LIFE SCIENCES

GRADE 12

WINTER CLASSES

Genetics

Topics: Theories of Evolution

Human Evolution

1
 Suggested modified programme due to repetition of genetics which was
coveredduring Autumn Vacation Classes.
Genetics Pre- Test Marks decreased to 50 marks, questions
testing the same skillwere removed.

1. Pre – Test on genetics

Day 1 2. Blood grouping, interpretation of pedigree
Genetics and diagram,
inheritance 48 3. Interpretation of pedigree diagram
Day 2 4. Dihybrid cross
marks
P2 5. Biotechnology and genetic lineage,
Day 3 mutations
6. Post- test on genetics
EVOLUTION 54 Day 4 1. Evidence for evolution
marks 2. variation
P2 Day 5 3. Origins of ideas (Darwin, Lamarck,
punctuated equilibrium),
4. Artificial selection, differences between
artificial selection and natural selection
Day 6 5. Speciation
6. Reproductive isolation- mechanism
Day 7 7. evolution in present times
8. Differences and similarities between human
and other primates
Day 8 9. Evidence of common ancestors (Bipedalism,
brain size, teeth, prognathism, palate, cranial
ridges, brow ridges)
Main fossil sites in SA
Day 9 10. Out of Africa hypothesis (Ardipithecus,
Australopithecus & sites where they were found)
11. ASSESSMENT (FORMAL)

Day 10 12. Feedback on formal assessment in evolution

pg. 2 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
CONTENT PAGE
1. Blood groupings 4-7
2. How to tackle answering pedigree diagram questions 8 – 10
3. Dihybrid Crosses 10 - 13
4. Genetic engineering 13 - 15
5. Evidence of evolution 16 - 21
6. Causes of variation 22 – 26
7. Origin of an idea (Evolution theories) 27 – 35
8. Punctuated equilibrium 36 – 38
9. Natural VS Artificial Selection 39 – 41
10. Speciation 41 – 46
11. Reproductive isolation mechanisms 47 - 52
12. Evolution in present times 53 – 55
13. The place of humans in the phylogenetic tree 56 – 69
14. The “Out of Africa” Hypothesis 70 – 78
15. Acknowledgement 79

pg. 3 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 A. BLOOD GROUPINGS AS A RESULT OF MULTIPLE
ALLELES
Sometimes both alleles of a gene are equally dominant so the heterozygous
individual expresses both alleles, example: blood groups. Protein A and protein B are
coded by alleles IA and IB respectively. The allele i codes for no protein. This means
that there are three possible alleles for this one gene locus in humans. When there
are more than two possible alleles, it is termed multiple alleles. Any two of these
alleles will occur in combination in an individual. The alleles IA and IB are co-
dominant, and IA and IB completely dominate allele i.
When two individuals with AB blood type have children, the children can be type A,
type B or type AB.

pg. 4 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 B. CO-DOMINANCE IN HUMANS:

Homozygous dominant = IAIA (blood group A)

Homozygous dominant= IBIB (blood group B)
Heterozygous = IAIB (blood group AB)

C. USE OF BLOOD TESTS IN PATERNITY TESTS

• The blood groups of the mother, possible father and child must be compared.
• If the blood groups of the adults do not correspond to or match the child’s blood
group then this man is not the father.
• If the blood groups of the adults correspond to or match the child’s blood group,
Then there is a possibility that the man is the father, and other tests need to be done
as other men may have the same blood group.
• Only DNA profiling can be conclusive as it looks at the similarities between the
nucleotides in the DNA of the father and the child.
• Each DNA profile is unique to an individual.
• 50% of the DNA fragments / bands / bars are derived from the mother and 50%.
from the father.
• If 50% of the DNA fragments / bands / bars correspond with the father, then it can be
claimed that he is the father of the child.
• DNA is viewed as more reliable evidence of paternity than the use of blood groups.

pg. 5 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 D. EXAMPLE OF A MONOHYBRID CROSS USING BLOOD TYPES
A man and a woman both have blood group B. Use a genetic cross to show how it is
possible for them to have a child with blood group O.

ACTIVITY A
1. Two newborn babies were accidentally mixed up at the hospital. In an effort to
determine the correct parents of each baby, the blood types of the babies and the
parents were determined as follows:
Baby 1 – type O Baby 2 – type A
Mr Smith – type AB Mrs Smith – type B
Mr Jones – type B Mrs Jones – type B

1.1.1. Who are the parents of Baby 2? (2)

1.1.2. Provide evidence for your answer in 1.1.1 by showing your working in a
Punnett square. (6)
[Remember: Blood group is a result of multiple alleles and is an example of co-
dominance. IA and IB are equally dominant and will dominate over i. Blood type
O can only occur if both alleles are recessive = ii]

pg. 6 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
pg. 7 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 E. HOW TO TACKLE ANSWERING PEDIGREE DIAGRAM QUESTION

Analysing the genetic lineage in a pedigree diagram:

Step 1: Mark all the homozygous recessive individuals with blonde hair.
This will be all the white shapes: E, F, G, I, K, N and P as bb on the pedigree
chart.
Step 2: Work from the generation line 5 up towards the generation line 1 so that you
start with the last offspring on the pedigree diagram.
To produce an offspring with bb, BOTH parents must have at least one
homozygous recessive gene (b).
If the parent is a white shape – then the parent is bb and already marked.
If the parent is a shaded shape and produced a bb offspring, then the parent
Must be heterozygous Bb. Mark the Bb parents on the pedigree diagram.

