = Fx = 0
σxx nx +σxy ny = 0
∂σyx ∂σyy ∂σyz σzy = Fy = 0
+ + =0 (36) σxy nx +σyy ny = 0 (37) (38)
∂x ∂y ∂z Mx
∂σzx ∂σzy ∂σzz σxz nx +σzy ny = 0 σzz = Fz = y
+ + =0 Jx
∂x ∂y ∂z

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Tension/Compression
The Virtual Bending
Work Principle
Torsion Theory
Shear of Beams Theory of

The Bending Problem III

The Data

The solution
Mx
The heuristic solution σxx = σyy = σxy = σxz + σyz = 0, σzz = y fulfills the
Jx
boundary conditions and the Eq. 36, and is unique.
Fact (Consequences)
1. The result is valid for ∀F
2. If y = 0 σzz = 0
3. σzz is maximum if y is maximum
4. Given a material, |σzz |max decreases with Jx

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Tension/Compression
The Virtual Bending
Work Principle
Torsion Theory
Shear of Beams Theory of

Outline

1 Introduction 9 Finite Element Method

2 Deformation Analysis Introduction
3 Stress Analysis Element Stiffness Matrix
4 Constitutive Relationships Global Stiffness Matrix
5 The Virtual Work Principle
6 Theory of Beams
Tension/Compression
Bending
Torsion
Shear
7 Theory of Beam Assemblies
8 Theory of Plates
Flat Tick Rectangular Plates
Flat Thin Rectangular Plates
Flat Circular Plates
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Tension/Compression
The Virtual Bending
Work Principle
Torsion Theory
Shear of Beams Theory of

The Torsion Problem I

In order to solve the most general case, we define

u = −αyz
v = αxz (39)
w = α ϕ(x, y)

where the constant α and the function ϕ(x, y) are unknowns. Substituting Eq. 39
in Eq. 11 gives
α ∂ϕ α ∂ϕ
   
εxx = εyy = εzz = εxy = 0; εxz = −y + ; εyz = x+ (40)
2 ∂x 2 ∂y
Substituting Eq. 40 in Eq. 29 (the constitutive equations) gives
∂ϕ ∂ϕ
   
σxx = σyy = σzz = σxy = 0; σxz = µα −y + ; σyz = µα x + (41)
∂x ∂y
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Tension/Compression
The Virtual Bending
Work Principle
Torsion Theory
Shear of Beams Theory of

The Torsion Problem II

Substituting Eq. 41 in Eq. 17 gives
 2
∂ ϕ ∂2ϕ

µα + =0 ∇2 ϕ = 0 (42)
∂x2 ∂y 2
i.e. ϕ is harmonic in A (the cross section). Substituting Eq. 40 in the third boundary
condition (Eq. 37) on C (the boundary of A) gives
 
∂ϕ ∂ϕ
µα −ynx + nx + xny + ny = 0 (43)
∂x ∂y
As a consequence, ϕ solves the Neumann problem6 (if A has a single contour C ∃ a
solution ϕ, except for a constant):

 ∆ϕ = 0 on A
∂ϕ ∂ϕ (44)
nx + ny = ynx + xny on C
∂x ∂y


6
∆ in Eq. 44 denotes the Laplace operator, or Laplacian, ∆ = ∇2 .
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Tension/Compression
The Virtual Bending
Work Principle
Torsion Theory
Shear of Beams Theory of

The Torsion Problem III

Fact (Unspecific cross section)
Z
Mz q
While α in Eq. 42 can be computed as α = , where Jp = (x2 + y 2 ) dA,
Z µJ p A
J
q= R ∂ϕ p ∂ϕ
, and Mz = (σyz x + σxz y) dA, the warping function ϕ(x, y) 6= 0
Jp + A ∂y x − ∂x y dA A
has an analytic solution only if A is an equilateral triangle or an ellipse.

Fact (Circular cross section)

x y
If A is a circle of radius R, on C we have nx = , ny = , so that the solution of Eq. 43 is
R R
ϕ = 0, i.e. the deformed cross section is a plane.

Fact (Thin wall tube)

I to Bredt (1896), in a thin tube of thickness h and cross section Ωm , as

According
~ −
−→ Mz
Mz k = OP ×τ h ~t ds and τ ≈ const, we have τ = .
C
2hΩ m

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 Introduction Deformation Analysis Stress Analysis Constitutive Relationships
Tension/Compression
The Virtual Bending
Work Principle
Torsion Theory
Shear of Beams Theory of

Outline

1 Introduction 9 Finite Element Method

2 Deformation Analysis Introduction
3 Stress Analysis Element Stiffness Matrix
4 Constitutive Relationships Global Stiffness Matrix
5 The Virtual Work Principle
6 Theory of Beams
Tension/Compression
Bending
Torsion
Shear
7 Theory of Beam Assemblies
8 Theory of Plates
Flat Tick Rectangular Plates
Flat Thin Rectangular Plates
Flat Circular Plates
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Tension/Compression
The Virtual Bending
Work Principle
Torsion Theory
Shear of Beams Theory of

The Shear Problem I

The problem statement
The shear is to be associated with a moment, in order to satisfy the rotational
equilibrium. This implies that, ∀ section, if ∃ Ty Mz = −Ty (l − z)

The two solutions

Rigorous We set ( DSV Principle) σxx = σyy = σxy = 0, and we find

σyz , σxz , σzz , via the equilibrium, congruence, and constitutive
equations, as well the boundary conditions complicated solutions.
Approximate According to Grashof (~1880), as D  l and Ty and Mz must
coexist the possible, unknown σxz and σyz are to be associated with
Ty (l − z)y
σzz = − , being σzz the greatest contribution to the stress
Jx
state.
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Tension/Compression
The Virtual Bending
Work Principle
Torsion Theory
Shear of Beams Theory of

The Shear Problem II

Figure 4

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Tension/Compression
The Virtual Bending
Work Principle
Torsion Theory
Shear of Beams Theory of

The Shear Problem III

Figure 5

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Tension/Compression
The Virtual Bending
Work Principle
Torsion Theory
Shear of Beams Theory of

The Shear Problem IV

The approximate solution
We find a solution with the equilibrium equations — avoiding to verify the congruence — on a cross
∂σij
section symmetric wrt the y axis, i.e. = 0 (Fig. 4). The z equilibrium equation of the portion
Z  ∂x
Z Z
∂σzz ∂σzz

in Fig. 5 is σzz + dz dA − σzz dA − σzy br dz = 0 so that dA = σzy br . As
A0
∂z A0 A0
∂z
Ty (l − z)y ∂σzz Ty y
σzz = − , we have = , which, substituted in the previous expression of σzy and
JxZ ∂z Jx
defining mr = ydA, gives
A0
Ty mr
σzy = (45)
J x br

Example (rectangular cross section b×h)

 
h2
Ty 21 − y2
4 3 Ty
Eq. 45 gives σzy = 12 σzymax = @ y = 0.
h3 b 2 hb

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Tension/Compression
The Virtual Bending
Work Principle
Torsion Theory
Shear of Beams Theory of

The Shear Problem V

The shear effects
Let’s compute the y displacement of point B Z in Fig. 4 caused by Z the shear. Enforcing the VW
1 2
principle (Eq. 32), we have We = Ty vTB = 2 σzy εzy dV = σzy dV , from which, defining
Z  2 V
µ V
A mr
χ= 2 dA, vTB is defined in Eq. 467 . Besides, the bending, again because of Eq. 32,
Jx A br Z Z
1 2 vTB
gives We = Ty vMB = 2 σzz εzz dV = σzz dV , so that vMB is defined in Eq. 47 and β =
V
E V vMB
in Eq. 48.
Ty l Ty l3 vTB 6χ(1 + ν)J
vTB = χ (46) vMB = (47) = (48)
µA 3EJx vMB Al2
Fact
J
The bending deformation is  than the shear one in a slender beam, i.e. when s  1 (Eq. 48).
Al2
7
See Appendix 11 for some considerations about χ in Eq. 46.