Step 3: Parents that are shaded shapes and produce only shaded shape offspring,
can be homozygous BB or heterozygous Bb. Look to the next generation and
then work backwards. Mark the parents on the pedigree diagram.

pg. 8 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 Step 4: Answer the questions that relate to the pedigree diagram.
Try to work out the genotype of A, B, C, D, H, J, L, M and O on your own
first.
Let us see if you were right:
• A and B are Bb because they produce G (bb)
• If C is BB then D must be Bb or C is Bb then D is BB because H must be Bb to
• produce K (bb)
• J is Bb because G is bb and H is Bb (produced sister K - bb)
• L and M are both Bb because parent J is Bb and I is bb so they cannot be
• homozygous BB AND L and M
• produce a son (N) and daughter (P) that are both homozygous bb
• Offspring O can be either BB or Bb because both parents are
heterozygous Bb

ACTIVITY B
4. Haemophilia is a sex-linked hereditary disease that occurs as a result of a recessive
allele on the X-chromosome. Study the family tree below and answer the questions
that follow:
(Use the symbols H for normal and h for haemophilia above the sex chromosomes, for
example.: XHX h )

4.1. Write down the genotype of Stefan. (2)

4.2. Peter and Susan would like to have a fourth child. Use a genetic cross to show the
percentage probability of this child having haemophilia. (6)

pg. 9 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 5. Study the diagram below, which shows three generations of snapdragon plants and
answer the questions which follow. Use the following symbols for the contrasting
alleles: W – for white flowers R – for red flowers
[HINT: you have been told to use W for white flowers. So a homozygous white flower will
be WW. A homozygous red flower will be RR. This means that a heterozygous flower will
be WR. Do NOT use any lower-case letter for the recessive allele because you have been
provided with the symbols for the alleles. ONLY use the W and the R]

5.1 State the kind of dominance shown in the diagram above. (1)
5.2. Use the symbols R and W and write down the genotypes of each of the following
snapdragon plants:
a) A (2)
b) B (2)
c) C (2)
(15)

pg. 10 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 F. Dihybrid Cross
Dihybrid crosses involve two pairs of alleles representing two different characteristics,e.g.:
the height of a plant and the colour of its seeds.
According to the Law of Independent Assortment - The various 'factors' controlling the
different characteristics are separate entities, not influencing each other in any way,
and sorting themselves out independently during gamete formation.
Work through the following example of a dihybrid cross and remember that the alleles for
each characteristic could be either homozygous or heterozygous.
Example of a Dihybrid cross
• In pea plants, the allele for tallness (T) is dominant and the allele for shortness (t) is
recessive. The allele for purple flowers is dominant (P) and the allele for white flowers is
recessive (p). Two plants, heterozygous for both tallness and purple flowers were
crossed.
• Step 1: Decide whether this concerns a monohybrid or a dihybrid cross.
Since two characteristics of each plant are mentioned
(phenotypes: height of plant + colour of flower), it must be a dihybrid cross.
• Step 2: Choose/ use letters to represent the alleles for the gene responsible for each
characteristic.
Let T = the allele for tall plants
Let t = the allele for short plants
Let P = the allele for purple flowers
Let p = the allele for white flowers

• Step 3: Write down the phenotype of the two parents that would be producing gametes.
• tall purple X tall purple (as per question)

• Step 4: Write down the genotype of the parents.

TtPp X TtPp

NOTE: When writing the genotype of an individual the letters

representing the alleles of a particular gene must always be
written together and not mixed with the alleles of another gene
e.g. TtPp NOT TPtp.
Do not write a comma or leave a noticeable space between alleles
of different characteristics for the genotype of an individual e.g.
Tt x Pp; Tt Pp; Tt, Pp

pg. 11 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 • Step 5: Show the gametes that each parent produces after meiosis. Each gametemust have
two letters (dihybrid) – one from each characteristic.
N.B. Remember Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment.

TP Tp tP tp X TP Tp tP tp

• Step 6: Draw and complete a punnet square by writing in the combination of

• alleles in each block.