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Outline

1 Introduction 9 Finite Element Method

2 Deformation Analysis Introduction
3 Stress Analysis Element Stiffness Matrix
4 Constitutive Relationships Global Stiffness Matrix
5 The Virtual Work Principle
6 Theory of Beams
Tension/Compression
Bending
Torsion
Shear
7 Theory of Beam Assemblies
8 Theory of Plates
Flat Tick Rectangular Plates
Flat Thin Rectangular Plates
Flat Circular Plates
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 Introduction Deformation Analysis Stress Analysis Constitutive Relationships The Virtual Work Principle Theory of Beams Theory of

Definitions
Assumptions and Restrictions

Definition (Beam assembly)

A beam assembly is a combination of beams mutually connected. When all of them
∈ x = const, according to the de Saint-Venant’s assumption (σzz , σzx , σzy 6= 0 and
σxx = σyy = σxy = 0) the stress state is a function of N, Mx , My , Tx , Ty , and Mz .

Getting rid of limitations

theory real world approximation

prismatic beam tapered ∪ slender beams
geometrical
straight axis arc Rl
loads on ends lumped forces
mechanical volume forces
no mass forces distributed weight
homogeneity polymers
constitutive mean moduli
isotropy reinforced concrete
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 Introduction Deformation Analysis Stress Analysis Constitutive Relationships The Virtual Work Principle Theory of Beams Theory of

The ODE Re-definition

In the (very common) case of plane assemblies we deal only with deformations in
the yz plane (so that u = 0, v 6= 0, w 6= 0), and the loads (per unit length) are q k z
and p k y. With these assumptions, the stress/deformations state is obtained from
M (z), N (z), and T (z), so that we are dealing with ODE’s.

The ODE’s of the beam assembly

Given p(z) and q(z), as well the boundary conditions, we redefine the ODE’s in
terms of the unknowns M (z), N (z), T (z), v(z), and w(z). To that, we have to find
a suitable form of the following equations:
congruence
equilibrium
constitutive

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The Congruence Equations

As v is affected by the sum of the shear and moment effects, we define
dv
dv = (ϕ + ϕm )dz, where ϕm = arctan is the angle between the tangents to the
dz
mean line in the undeformed and deformed states and ϕ is the rotation angle
of the cross section due the shear. Because of we assume small deformations
dv
and displacements, we define the total rotation as γ = + ϕ. As ds = Rdψ,
dz 
dv 1

where R is the radius of curvature, where dψ = d arctan = v 00 dz and
dz 1 + v 02
 1
1
ds = dv 2 + dz 2 = dz 1 + v 0 2 , again under the previous assumptions, we define
2

1 dψ
the curvature8 κ = = as −v 00 . Consequently, the deformation is identified by
R ds
means of Eq. 49.
dw d2 v dv
ε= κ=− γ= +ϕ (49)
dz dz 2 dz
8
See Appendix 13 for some additional considerations about κ.
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The Equilibrium Equations

The equilibrium equations of the portion of beam of length l from 1 to 2 for 0 ≤ z ≤ l (z = 0 @ 1
and z = l @ 2) are
Z 2 Z 2 Z 2
k z − N1+N2+ q dz = 0 k y − T1+T2+ p dz = 0 x − M1−T1 l+M2+ p(l − z) dz = 0 (50)
1 1 1

If M (z), N (z), and T (z) are continuous functions and their first derivatives are also continu-
Z 2 Z 2
dN dT
ous (i.e. there’s no concentrated load), we have N2 − N1 = dz, T2 − T1 = dz, and
1
dz 1
dz
Z 2
dM
M2 − M1 = dz, which, substituted in Eq. 50, give, as the integration limits are arbitrary:
1
dz

dN dT dM
+q =0 (51a) +p=0 (51b) −T =0 (51c)
dz dz dz

Eq. 51a and Eq. 51b are the translation equilibrium equations along z and y, respectively, and
Eq. 51c9 is the rotational equilibrium equation around x.
9
R2
Eq. 51c is obtained integrating by parts p(l − z) dz, substituting pdz = −dT , according to
R1 2 R1 R2
Eq. 51b, and g = l − z dg = −dz, so that 1
p(l − z) dz = −T1 l − 2
T (−dz) = −T1 l − 1
T dz.
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 Introduction Deformation Analysis Stress Analysis Constitutive Relationships The Virtual Work Principle Theory of Beams Theory of

The Constitutive Equations I

Recalling the Lamé
! equations (Eq. 31), the internal work can be expressed as
Z 2
σzz 1 2 N M T mr
+ σzy dV where σzz = + y (Eqs. 35 and 38), σzy = (Eq. 45).
V E µ A J Jbr
Thus, it is:
"Z ! #
N 2 2N M M 2y2 T 2 m2r
Z 2
1
Wi = dz + y + + dA (52)
1 A E A2 AJ J2 µJ 2 b2r

Choosing the origin

Z of the xy plane coincident with the neutral axis of the cross
section, so that y dA = 0, Eq. 52, recalling the definition of χ, can be written as
A

Z2 " #
N2 M2 T2
Wi = + +χ dz (53)
EA EJ µA
1

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 Introduction Deformation Analysis Stress Analysis Constitutive Relationships The Virtual Work Principle Theory of Beams Theory of

The Constitutive Equations II

As we have assumed the continuity, the internal energy can be expressed also as
Z 2 Z 2
Wi = M dϕ + T dv + N dz = (M κ + T γ + N dε) dz (54)
1 1

Equalling the expressions of Wi in Eqs. 53 and 54, as the integration limits are
N2 M2 T2
arbitrary, we obtain + +χ = N ε + M κ + T γ, so that we can define the
EA EJ µA
axial, bending, and shear stiffnesses, respectively, as in Eq. 55.
N M T
ε= κ= γ=χ (55)
EA EJ µA

Fact
The constitutive equations of the beam assembly are unconcatenated.

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 Introduction Deformation Analysis Stress Analysis Constitutive Relationships The Virtual Work Principle Theory of Beams Theory of

The Differential Equations of Beams

Thus, Eq. 57 is replaced by Eq. 58:
Combining Eqs. 49, 55, and 51 allows to define the follow-
d2
ing three ODE’s [3] in w, v, and ϕ, each one with its (EJv 00 ) = −T 0 = p (58)
suitable boundary conditions: dz 2
 
d dw
EA +q = 0 (56)
dz dz
    
d µA dv d dϕ
+ϕ +p = 0 EJ =T (57)
dz χ dz dz dz
Although the two statements in Eq. 57 are combined, Figure 6
Bernoulli proposed their decoupling supposing γ = 0 in
Eq. 49, i.e. neglecting the rotation due to the shear, as Fact
dv
shown in Fig. 6, so that ϕ = − = −v 0 , ϕ0 = v 00 . Eqs. 56 and 58 are the ODE’s of
dz
any plane system of beams.