P1 Phenotype Tall, purple x Tall, purple

Genotype TtPp x TtPp

Meiosis
Gametes TP Tp tP tp x TP Tp tP tp

Gametes TP Tp tP tp

Fertilisation TP TTPP TTPp TtPP TtPp

Tp TTPp TTpp TtPp Ttpp
tP TtPP TtPp ttPP ttPp
tp TtPp Ttpp ttPp ttpp

F1 Genotype 9 different genotypes, as in the table

above
Phenotype 9 tall, purple flowered plants
3 short, purple flowered plants
3 tall, white flowered plants
1 short, white flowered plant

• Step 7: Determine the phenotypic ratios from the genotypes in the punnet
square.
Phenotypic ratio: 9:3:3:1
If there is one capital letter for the allele in the F1 generation, then that trait (characteristic)
shows in the phenotype; if there are small letters then the recessive trait shows.

pg. 12 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 ACTIVITY C
1. Two characteristics of an animal (length of the ears and shape of the lip) were studied.
Each of these characteristics has two variations: Ears may be long or short, and the lip

may be a wide or pointed.

A male animal homozygous for wide lips (LL) and heterozygous for short ears (Ee) is
crossed with a female animal that is heterozygous for wide lips (Ll) and homozygous
for long ears (ee).
1.1. What term describes a genetic cross involving two characteristics? (1)

1.2. Give the:

a) Dominant phenotype for the length of ears (1)
b) Recessive phenotype for the shape of the lip (1)
c) Possible genotype/s for an animal with short ears and a pointed lip (1)

1.3. A male animal with genotype EELl is crossed with a female animal with genotype
Eell.

a) List all the possible gametes that could be produced by the male animal. (2)
b) Explain how Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment applies to parents with
EeLl genotypes during gamete formation. (4)

2. In humans the allele for short fingers (brachydactyly – a shortening of

the fingers and toes), represented by (B), is dominant over the allele
for normal fingers (b). The allele for curly hair (H) is dominant over the
allele for straighthair (h).
Andrew, with genotype Bbhh, married Susan, with genotype bbHh.

2.1. How do Andrew and Susan’s phenotypes differ from each other? (2)

2.2. List all possible genotypes of the gametes produced by Andrew. (2)

pg. 13 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 G. GENETIC ENGINEERING:

The process where scientists alter, swap or manipulate the genes on the DNA, to
produce a different organism. Genetic engineering involves the transfer of genes
from one organism to an unrelated species.
Diabetics are people who cannot produce their own insulin. Insulin is a hormone
needed to regulate blood sugar. Biochemists have devised a way in which to produce
artificial insulin. A similar process is used to genetically modify many different
organisms. Make sure you know the basic process:
Bacteria produce restriction enzymes that ‘cut’ DNA molecules. These restriction
enzymes are extracted from the bacteria. They don’t need to know restriction
enzymes according to guidelines

• DNA is removed from a healthy person’s pancreas cells.

• Restriction enzymes are used to ‘cut’ out a piece of DNA, which contains the
genes that produce insulin.
• When the genes are transferred from one organism’s cells to another, the
DNA in the recipient cell is called recombinant DNA. Insulin is produced by
using recombinant DNA in the bacterium called Escherischia coli (E. coli),
which lives in the human gut.
• Plasmids are taken out of a bacterium and cut open with the restriction
enzyme.
• The human genes are inserted into the plasmid.
• The healthy bacterium absorbs the plasmids.
• The piece of human DNA continues to produce proteins, which make insulin,
inside the bacterium.
• The insulin is then extracted from the bacterium cell.
• Diabetics inject themselves with this insulin every day, so that they can
regulate their blood sugar.

pg. 14 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 Suggested diagram to explain as above explanation a bit
complicated or use these points to explain

H. CLONING

• With cloning, the nucleus of a somatic cell (2n) of one organism is removed.
• An egg cell (n) is taken from an ovary.
• The nucleus of the egg cell is destroyed.
• The somatic cell’s nucleus (2n) is then placed inside the egg cell.
• The egg cell is put back into a uterus where it is allowed to grow and
differentiate into an embryo.
• When the baby is born, it is identical to the original organism.
• A sheep called Dolly was cloned successfully in 1997.

pg. 15 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 I.STEM CELL RESEARCH:
A stem cell is a cell that has the potential to regenerate multiple cell type tissue and self-
renew so a stem cell is able to produce new cells over a long term by the process of
mitosis.

Once mitosis occurs, the cells are able to differentiate into many different types of
specialized cells and tissue.

Stem cells can be harvested from umbilical cord blood (once a baby has been born), a
foetal blastocyst and bone marrow.
Stem cell therapy can be used to treat a variety of different human diseases:
• cancers like Leukemia
• degenerative diseases like Multiple Sclerosis
• diabetes mellitus where the pancreas no longer produces insulin
• muscle damage
• organ damage and
• certain genetic diseases in conjunction with gene therapy

pg. 16 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 Teaching Tool 1: Evidence of Evolution

pg. 17 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 1. Focus on the following definitions.
1.1 Definition of biological evolution:
➢ Biological evolution refers to the change in the characteristics of a species
over time.