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 Introduction Deformation Analysis Stress Analysis Constitutive Relationships The Virtual Work Principle Theory of Beams Theory of

Solving the Beam ODE: Axial

Figure 7

Example (Fig. 7)
If q = const and p = 0, as EA = const from the integration of Eq. 56 with the
0
boundary conditions w(0) = 0 and N (l) = EAw (l) = 0 we have
q z

w(z) = z l− and N (z) = q (l − z).
EA 2
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 Introduction Deformation Analysis Stress Analysis Constitutive Relationships The Virtual Work Principle Theory of Beams Theory of

Solving the Beam ODE: Bending (1)

Figure 8

Example (Fig. 8)
If p = 0 and q = 0, as EJ = const from the four times integration of Eq. 58 with
the boundary conditions!v(0) = v 0 (0) = M (l) = 0 and T (l) = P we have
P z3 z2
w(z) = − + l and M (z) = P (l − z).
EJ 3 2
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 Introduction Deformation Analysis Stress Analysis Constitutive Relationships The Virtual Work Principle Theory of Beams Theory of

Solving the Beam ODE: Bending (2)

Figure 9
Example (Fig. 9)
Considering two beams loaded at their ends, with v1 and v2 the v in a and b,
d4 v1 d4 v2
respectively, we have the eight equations EJ 4 = 0 ∪ EJ 4 = 0 and the
dz dz
eight boundary conditions v1 (0) = M1 (0) = v2 (l) = M2 (l) = 0, v1 (a) = v2 (a), v10 (a) = v20 (a),
−EJv100 (a) = M1 (a) = M2 (a) = −EJv200 (a), −T1 + P + T2 = 0. A (unique) solution ∃.
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 Introduction Deformation Analysis Stress Analysis Constitutive Relationships The Virtual Work Principle Theory of Beams Theory of

The Limitations of the Beams ODE’s

Fact
Analytically solving the beam problem by means of ODE, as in the previous ex-
amples, may become extremely complicated, unless numerical methods are adopted.
Nevertheless, the virtual work principle allows to solve a statically indeterminate
problem with few unknowns.

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 Introduction Deformation Analysis Stress Analysis Constitutive Relationships
Flat Tick Rectangular
The Virtual Plates
Work Principle
Flat ThinTheory
Rectangular
of Beams
Plates
Theory
Flat C
of

Outline

1 Introduction 9 Finite Element Method

2 Deformation Analysis Introduction
3 Stress Analysis Element Stiffness Matrix
4 Constitutive Relationships Global Stiffness Matrix
5 The Virtual Work Principle
6 Theory of Beams
Tension/Compression
Bending
Torsion
Shear
7 Theory of Beam Assemblies
8 Theory of Plates
Flat Tick Rectangular Plates
Flat Thin Rectangular Plates
Flat Circular Plates
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 Introduction Deformation Analysis Stress Analysis Constitutive Relationships
Flat Tick Rectangular
The Virtual Plates
Work Principle
Flat ThinTheory
Rectangular
of Beams
Plates
Theory
Flat C
of

Assumption and Restrictions

From continuum mechanics

small displacements and small deformations
homogeneous, isotropic, Green’s material, i.e. there exists a potential function by
which stresses and strains can be represented
the material is a Cauchy continuum, i.e. the stress tensor is symmetric
From thin shell theory [4]
two geometrical dimensions are prevalent with respect to the third one, i.e. the
plate is thin
stress ⊥ to middle plane is 0, i.e. stress diffusivity isn’t considered
only forces acting perpendicularly to the middle plane are considered
a generic straight segment, initially ⊥ to the middle plane, after the deformation
it is still straight — not necessarily, after the deformation, it is still
perpendicular to the deformed middle plane
the displacement ⊥ to the middle plane depends only on in-plane coordinates

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 Introduction Deformation Analysis Stress Analysis Constitutive Relationships
Flat Tick Rectangular
The Virtual Plates
Work Principle
Flat ThinTheory
Rectangular
of Beams
Plates
Theory
Flat C
of

Outline

1 Introduction 9 Finite Element Method

2 Deformation Analysis Introduction
3 Stress Analysis Element Stiffness Matrix
4 Constitutive Relationships Global Stiffness Matrix
5 The Virtual Work Principle
6 Theory of Beams
Tension/Compression
Bending
Torsion
Shear
7 Theory of Beam Assemblies
8 Theory of Plates
Flat Tick Rectangular Plates
Flat Thin Rectangular Plates
Flat Circular Plates
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 Introduction Deformation Analysis Stress Analysis Constitutive Relationships
Flat Tick Rectangular
The Virtual Plates
Work Principle
Flat ThinTheory
Rectangular
of Beams
Plates
Theory
Flat C
of

The General Scheme

Figure 10 Credits: [5]

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 Introduction Deformation Analysis Stress Analysis Constitutive Relationships
Flat Tick Rectangular
The Virtual Plates
Work Principle
Flat ThinTheory
Rectangular
of Beams
Plates
Theory
Flat C
of

Displacement Definitions

Naming s(x, y, z) = [u; v; w] the local displacement where u = −zϕx (x, y),
v = −zϕy (x, y), and w(x, y) are the displacements in the x, y, and z directions,
and ϕx (x, y) and ϕy (x, y) are are the rotations around the y axis occurring in the
xz plane and the x axis occurring in the yz plane, respectively, (we name ϕx (x, y),
ϕy (x, y), and w(x, y) the generalized displacements, as in Eq. 59), we have s = nU ,
where n is definedin Eq. 60.   
ϕx (x, y) −z 0 0
U = ϕy (x, y) (59) n =  0 −z 0 (60)
   
w(x, y) 0 0 1

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Flat Tick Rectangular
The Virtual Plates
Work Principle
Flat ThinTheory
Rectangular
of Beams
Plates
Theory
Flat C
of

Strain Definitions I
The strain components are
∂u
 
∂ϕx
 
∂x −z
∂x
   
   
  
   ∂v ∂ϕy


  
∂y −z 
∂y
    
εxx 

 
 


 εyy  
  
 
  ∂w 0


∂z
ε     
ε =  zz  = 

= (61)
     
γxy   ∂u ∂v  −z ∂ϕx − z ∂ϕy 

  
γxz   ∂y +   ∂y ∂x 
 ∂x 
  
γyz
 

 ∂u ∂w
  ∂w 
−ϕx +

 ∂z + ∂x  
   
 
  ∂x 



 ∂w
 
∂v  ∂w 
+ −ϕy +
∂y ∂z ∂y
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Flat Tick Rectangular
The Virtual Plates
Work Principle
Flat ThinTheory
Rectangular
of Beams
Plates
Theory
Flat C
of

Strain Definitions II
Naming χi the generalized curvatures and ti the shear angular deformations (Eq. 62), and
defining b as in Eq. 63, Eq. 61 can be rewritten as ε = b q, where q is the vector of the
generalized strains.
 ∂ϕx 
−z
 ∂x
 
 ∂ϕy

 −z     

 ∂y

 χx z 0 0 0 0 0
  χy  0 z 0 0 0 0
  
 0   
  0  0 0 0 0 0 0
  
q =  ∂ϕ =  (62) b= (63)
 
−z x − z ∂ϕy  χxy 

0
 0 0 z 0 0

∂y ∂x   tx  0 0 0 0 1 0
 

ty 0 0 0 0 0 1
 
 ∂w 
 −ϕx + 

 ∂x  
 ∂w 
−ϕy +
∂y
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Flat Tick Rectangular
The Virtual Plates
Work Principle
Flat ThinTheory
Rectangular
of Beams
Plates
Theory
Flat C
of

Load Definitions I
Naming F = [Fx ; Fy ; Fz ] the external force per unit area, the external specific work per unit area is
defined by Eq. 64, where P is the generalized load (per unit area) and δŝi is the virtual
displacement field.
Zh/2 X Zh/2
dWe T
= Fi δŝi dz = P δ Û = δŝT F dz (64)
dA
i
−h/2 −h/2

T
As s = nU , so that δŝT = δ Û nT , from Eq. 64 we have

Zh/2
dWe T T
= δ Û nT F dz = P T δ Û = δ Û P (65)
dA
−h/2

Thus, from Eq. 65 we have

Zh/2
P = nT F dz (66)
−h/2

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Flat Tick Rectangular
The Virtual Plates
Work Principle
Flat ThinTheory
Rectangular
of Beams
Plates
Theory
Flat C
of

Load Definitions II
Substituting the Eq. 60 into Eq. 66 and recalling the definition of F , we get
   
h/2 −zF mx (x, y)
Z x
P = −zFy  dz = my (x, y) (67)
   

−h/2 Fz p(x, y)

Fact
p(x, y) is a force per unit area, and mx (x, y) and my (x, y) are moments per unit
area.

Fact
There isn’t any explicit information about the points where the generalized loads are
acting — we know only that they are applied onto the middle plane, as shown in
Fig. 10.

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Flat Tick Rectangular
The Virtual Plates
Work Principle
Flat ThinTheory
Rectangular
of Beams
Plates
Theory
Flat C
of

Stress Definitions I

Naming δε̂ the virtual local strains and σ the local stresses, the internal specific
work per unit area, according to the VW principle, is, recalling that σ = Dε and
ε = b q,
h/2 h/2
dWi
Z Z
T
= δε̂σ dz = δq bσ dz = δq T Q (68)
dA
−h/2 −h/2
Z h/2
where Q is the generalized stress vector. As a consequence, Q = bσ dz.
−h/2

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Flat Tick Rectangular
The Virtual Plates
Work Principle
Flat ThinTheory
Rectangular
of Beams
Plates
Theory
Flat C
of

Stress Definitions II
Performing the computation, we obtain:
      
z 0 0 0 0 0 σxx zσxx Mx
Z h/2 0 z 0 0 0 0 σyy  Z h/2 zσyy 
      My 
 
0 0 0 0 0 0  σzz   0 
 dz =  0 
 
Q=  
0 0 0 z 0 0  τxy 
 dz = 
 zτxy  Mxy  (69)
−h/2    −h/2    
0 0 0 0 1 0  τxz   τxz   Vx 
0 0 0 0 0 1 τyz τyz Vy

Fact
The generalized moments Mx , My , and Mxy are moments per unit length, while the
generalized shears Vx and Vy are forces per unit length.

Fact
Both the local and the generalized stresses, along with their directions, are shown in
Fig. 11.
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Flat Tick Rectangular
The Virtual Plates
Work Principle
Flat ThinTheory
Rectangular
of Beams
Plates
Theory
Flat C
of

Stress Definitions III

Figure 11 Credits: [5]

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The Virtual Plates
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Flat ThinTheory
Rectangular
of Beams
Plates
Theory
Flat C
of

The Plate Equations I

The equation of the rotational equilibrium wrt x of the dx × dy plate of Fig. 11 is

0 0 0 dy
Vy dxdy = My dx + My dx + Mxy dy + p(x, y)dxdy + my dxdy = 0 (70)
2

0 ∂G
Dropping out the terms of higher order and because of G = G + dα, we obtain
∂α
∂My ∂Mxy
Vy = + − my (71)
∂y ∂x

Similarly, the rotational equilibrium wrt the y axis gives

∂Mx ∂Mxy
Vx = + − mx (72)
∂x ∂y

and the translational equilibrium wrt the z axis gives

∂Vx ∂Vy
+ + p(x, y) = 0 (73)
∂x ∂y

Finally, substituting Eq. 71 and Eq. 72 into Eq. 73 we obtain

∂ 2 Mx ∂ 2 Mxy ∂ 2 My ∂mx ∂my

+2 + + p(x(, y) + + =0 (74)
∂x2 ∂x∂y ∂y 2 ∂x ∂y

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The Virtual Plates
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Flat ThinTheory
Rectangular
of Beams
Plates
Theory
Flat C
of

The Plate Equations II

Recalling the local constitutive relationship10 , redefined as σ = Dε, where
1 ν ν 0 0 0
 
ν 1 ν 0 0 0

 
ν ν 1 0 0 0

 
E 
0 1−ν 
D= 0 0 0 0  (75)
1 − ν2 2
 
1−ν
 
 
0 0 0 0 0 
 2 
 1−ν
0 0 0 0 0
2
and the strain definition of Eq. 61, we can write the specific energy per unit area as
Z h/2 Z h/2
dΩ 1 1 1
= εT σ dz = q T bT Dbq dz = q T D ? q (76)
dA 2 −h/2 2 −h/2 2
10
Cf. Eq. 29
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Flat Tick Rectangular
The Virtual Plates
Work Principle
Flat ThinTheory
Rectangular
of Beams
Plates
Theory
Flat C
of

The Plate Equations III

Z h/2 Z h/2
2 h3
Recalling Eq. 63, as z dz = and 1 dz = h, the generalized stiffness matrix
12
−h/2 −h/2
Z h/2
1
D ?= bT Db dz in Eq. 76 can be defined as:
2
−h/2

h3
 
ν 0 0 0 0
 12 
 h3 
 ν 0 0 0 0 
 12 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 
E
D? =
  (77)
1 − ν2
 1−ν 
 0 0 0 h 0 0 
 2 
 1−ν 
 0 0 0 0 h 0 
 2 
1−ν
0 0 0 0 0 h
2

The generalized stiffness matrix D ? in Eq. 77 relates the generalized stresses Q (Eq. 69) to the generalized
strains q (Eq. 62) as in Eq. 78
Q = D? q (78)

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The Virtual Plates
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Flat ThinTheory
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Plates
Theory
Flat C
of

The Plate Equations IV

Expanding the Eq. 78 gives rise to the following relationships

Mx = D(χx + νχy )
My = D(χy + νχx )
h3
Mxy = Gχxy (79)
12
Vx = Ghtx
Vy = Ghty

Eh3 E
where D = 2
is the plate flexural rigidity and G = is the plate shear
1−ν 1+ν
modulus.