1.2 Difference between a hypothesis and a theory

➢ A theory is an explanation of something that has been observed in nature
which can be supported by facts, generalisations, tested hypotheses, models,
and laws.
➢ A hypothesis is a possible solution to a problem. A possible prediction and/or
explanation of the relationship between the two variables. It is testable.

1.3 The Theory of Evolution is regarded as a scientific theory since various

hypotheses relating to evolution have been tested and verified over time.

2. Emphasize the Role of the following as evidence for evolution:

2.1 Fossil record – Link to Grade 10
Palaeontology refers to the study of fossils. Fossils are the remains of ancient
life forms preserved usually in rock. Radiometric dating is used to determine the
age of the rock in which the fossil is preserved. Scientists used the age of fossils
to establish when organisms excised and to determine the characteristics of the
organism by studying the fossil. Knowledge of these characteristics allows us to
see relationship amongst different organisms, this is represented in a
phylogenetic tree, Fossils provide evidence of the history of extinct organism on
earth and give an indication of the climate and environment millions of years ago.
(Fossils record is not good evidence of evolution – not all organisms can
be fossilised and there are lots of gabs in fossil record)

2.2 Biogeography – Link to Grade 10

Biogeography refers to the study of past and present distribution of individual
species. Such studies show that closely related species tend to be found in the
same geographic regions of the different continents because of very similar
habitats. For example:
Baobab trees in Africa and Madagascar

pg. 18 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 The distribution of the flightless birds of the world we get ostriches in Africa,
Rhea’s in southern America, Kiwi’s and Emu’s in Australia.

2.3 Modification by descent (homologous structures)

Modification by descent
Is the phenomenon where the basic body plans of different plants and animals
were modified over time to better adapted to their different environments.
Because the similarities may be traced back to a common ancestor
Important to note
Homologous structures (act as evidence for modification by descent)
Homologous structures have the same basic plan even though they may look
different or perform different functions. Comparison of homologous structures
among organisms to show similarities and differences e.g. Homologous bone
structures in the front limbs of different vertebrates, Scientist interpret
homologous structures in the way that it indicates common ancestor.(why is
homologous structure important evidence in evolution – because they
indicated common ancestors)

pg. 19 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 2.4. Genetics (evidence for human evolution and evidence for “OUT
OF AFRICA HYPOTHESIS”)
All living organisms share a universal code of three DNA bases (codons) that
are used to specify each amino acid.

Comparison of the human genetic code with that of other organisms shows that
chimpanzees are nearly genetically identical (differ by less than 1.2%) whereas
the mouse differs by ≈15%.

The following features show possible common origin of different organisms:

- Identical DNA compounds
- Similar sequence of genes
- Similar portions of DNA with no function
- Identical protein synthesis
- Similar metabolic pathways such as glycolysis, Kreb’s cycle and
- Electron transport system

pg. 20 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 ACTIVITY 1

1 Match the definition in Column B to fit the term in Column A

.
COLUM A COLUM B
1.1 Biological A Species that are closely related have
evolution a greater genetic
similarity to each other than distant
species and therefore shares more
recent common ancestor.
1.2 Species B A group of organisms with similar
characteristics that interbreed with
one another to produce fertile
offspring
1.3 Population C The study of the distribution of
existing(extant) plant and animal
species in specific geographical
regions
1.4 Theory D Similar structure with the same body
plan that perform different functions
1.5 Hypothesis E A group of individuals of the same
species occupying a
specific habitat in a specific time
1.6 Fossil records F The study of fossilises
1.7 Homologous G Any genetic change in a population
structures that is inherited over
several generations
1.8 Biogeography H A possible solution to a problem or
explanation of a specific
phenomenon
1.9 Genetic evidence I The basic body plan of different plant
and animals ‘groups change through
time and is then better adapted to
their different environments
1.10 Descent with J an explanation of something that has
modification been observed in nature which can
be supported by facts,
generalisations, tested hypotheses,
models and laws
1.11 Palaeontology K Different fossils are found in different
rock layers with the oldest fossils in
the oldest rock layers with
transitional fossils present

pg. 21 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 Teaching Tool 2:
3 Variation (Causes) (how variation can play a role in natural selection –
variation causes genetic different individuals and that individual may
have an extra characteristics)

3.1 Definition of a biological species and a population

➢ Population
A group of organisms of the same species that lives together in a defined area
at a given time and interbreeding can take place.

➢ Species
A group of organisms that have similar characteristics and can interbreed
to produce fertile offspring
How do you tell if two organisms are the same species:
If a species can interbreed and produce fertile offspring then they are the
same species. If they interbreed but do not produce fertile offspring then they
are not the same species.