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 Introduction Deformation Analysis Stress Analysis Constitutive Relationships
Flat Tick Rectangular
The Virtual Plates
Work Principle
Flat ThinTheory
Rectangular
of Beams
Plates
Theory
Flat C
of

Outline

1 Introduction 9 Finite Element Method

2 Deformation Analysis Introduction
3 Stress Analysis Element Stiffness Matrix
4 Constitutive Relationships Global Stiffness Matrix
5 The Virtual Work Principle
6 Theory of Beams
Tension/Compression
Bending
Torsion
Shear
7 Theory of Beam Assemblies
8 Theory of Plates
Flat Tick Rectangular Plates
Flat Thin Rectangular Plates
Flat Circular Plates
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 Introduction Deformation Analysis Stress Analysis Constitutive Relationships
Flat Tick Rectangular
The Virtual Plates
Work Principle
Flat ThinTheory
Rectangular
of Beams
Plates
Theory
Flat C
of

The Simplified Equations of a a × b × h Plate

Fact
Kirchhoff’s (~1880) hypothesis: Under the Kirchhoff’s hypothesis the rotation of the generic
straight segment is exactly equal to the one of the middle plane,
h < min(a, b)/5 i.e. there are no angular deformations. Therefore the plate
wmax < h/5 model can be reformulated in this simplified case, obtaining, from
∂w ∂w Eq. 74, the more undemanding form in Eq. 80.
γxz = γyz = 0 ϕx = , ϕy =
∂x ∂y
∂4w ∂4w ∂4w −p(x, y)
4
+ 2 2
+ 4
= ∇4 w(x, y) = (80)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y D
Example
If the dimensions of the rectangular plate are a and b, the plate is simply supported at
y = 0 and y = b, and p = p0 = const, the (Navier) solution of Eq. 80 is
∞ ∞
16p0 X X 1 mπx nπy
w(x, y) = 6 2 2 sin sin
π D m=1,3,5,... n=1,3,5,... m n a b
mn( 2 + 2 )
a b
98/136
 Introduction Deformation Analysis Stress Analysis Constitutive Relationships
Flat Tick Rectangular
The Virtual Plates
Work Principle
Flat ThinTheory
Rectangular
of Beams
Plates
Theory
Flat C
of

Outline

1 Introduction 9 Finite Element Method

2 Deformation Analysis Introduction
3 Stress Analysis Element Stiffness Matrix
4 Constitutive Relationships Global Stiffness Matrix
5 The Virtual Work Principle
6 Theory of Beams
Tension/Compression
Bending
Torsion
Shear
7 Theory of Beam Assemblies
8 Theory of Plates
Flat Tick Rectangular Plates
Flat Thin Rectangular Plates
Flat Circular Plates
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 Introduction Deformation Analysis Stress Analysis Constitutive Relationships
Flat Tick Rectangular
The Virtual Plates
Work Principle
Flat ThinTheory
Rectangular
of Beams
Plates
Theory
Flat C
of

The Simplified Equations of a Circular Plate I

Figure 12

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The Virtual Plates
Work Principle
Flat ThinTheory
Rectangular
of Beams
Plates
Theory
Flat C
of

The Simplified Equations of a Circular Plate II

When dealing with an axially symmetric geometry (Fig. 12), substituting x = r cos θ and
∂
y = r sin θ into the previous equations, as = 0, leads to
∂θ
  
∂2 1 ∂ ∂2w 1 ∂w −p(r, θ)
∇4r w(r, θ) ≡ + + = (81)
∂r2 r ∂r ∂r2 r ∂r D

If also the load axially symmetric, Eq. 81 can be rewritten as

1 d d 1 d dw −p(r)
n h  io
∇4r w(r) ≡ r r = (82)
r dr dr r dr dr D

Example
p0 r 4
If p(r) = p0 = const the solution of Eq. 82 is w(r) = C1 log r + C2 r2 log r + C3 r2 + C4 +
64D
where the constants of integration C1 , C2 , C3 , and C4 are found using the boundary conditions at
dw
r = a and the conditions that w, , Mr and Qr must be finite at r = 0.
dr

101/136
 Introduction Deformation Analysis Stress Analysis Constitutive Relationships
Introduction
TheElement
Virtual Stiffness
Work Principle
Matrix Theory
Global Stiffness
of BeamsMatrix
Theory of

Outline

1 Introduction 9 Finite Element Method

2 Deformation Analysis Introduction
3 Stress Analysis Element Stiffness Matrix
4 Constitutive Relationships Global Stiffness Matrix
5 The Virtual Work Principle
6 Theory of Beams
Tension/Compression
Bending
Torsion
Shear
7 Theory of Beam Assemblies
8 Theory of Plates
Flat Tick Rectangular Plates
Flat Thin Rectangular Plates
Flat Circular Plates
102/136
 Introduction Deformation Analysis Stress Analysis Constitutive Relationships
Introduction
TheElement
Virtual Stiffness
Work Principle
Matrix Theory
Global Stiffness
of BeamsMatrix
Theory of

Outline

1 Introduction 9 Finite Element Method

2 Deformation Analysis Introduction
3 Stress Analysis Element Stiffness Matrix
4 Constitutive Relationships Global Stiffness Matrix
5 The Virtual Work Principle
6 Theory of Beams
Tension/Compression
Bending
Torsion
Shear
7 Theory of Beam Assemblies
8 Theory of Plates
Flat Tick Rectangular Plates
Flat Thin Rectangular Plates
Flat Circular Plates
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Introduction
TheElement
Virtual Stiffness
Work Principle
Matrix Theory
Global Stiffness
of BeamsMatrix
Theory of

Definition
FEM
The Finite Element Method is a numerical technique to find approximate solutions
of PDE. Originated from the need of solving complex elasticity and structural
analysis problems in engineering, FEM:

helps in producing stiffness and strength visualizations

helps to minimize material weight and its cost of the structures
allows for detailed visualization and indicates the distribution of stresses and strains
inside the body of a structure
as a powerful yet complex tool requires training and education to properly interpret
the results
allows entire designs to be constructed, refined and optimized before the design is
manufactured
decreases the time to take products from concept to the construction
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Introduction
TheElement
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Work Principle
Matrix Theory
Global Stiffness
of BeamsMatrix
Theory of

The Numerical Methods

Approximate Solutions instead of Analytical Solutions

Finite Difference Method

Finite Volume Method
Finite Element Method
Boundary Element Method
Meshless Method
Each method has advantages and limitations . . .
. . . however, it is possible to solve various problems by finite element method, even
with highly complex geometry and loading conditions, with the restriction that there
is always some numerical errors. Therefore, effective and reliable use of this method
requires a solid understanding of its limitations.

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Theory of

The General Description I

Figure 13

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Theory of

The General Description II

Any continuum/domain is divided into small pieces, called Finite Elements (Fig. 13).

the original domain is considered as an assemblage of number of such small elements,

connected through joints called nodes
the elements are attached to the adjacent elements only at the nodal points
each node has (not more than) 6 degrees-of-freedom (dof), namely u, v, w and θx , θy , θz
each element has a simple spatial variation (field quantity), described by polynomial terms
each element contains the material and geometrical properties — the material properties
inside an element are assumed to be constant
the physical object is modeled by choosing appropriate elements (beam, plate, solid)
all elements are then assembled to obtain the solution of the entire domain/structure under
certain loading conditions
nodes are assigned at a certain density throughout the continuum depending on the
estimated stress levels of a particular domain, i.e. regions which will receive large amounts of
stress variation usually have a higher node density than those which experience little or no
stress
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Theory of

The Background

The Finite Element Model (FEM) is a computer model of a continuum, with

infinite particles and continuous variation of material properties, that is
stressed and analyzed for specific results
Therefore, it is to be simplified as an assemblage of substructures, components
and members
A discretization process is necessary to convert whole structure to an
assemblage of members/elements (mesh), in order to determine its responses
On the basis of assumptions, the appropriate constitutive model can be
constructed.
For the linear-elastic-static analysis of structures, the final form of equation
will be made in the form of F = Kd where F , K and d are the nodal loads,
global stiffness and nodal displacements respectively

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The Method
Classical Actual structure
∂σx ∂σy ∂σz
+ + +f =0
∂x ∂y ∂z
(PDE)

↓
Assumptions Equilibrium, congruence, constitutive
Z Z Z
T T
δε σ dV = δd f dV + δdT F dS
V V S
(Principle of virtual works)

↓
FEM Structural model
F = Kd
(Algebraic equations)
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Work Principle
Matrix Theory
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of BeamsMatrix
Theory of

Basic Steps in FEA

1 Discretization of the continuum The continuum is divided into a

number of elements by imaginary lines or surfaces. The interconnected
elements may have different sizes and shapes.
2 Identification of variables The elements are assumed to be connected
at their intersecting points, the nodes. At each node, unknown
displacements are to be prescribed.
3 Choice of approximating functions Displacement function is the starting point
of the mathematical analysis. This represents the variation of the
displacement within the element. The displacement function may be
approximated in the form a linear function or a higher-order function. A
convenient way to express it is by polynomial expressions. The shape or
geometry of the element may also be approximated.

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Theory of

Basic Steps in FEA

4 Formation of the element stiffness matrix After continuum is discretized with
desired element shapes, the individual element stiffness matrix is
formulated. Basically it is a minimization procedure whatever may be the
approach adopted. For certain elements, the form involves a great deal of
sophistication. The geometry of the element is defined in reference to the
global frame. Coordinate transformation must be done for elements where it is
necessary.
5 Formation of overall stiffness matrix After the element stiffness matrices in
global coordinates are formed, they are assembled to form the overall
stiffness matrix. The assembly is done through the nodes which are
common to adjacent elements. The overall stiffness matrix is symmetric and
banded.
6 Formation of the element loading matrix The loading inside an element
is transferred at the nodes and a consistent element matrix is formed.
The loading forms an essential parameter in any structural engineering
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Work Principle
Matrix Theory
Global Stiffness
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Theory of

Basic Steps in FEA

7 Formation of the overall loading matrix Like the overall stiffness matrix, the
element loading matrices are assembled to form the overall loading
matrix. This matrix has one column per loading case.
8 Incorporation of boundary conditions The boundary restraint
conditions are to be imposed in the stiffness matrix. Various
techniques can satisfy the boundary conditions. One is the size of the stiffness
matrix may be reduced or condensed in its final form. To ease computer
programming aspect and to elegantly incorporate the boundary conditions,
the size of overall matrix is kept the same.
9 Solution of simultaneous equations The unknown nodal displacements are
calculated by the multiplication of force vector with the inverse of
stiffness matrix.
10 Calculation of stresses or stress-resultants Nodal displacements are
utilized for the calculation of the stresses for all elements of the
continuum or for some of them. The results, in terms of displacements and
110/136 stress/strain, may also be obtained by graphical means.
 Introduction Deformation Analysis Stress Analysis Constitutive Relationships
Introduction
TheElement
Virtual Stiffness
Work Principle
Matrix Theory
Global Stiffness
of BeamsMatrix
Theory of

The Shape Function

In FEA the variations of displacement u at any point inside

X the element are
expressed by its nodal displacement ui by means of u = Ni ui , where the
i
interpolation function Ni is the shape function — generally a n degree polynomial
which provides a single-valued and continuous field.
displacement must be compatible between adjacent elements
must be continuous within the elements: this can be ensured by choosing a
suitable polynomial
must be capable of rigid body displacements of the element: the constant
terms used in the polynomial ensure this condition

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Theory of

Element Classification

One dimensional
elements
2 nodes
3 nodes
Two dimensional
elements
3 node triangle
6 node triangle
4 node rectangle
8 node rectangle
Three dimensional
elements
tetrahedron
brick
hexahedron Figure 14
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Matrix Theory
Global Stiffness
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Theory of

Outline

1 Introduction 9 Finite Element Method

2 Deformation Analysis Introduction
3 Stress Analysis Element Stiffness Matrix
4 Constitutive Relationships Global Stiffness Matrix
5 The Virtual Work Principle
6 Theory of Beams
Tension/Compression
Bending
Torsion
Shear
7 Theory of Beam Assemblies
8 Theory of Plates
Flat Tick Rectangular Plates
Flat Thin Rectangular Plates
Flat Circular Plates
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Introduction
TheElement
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Work Principle
Matrix Theory
Global Stiffness
of BeamsMatrix
Theory of

The Element Stiffness Matrix

According to Eq. 32, δWe = δWi , i.e. the work done by external forces due to the virtual
displacement δd of a structure in equilibrium is equal to the work done by the internal forces for
the virtual internal displacement δε, as in Eq. 83
Z Z Z
δεT σ dV = δdT f dV + δdT F dS (83)
V V S
DefiningZε = Bd (Eq. 12) Z equation σ = Dε, we have
Z and recalling the constitutive
1 T 1 T T 1 T
Wi = ε σ dV = d B DBd dV = d d B T DB dV , and, differentiating wrt δd,
2 V 2 V 2 V
Z
δWi = d δd B T DB dV (84)
V
∂Wi
According to F = (VW principle), from Eq. 84 the element stiffness matrix is
∂d
Z
k= B T DB dV (85)
V

Fact (Properties of element stiffness matrix)

symmetric and square all diagonal elements are positive
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Introduction
TheElement
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Work Principle
Matrix Theory
Global Stiffness
of BeamsMatrix
Theory of

Outline

1 Introduction 9 Finite Element Method

2 Deformation Analysis Introduction
3 Stress Analysis Element Stiffness Matrix
4 Constitutive Relationships Global Stiffness Matrix
5 The Virtual Work Principle
6 Theory of Beams
Tension/Compression
Bending
Torsion
Shear
7 Theory of Beam Assemblies
8 Theory of Plates
Flat Tick Rectangular Plates
Flat Thin Rectangular Plates
Flat Circular Plates
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Introduction
TheElement
Virtual Stiffness
Work Principle
Matrix Theory
Global Stiffness
of BeamsMatrix
Theory of

The Global Stiffness Matrix

A structural system is an assemblage of number of elements, interconnected together to
form the whole structure. Therefore, the element stiffness of all the elements are first to be
calculated and then systematically assembled together.