3.2 A review of the contribution of each of the following to variation that

exists amongst individuals of the same species: (here the question can
combine genetics and evolution)

3.2.1 Meiosis (what is the role of meiosis in variation)

3.2.1.1 Crossing over (what is the difference in variation on crossing over
and random arrangement - genetic different chromosomes)
• occurs during prophase I
• Parts of Homologous chromosomes /non-sister – chromatids/adjacent
chromatids overlap
• at points called chiasma /chiasmata
• Genetic material is exchanged 
• resulting in new combinations of genetic material from both parents 

pg. 22 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 3.2.1.2 Random arrangement of chromosomes (what is the difference in
variation on crossing over and random arrangement – causes
different genetic gametes)
• Homologous chromosomes are arranged in pairs at the equator during
Metaphase 1 and during Metaphase 2 chromosomes are arranged singly at
the equator.
• This results into genetic different gametes

3.2.2 Mutations
• Gene Mutation – a change in the sequence of nitrogenous bases or nucleotides of
DNA (learners should know the definition)
• Chromosomal mutation – a change in the normal structure or number of
chromosomes (use the correct wording as it comes from the Exam
Guidelines)

3.2.3 Random fertilisation - between different egg cells and different sperm
cells formed by meiosis result in offspring that are different from each other.
(any sperm cell can fertilise the ovum)

3.2.4 Random mating - between organisms within a species leads to a different set of
offspring from each mating pair. (any male can mate with any female)

pg. 23 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 3.3 TYPES OF VARIATION
3.3.1 Continuous variation - (the word range must be emphasized and taught
– light yellow red or dark red)
• When traits do not fall into clear cut classes.
• For example, there is every shade of hair colour between black and blond.
People do not belong to one or other of a small number of distinct categories
i.e. there is continuous variation from one extreme to the other.
• Variations such as these are under genetic control but there are several pairs
of genes involved.
• The genome AA BB CC DD might give black hair while the genome aa bb cc
dd might give blond hair.*
• Genomes Aa Bb Cc Dd or AA Bb CC dd or aa BB cc Dd and all the other
possible combinations would give intermediate colours
• The condition of having more than one gene controlling a characteristic is
called polygenic inheritance (polygenic inheritance is not for exams)

Discontinuous variation e.g. Mendel’s pea plants either tall or short and had no
intermediate forms between these traits
• You are either male or female, there are no intermediates
• Your ABO blood group is either A, B, AB or O
• Easily distinguishable and not affected by environmental conditions
• Brought about by one or two genes
• Genetic defects such as colour blindness, albinism, sickle cell anaemia are
all genetically controlled in a discontinuous way
• You either have these conditions or you do not.
• There are no intermediate states

pg. 24 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
Discontinuous variation in blood group. The figures cannot be made to fit a smooth
curve because there are no intermediates.
ACTIVITY 2

2.1.1. Name the sources of variation in a population. (4)

2.1.2. Describe how meiosis contributes to variation among individuals of (8)

the same species.

2.1.3. Distinguish between Random fertilisation and Random mating (4)

2.3.1. Complete the table below on the differences between continuous and
discontinuous variation.

Continuous Discontinuous variation

variation
Definition Those characteristics
where there is a
range of intermediate
phenotypes
Gene locus Usually only one but may be
a very small number
Number of Many pairs of alleles
alleles as many genes
contribute to the
inheritance
Effect on Many intermediate
phenotype phenotype
Environment Environment has little to no
influence influence
Example (5)

pg. 25 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 3 The graph below illustrated different hights in humans.

(5)
3.1.1 What type of variations is illustrated in this graph (1)

3.1.2 Explain your answer in 3.1.1 (2)

4 The diagram below is a phase during meiosis

4.1.1. Name the process that is illustrated in the diagram (1)

4.1.2 Explain the significance of this process in 4.1.1. (2)

5 Explain how gene mutations can play a role in genetic variation

in species. (2)

6 Explain random fertilisation and the role it plays in genetic

variation (2)

pg. 26 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 Teaching Tool 3:
ORIGIN OF AN IDEA (Evolution theories)

pg. 27 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
4.1 Ideas on Evolution

pg. 28 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 5.1. Jean Baptiste de Lamarck – 1744-1829 (Lamarckism) (learners have
to know how to spell it)

1. Law of use and disuse (explain the theory – firstly they must state the law
and explain the law)
• Changes in the environment create new needs that cause organisms to
modify their existing organs to meet the need.
• Repeated use of the organ would cause it to enlarge and become more
efficient. Disuse of an organ would cause it to degenerate.
2. Law of inheritance (explain the theory – firstly they must state the law and
explain the law)

• The modification an organism acquired during its lifetime could be pass on to

its offspring.
How to describe Lamarckism
Example:

Guiding Questions Lamarck’s explanation

What was the original characteristic at All giraffes had short necks originally
the start?

What did the organism do? Giraffes frequently stretched

Why did the organism do this? used their necks to reach -for leaves of
tall trees/to feed
What was the result? necks become longer

What happened to this new The long necks acquired in this way
characteristic? could be passed on to the next
generation /were inherited
What was the result of this? All the giraffes have long necks
(no longer a general statement - learners must state the favorable
characteristics)
Example:
Refer to the characteristic (Long necks) – do not only state - “the acquired
characteristic was pass on to the next generation”

pg. 29 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 6.1 Darwinism (Charles Darwin – 1809–1882)
6.1.1 Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection:

• There is a great deal of variation amongst the offspring.

• Some have favorable characteristics, and some do not.
• When there is a change in the environmental conditions or if there is
competition,
• then organisms with favourable characteristics, which make them more suited,
survive.
• whilst organisms with unfavourable characteristics, which make them less suited,
die.
• The organisms that survive, reproduce
• and thus, pass on the allele for the favourable characteristic to their
offspring.
• The next generation will therefore have a higher proportion of individuals with
the favourable characteristic. (If they ask learners to explain Darwinism –
the answer is straight forward – no example – just as it come from
examination guidelines)

Note the difference how to answer this from previous years on how to
describe Darwinism
How to describe Darwinism
Example:

(Natural section keeps on changing and learners must be able to answer it – it

is not a straight forward question – refer to 2018 question paper – new way to
answer natural selection) follow guidelines 2021 – it shows exactly how to
answer

pg. 30 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
Guiding Question Darwin’s explanation
1-State the characteristic that varies There is a variation in the 1- length of
giraffe’s necks.

Describe the 2- variations There were giraffes with 2- long neck and
short necks

3- Explain the environmental change/ Leaves/ food was only available a the top of
selection pressure for natural selection the tree/higher trees and natural selection
(what is causing natural selection) took place between giraffes with long necks
and short necks for food

4- State the unfavorable characteristic and Giraffes with 4- short necks (unfavourable
why it is unfavorable characteristic) could not get food from the top
of a tree/higher trees, 4- 4- their neck was too
short

Explain 5- what happens to this individual They 5- die of hunger

with the unfavorable characteristics

State the favorable characteristic and why Giraffes with long necks (favourable
it is favorable characteristic) could get food from the top of a
tree/higher trees, their neck was long enough

Explain what happen to this individual with They could eat more leaves/food and survive
the favorable characteristics

What happen to the favorable The giraffes with the long necks reproduce
characteristic
The allele for long necks will be passed on to
the offspring

The next generation of giraffes will have

higher proportion with long necks

pg. 31 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 6.1.2 Difference between Lamarck and Darwin

Lamarck’s Darwin’s

Variation of offspring brought about by Offspring inherit variation

individuals in the population changing

Individuals want to change Environmental factors working randomly

Change because of adaptation to Natural selection – best suited to the

environment environment to survive

Individuals in the population change The population as a whole changes

Changes brought about by adaptation Characteristics are passed on from

to the environment are inherited from generation to generation to enable
parent to offspring individuals to survive in the environment

ACTIVITY 3

Brine shrimp are small arthropods found in saltwater lakes. During favourable conditions
female shrimps produce eggs that hatch into live young. However, when conditions are
unfavourable, the shrimp produce cysts. Each cyst contains the embryo covered with a
hard, protective covering. In this state the embryo stops growing and is said to be dormant.
The embryo can remain in this dormant state for many years and the cyst will only hatch at
the optimum salt concentration.
Scientists wanted to investigate which salt concentration resulted in the highest percentage
of hatched cysts
They did the following:
• Prepared salt solutions of different concentrations: 0%, 0,5%, 1%, 1,5% and 2%
• Placed 30 mℓ of each solution into one of five beakers
• Took samples of brine shrimp cysts using a dropper
• Counted the number of cysts in each sample
• Recorded this as the initial number of cysts
• Placed the samples into each of the five beakers
• Left the beakers at room temperature for 48 hours
• Recorded the number of cysts that hatched in each beaker
• Calculated the percentage of cysts that hatched.
• The results are shown in the table below.

pg. 32 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 3.1. State TWO planning steps to consider before collecting the samples. (2)

3.2 State the:

a) Independent variable (1)
b) Dependent variable. (1)

3.3 Calculate the value of X in the table. Show ALL working. (3)

3.4 State THREE factors that were kept constant in order to ensure the validity
of this investigation. (3)

3.5 Which salt concentration resulted in the highest percentage of hatched

cysts? (1)

ACTIVITY 4

4.1. There are two variations in the colour of kingsnakes. Some have a bright
colourful pattern and others have a dull pattern. Kingsnakes are non-poisonous
to their predators. Coral snakes also have a bright colour pattern but are
poisonous to their predators. This is a defence mechanism as predators avoid
them. Scientists observed that where kingsnakes shared the same habitat with
coral snakes, there were more kingsnakes that had bright colourful patterns.
The diagram below represents the distribution of the snakes.

pg. 33 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 4.1.1. Explain how the bright colour pattern of coral snakes influences their survival. (3)

4.1.2. Use Darwin's theory of evolution through natural selection to explain why
there are more brightly coloured kingsnakes in this habitat. (6)

ACTIVITY 5
5.1. Flightless bird species that are currently distributed across different continents
are shown in the picture below.