Process of assembling the global stiffness matrix K via the local stiffness matrix k
(a) initialize the n × n K as zero
(b) compute individual element properties and calculate k of that element
(c) add k to K using proper locations
(d) repeat steps (b) and (c) till all k are placed globally

the stiffness at the joint (node) i out of n (the total number of dof) is obtained by
adding the stiffness of all elements meeting at joint i
the dof of the structure are numbered from 1 to n
the k of each element is placed in its proper position in the K
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TheElement
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Work Principle
Matrix Theory
Global Stiffness
of BeamsMatrix
Theory of

A Simple Case of Assembling the Global Stiffness Matrix I

The equilibrium of a linear spring
of constant k, at which ends act the the element stiffness matrix for the linear
forces f1 and f2 , can be expressed spring element is a 2 by 2 matrix
as ke u = f , that is: the element exhibits two nodal
" #" # " # displacements (dof)
k −k u1 f the two displacements are not
= 1 (86)
−k k u2 f2 independent, i.e. the body is continuous
and elastic
" #
k −k the matrix is symmetric, as a consequence
where ke = is the el-
−k k of the symmetry of the forces (equal and
ement stiffness matrix in the ele- opposite to ensure the equilibrium)
ment coordinate system (or local the matrix is singular and therefore not
system), u is the column vector of invertible, as a consequence of the
nodal displacements u1 and u2 , and incompleteness of the problem (boundary
f is the column vector of element conditions are required)
nodal forces.
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Introduction
TheElement
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Work Principle
Matrix Theory
Global Stiffness
of BeamsMatrix
Theory of

A Simple Case of Assembling the Global Stiffness Matrix II

For a system with 3 nodes and 2 springs of stiffness k1 and k2 , respectively, the
equations for each spring in matrix form are11
" # " (1) # " (1) # " # " (2) # " (2) #
k1 −k1 u1 f1 k2 −k2 u1 f2
−k1 k1 (1) = (1) −k2 k2 (2) = (2) (87)
u2 f2 u2 f3

(1) (1) (2) (2)

As u1 = U1 u2 = u1 = U2 u2 = U3 , we can expand Eq. 87 as in Eq. 88
    (1)      
k1 −k1 0 U1 f 0 0 0 0 0
    1(1)      (2) 
−k1 k1 0 U2  = f2  0 k2 −k2  U2  = f2  (88)
 
0 0 0 0 0 −k2 k2 U3 (2)
0 f3

11 (j)
The notation fi represents the force exerted on element j at node i.

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Matrix Theory
Global Stiffness
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Theory of

A Simple Case of Assembling the Global Stiffness Matrix III

Features of the system stiffness matrix

Summing member by member the terms
of Eq. 88 and defining the nodal forces as Symmetry
(1) (1) (2) (2)
f1 = F1 , f2 + f2 = F2 , and f3 = F3 As is the element stiffness matrix
the final form of Eq. 88 is
Superposition
KU = F (89) The individual element stiffness matrices
  are superposed with proper assignment
−k1
k1 0 of element nodal displacements and
where K = −k1
k1 + k2 −k2  associated stiffness coefficients to system
 
0 −k2 k2 nodal displacements
is the system (global) stiffness matrix, Singularity
U = [U1 ; U2 ; U3 ], and F = [F1 ; F2 ; F3 ] . No constraints are applied to prevent
rigid body motion of the system

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Work Principle
Matrix Theory
Global Stiffness
of BeamsMatrix
Theory of

The Solution of the Simple Case

Applying (at least) one boundary condition the solution is given by Eq. 90, provided
that the row i and the column i are eliminated from K in Eq. 89, being i the index
of the constrained displacement.

U = K −1 F (90)

For instance, if U1 = 0 i = 1 the solution of Eq. 89 is given by Eq. 91: the matrix
equations governing the unknown displacements are obtained by simply striking out
the first row and column of K, since the constrained displacement is zero (homoge-
neous12 ).
F 2 + F3 F2 F3 (k1 + k2 )
U2 = U3 = + (91)
k1 k1 k1 k2

12
If the displacement boundary condition is not equal to zero (non homogeneous) the method
cannot be applied — the matrices need to be manipulated differently (partitioning).

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Matrix Theory
Global Stiffness
of BeamsMatrix
Theory of

Assembly of the Global Equation System I

The aim of assembly is to form the global equation system KQ = F using the
element equations ki q i = f i . The total potential energy for the body is sum of the
element potential energies πi
X X1 X
Π= πi = q Ti ki q i − q Ti f i (92)
i
2
i i

where ki , q i , and f i are the stiffness matrix, the displacement vector and the load
vector of the element i, respectively. Introducing the matrices defined in Eq. 93
 
h i h i k1 0 0
Qd = q 1 q 2 . . . F d = f1 f2 . . . K d =  0 k2 0  (93)
 
0 0 ...

we have to find a matrix A such that Qd = AQ and F d = AF .

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Matrix Theory
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Theory of

Assembly of the Global Equation System II

Eq. 92 may be rewritten as
1 1
Π = QTd K d Qd − QTd F d = QT AT K d AQ − QT AT F d (94)
2 2
According to the Galerkin’s method13 , i.e. using the condition of minimum of the
∂Π
total potential energy = 0, the global equation system is
∂Q

AT K d AQ − AT F d = 0 (95)

Eq. 95 shows that the algorithms of assembly the global stiffness matrix and the
global load vector are
K = AT K d A F = AT F d (96)
13
In elasticity problems, Galerkin’s method turns out to be the principle of virtual work.

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TheElement
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Work Principle
Matrix Theory
Global Stiffness
of BeamsMatrix
Theory of

Assembly of the Global Equation System III

Example
Write the matrix A which
relates local (element) and
global (domain) node num-
bers for the finite element
mesh in Fig. 15. In order to
make the matrix representa-
tion compact, we assume that
each node has one dof — in
3D solid mechanics problems
each node has three dof. Figure 15

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Work Principle
Matrix Theory
Global Stiffness
of BeamsMatrix
Theory of

Assembly of the Global Equation System IV

   
Q1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 Q  0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
  2  
A relates element and global
 
 Q5  0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 Q1
    
nodal values in the following   
 Q4  0
 
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 Q2 
way: Qd = AQ, where Q is a   
 Q1  0

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 Q3 
  
global vector of nodal values   
 Q   0  
  2   0 1 0 0 0 0 0
 Q4 
and Qd is the vector contain-   =    (97)
 Q5   0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 Q5 
ing the element vectors. The   
 Q4  0
 
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 Q6 
  
explicit rewriting of the above   
 Q  0 0 0 0 1 0 0  Q7 
0
 
5 
relation looks as in Eq. 97.  
 Q6   0 0 0 0 0 1 0  Q8
0
  
 Q7   0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
   

Q8 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

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Work Principle
Matrix Theory
Global Stiffness
of BeamsMatrix
Theory of

Assembly of the Global Equation System V

Fact
A in Eq. 96 is the matrix pro-
viding transformation from
global to local enumeration.
Because of the fraction of
entries 6= 0 in A is very
small, A is never used explic-
itly in actual computer codes.
Suitable algorithms are im-
plemented to sort the enu-
meration in order to mini-
mize the band in Fig. 16.

Figure 16 Credits: [6]

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Matrix Theory
Global Stiffness
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Theory of

The Final Remarks

The real FE basic computation

As the real models are usually extremely large,
as in Fig. 17, the direct method of solving Eq. 90
isn’t applicable. Instead, numerical recursive pro-
cedures, typically based on Gaussian elimination
and Galerkin approach, are adopted.