Scientists hypothesise that these species of flightless birds arose from a single
common ancestor that was able to fly.

5.1.1 Describe how Lamarck would have explained the evolution of

flightless birds (6)

pg. 34 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 ACTIVITY 6

Darwin and Lamarck were both scientists who tried to understand evolution.

Lamarck’s theory of evolution was based around how organisms (e.g. animals, plants)
change during their lifetime, and then pass these changes onto their offspring. For
example, Lamarck believes that the giraffe had a long neck because its neck grew longer
during its lifetime, as it stretched to reach leaves in high-up trees, meaning that each
generation of giraffe had a longer neck than previous generations.

Darwin’s theory, known as natural selection, believed that organisms possessed

variation and these variations led to some being more likely
to survive and reproduce than others. In terms of the giraffe, Darwin’s theory would state
that longer necked giraffes were more likely to survive, because they could eat leaves from
taller trees, and therefore more long-necked giraffes will be born, which eventually caused
all giraffes to have longer necks.

6.1. Give:
a) The term that describes Lamarck’s ideas. (1)
b) The term that describes Darwin’s idea of Natural selection. (1)
c) The name of the Scientist that is associated with the theory of punctuated
equilibrium. (1)
6.2. Tabulate the difference between Lamarck’s theory of evolutions and Darwin’s
theory of evolution (2)
6.3. Explain whose idea evolution is more acceptable today. (2)

pg. 35 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 7.1 Punctuated Equilibrium (Eldredge and Gould – 1972) (Learners must
know who came up with this theory)
• Stephan J Gould and Niles Eldredge formulated this model (1972).
• They observed that the fossil record gives a different picture of evolution.
• They claim that there were long periods of stasis (4-10 million years)
involving little evolutionary change.
• Then occasional rapid formation of new species (5,000 - 50,000 years).
• Punctuated Equilibrium explains the speed at which evolution takes place:
• Evolution involves long periods of time where species do not change or
change gradually through natural selection (known as equilibrium).
➢ This alternates with (is punctuated by) short periods of time where rapid
changes occur through natural selection.
➢ during which new species may form in a short period of time.

(Punctuated equilibrium is supported by the absences of transitional fossils

indication the period of rapid change)

pg. 36 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 Stasis
(Equilibrium)

Rapid change
(Punctuated

7.1.1. Differences between Gradualism and Punctuated equilibrium

Gradualism Punctuated equilibrium

Change is continuous and Time period Change occurs during brief period
slow for many years of time
New species evolve through Change of Species exist unchanged for many
the accumulation of many Species years and then a short period of
small changes over a long time there is a sudden change
time
Constant and consistent Change in a Irregular and inconsistent
population
Supported by transitional form Fossil record Supported by lack of intermediate
forms

(Similarities between Gradualism and Punctuated equilibrium – natural section

occurs in both of them the other one takes long and the other one the change
is slow)

7.1.2. How the giraffe got a long neck! – according to punctuated

equilibrium

• All giraffes had short necks for a long period of time.

• A mutation occurred and some giraffes were born with long necks.
• These giraffes were able to get more food and survive and therefore
reproduced more.
• Therefore, more longneck giraffe survived from generation to generation.
• Over a few generations the whole population had long necks.

pg. 37 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 8.1. Artificial selection

➢ Natural selection refers to the changes in the population brought about by

environmental factors working randomly on the population i.e nature selects
those individuals with the most suitable characteristics to survive.
➢ Artificial selection (is also known as selective breeding) occurs when humans
determine which genes will be passed on to future generations.
➢ They chose characteristics that will be desirable/beneficial to human needs and
not necessarily beneficial to the organism.
➢ Farmers, scientists and pet breeders choose their best individuals to
interbreed so that they may produce the best characteristics such as:
▫ high butterfat milk in jersey cattle
▫ high quality meat in Hereford cattle
▫ resistance to disease and a hot climate in indigenous Nguni cattle

How is artificial selection done?