Figure 17 Credits: Materialize Inc.

An extension to dynamics
Defining, similarly to K, a mass matrix M and a damping matrix D, the free (natural) and
forced frequencies/modes of a system can be computed by means of −ω 2 M + K U = [0]

and M Ü + C U̇ + KU = F , respectively.
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Demonstration of the Virtual Work Theorem

∂u?i
Z X Z X
Due to the symmetry of ε?ij we can write Wi = σij ε?ij dV = σij dV .
V i,j V i,j ∂Xj
∂u? ∂ ∂σij ?
As the product σij i is equal to the sum (σij u?i ) − u , we have
∂Xj ∂Xj ∂Xj i
∂ ∂σij ? ∂
Z X Z X Z X
Wi = (σij u?i ) dV − ui dV , where (σij u?i ) dV =
V ij ∂Xj V ij ∂Xj V ij ∂Xj
∂σij ?
Z X Z X
? ?
σij nj ui dS is equal to Fi ui and ui dV is equal to −fj u?i (Eq. 17).
S ij V ij ∂Xj
Thus, we have We = Wi .
Return

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The Shear Area

Many textbooks refer to the shear areas A?y and A?x when treating the shear ef-
Jx2 Jy2
fects, defined as A?y = Z  and A ?
x = where b(y) is
Sx (y) 2 Sy (x) 2
 Z  
dA dA
A b(y) A h(x)
the width of the cross section at position y from the principal x axis, h(x) is the
width of the cross section at position x from the principal y axis, Sx (y) is equal to
A A
mr in Eq. 45, and Sy (x) is the counterpart of Sx (y). The ratios ? ≈ χ and ?
Ay Ax
14
are tabulated for widely used cross sections .
14
For instance, computing the integrals for the rectangular cross section b × h in the example 42
A 6
gives ? = χ =
Ay 5
Return

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Solving the Timoshenko Beam Equation I

Assuming p, E, A, and J as constants, Eq. 51c, because of Eq. 55 and recalling that
γ = v 0 + ϕ, can be rewritten as
GA 0
EJϕ00 − (v + ϕ) = 0 (98)
χ

The solution of the second equation in Eq. 57, rewritten as EJϕ000 = −p, is
p 3 C1 2
ϕ(z) = − z + z + C2 z + C3 (99)
6EJ 2
Substituting Eq. 99 in Eq. 98 and solving for ϕ gives
   
p C1 3 C2 χp C1 EJχ
v(z) = z4 − z + − − z2 + − C3 z + C4 (100)
24EJ 6 2 2GA GA

so that
T (z) = −pz + C1 EJ (101)
p
M (z) = − z 2 + C1 EJz + C2 EJ (102)
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Solving the Timoshenko Beam Equation II

Assuming again p, E, A, and J as constants, according to the Bernoulli simplification γ = 0,

integrating the second equation in Eq. 55 gives
p C1 3 C2 2
v(z) = z4 + z + z + C3 z + C4 (103)
24EJ 6 2
so that
p 3 C1 2
ϕ(z) = − z − z − C2 z − C3 (104)
6EJ 2
T (z) = −pz − C1 EJ (105)
p
M (z) = − z 2 − C1 EJz − C2 EJ (106)
2

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Solving the Timoshenko Beam Equation III

The constants C1 , C2 , C3 , and C4 in Eqs. 99 to 106 are determined by the boundary condi-
tions. As an example, we take a beam fixed at both ends, i.e. v(0) = v(l) = ϕ(0) = ϕ(l) = 0.
In such a case, the equations of ϕ (Eqs. 99 and 104), M (Eqs. 102 and 106), and
T (Eqs. 101 and 105) are equal for both the Timoshenko and the Bernoulli models:
(Eqs. 107 to 109).
p 3 lp 2 l2 p
ϕ(z) = − z + z − z (107)
6EJ 4EJ 12EJ
p lp l2 p
M (z) = − z 2 + z − (108)
2 2 12
lp
T (z) = −pz + (109)
2

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Solving the Timoshenko Beam Equation IV

Yet, the governing equations v(z) for the Timoshenko and the Bernoulli beams match only
Jχ(1 + ν)
if  1, as shown in Eqs. 110 and 111, respectively.
Al2
4
    
pl z 4  3 
z
  2 
24Jχ + 24Jχν z 24Jχ + 24Jχν z
v(z) = −2 + 1− + (110)
24EJ l l Al2 l Al2 l
   2 
pl4 4  3
z z z
v(z) = −2 + (111)
24EJ l l l

Fact Example (b×h× l beam)

The ratio of the maximum displacements, which occurs at
For a rectangular cross-section beam
l/2 for a beam fixed at both ends, between the Timoshenko
with b = .1, h = .3, χ = 6/5, ν = .3,
96Jχ
and the Bernoulli formulations is equal to 1 + (1 + ν). the error on the maximum displace-
Al2
The Bernoulli beam is a very good approximation of the ment when approximating the Timo-
Timoshenko one if it is slender enough, so that the shear shenko formulation with the Bernoulli
contribution may be neglected. one is > 3% if L < 7.

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Finding the Beam Curvature I

The center of curvature C = [zc ; vc ] of v(z) between z1 and z2 = z1 + dz, obtained by solving the
linear system Eq. 112 
v − v1 = k1 (z − z1 )
(112)
v − v2 = k2 (z − z2 )
where k1 = tan(α
 1 + π/2) and k2 = tan(α2 + π/2) = tan(α1 + dα + π/2), being
dv dv
α1 = arctan and α2 = arctan , is given by Eq. 113
dz z=z1 dz z=z2
 
tan(α) 1 
C = z − ,v + (113)
dα dα
dz dz
p
Thus the radius of curvature, R = (z − zc )2 + (v − vc )2 , is given by Eq. 114.
1
R= (114)
dα
cos(α)
dz

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Finding the Beam Curvature II

Under the hypothesis of small deflections, i.e. if α  1 α = sin α = tan α, Eqs. 113 and 114 are
simplified into their linear forms as in Eqs. 115 and 116
 
α 1 
C = z − ,v + (115)
dα dα
dz dz
1
R= (116)
dα
dz
dα dα 1 dα dα
and the curvature variation, κ = = = = cos α, becomes κ = − , where the
ds Rdα R dz dz
minus sign has been introduced in order to match the moment direction.

Return

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Closed vs Non-Closed Sections Return I

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References

I A. E. H. Love, A Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity.

Dover Books on Engineering Series, Dover Publications, iv ed., 1944.
I P. Villaggio, Mathematical Models for Elastic Structures.
Cambridge University Press, 1997.
I S. Timoshenko and J. N. Goodier, Theory of Elasticity.
McGraw-Hill Book Co, 2nd ed., 1951.
I S. Timoshenko and S. Woinowsky-Krieger, Theory of plates and shells.
Engineering societies monographs, McGraw-Hill, 2nd ed., 1959.
I M. Sutti, “Elastic Theory of Plates.”
http://www.unige.ch/math/folks/sutti/Elastic_Theory_of_Plates.pdf, May 2015.
I O. C. Zienkiewicz, The finite element method.
London: Mcgraw - Hill Book Co., 1977.

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