• Organisms with the desirable traits are selected
• and interbred
• over many generations
• to produce offspring with these desirable traits

pg. 38 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 Teaching Tool 4
Natural selection VS Artificial selection
Natural selection Artificial selection
Environment is the selective force Human is the selective force
Response is adaptation to nature Response to satisfy human need
Happens in a species Can include more than one species

Example Natural Selection

Example Artificial
Selection

4.1. Describe artificial selection using an example of each of the following:

• A domesticated animal species e.g. different breeds of dogs
• A crop species e.g. maize with full kernels is selected by farmers

pg. 39 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 4.2. List similarities between natural selection and artificial selection.
• both create a trend towards organisms better suited for their environment
‘purpose’
• both natural selection and artificial selection involve an organism’s traits being
determined by how much they are favoured
• then, the organisms with favourable traits pass those traits on to future
generations both processes eventually form a new species.

ACTIVITY 7

7.1. Distinguish between punctuated equilibrium and gradualism. (2)

7.2. What is the similarity between punctuated equilibrium and gradualism (4)
7.3. The first dog evolved from a population of wolves. Although wolves look very
similar to some breeds of domestic dogs, wolves and domestic cannot interbreed.

All types of domestic dogs are capable of interbreeding to produce puppies which will
eventually be capable of interbreeding with any other domestic dog

7.3.1. Explain why all breeds of domestic dogs belong to the same species (2)

7.3.2. Domestic dogs are bred to show specific characteristics with respect to their
health, personality, and appearance. Explain why this is consider as artificial
selections. (2)

7.3.3. Describe how artificial selection led to different breeds of domestic dogs (3)

7.3.4. What effect does the type of selection mentioned in 7.3.3 have on the survival
change of the dog species. (2)

pg. 40 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
Teaching Tool 5: Speciation

9. Formation of new species (Speciation)

Geographic speciation occurs when part of a population becomes isolated

from the parent population due to physical barriers. Such barriers could be
continental drift, oceans, rivers, mountains, or other natural disturbances such as
volcanos or earthquakes.
Speciation through geographic isolation (according to the exam guidelines)

• If a population of a single species becomes separated by a geographical barrier

(sea, river, mountain, lake)

• then the population splits into two.

• There is now no gene flow between the two populations.

• Since each population may be exposed to different environmental conditions/the

selection pressure may be different

• natural selection occurs independently in each of the two populations

• such that the individuals of the two populations become very different from each

other

• genotypically and phenotypically.

• Even if the two populations were to mix again

• they will not be able to interbreed.

• The two populations are now different species.

NOTE HOW WE ANSWER IT BY APPLYING AN EXAMPLE

• The BOLD is the fact that you state according to the exam guidelines

• The highlight is what you must get out of the example in the exam paper.

pg. 41 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 If a population of a single species/original population
(Mention the original species in the extract that they give you and refer to where the
species lived)

becomes separated by a geographical barrier

(Mention the specific barriers sea, river, mountain, lake)

then the population splits into

(Mention in how many populations does the original species /original population
splits into according to the extract)

There is now no gene flow between the

(Mention how many populations are there now)

Since each population may be exposed to different environmental

conditions/the selection pressure may be different
(Mention the selection pressure if there is one mention in the example)

natural selection occurs independently in each of the two/three etc.

populations

such that the individuals of the two populations become very different from
each other

genotypically and phenotypically.

(Mention the differences if the extract indicates differences)

Even if the two populations were to mix again

they will not be able to interbreed.

The two populations are now different species, name the new species. (mention
the new species that form)

pg. 42 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 Example 1
Pottos and lemurs are small mammals. Scientists believe that pottos and lemurs
share a common ancestor that existed in Africa. Presently pottos only occur in Africa
while lemurs are only found in Madagascar. Madagascar is an island off the East
coast of Africa as shown in the diagram below.

Describe the speciation of the pottos and lemurs.

• The BOLD is the fact that you state according to the exam guidelines.

• The highlight is what you must get out of the example.

• Applying the answer

• If a population of a single species/original population

• (Mention the original specie in the extract that they give you and refer to
where the specie lived)

• If the original population of the common ancestor/small mammals of the

pottos and lemurs that existed in AFRICA

• becomes separated by a geographical barrier

• (Mention the specific barriers sea, river, mountain, lake)

• becomes separated by a geographical barrier the Indian Ocean

• then the population splits into

• (Mention in how many population does the original species /original
population splits into according to the extract )

• then the population splits into 2 - Africa and Madagascar

pg. 43 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 • There is now no gene flow between the
• (Mention how many populations are there now)

• There is now gene flow between the two population in Africa and
Madagascar

• Since each population may be exposed to different environmental

conditions/the selection pressure may be different
• (Mention the selection pressure if there is one mention in the example)

• Each population may be exposed to different environmental conditions

on the eats cost of Africa and Madagascar

• natural selection occurs independently in each of the two/three etc.

populations

• natural selection occurs independently in each of the eilands

• such that the individuals of the two populations become very different
from each other

• genotypically and phenotypically.

• Even if the two populations of Africa and Madagascar were to mix again
• they will not be able to interbreed.

• The two populations are now different species, Pottos and Lemurs

pg. 44 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 Example 2:
The present-day distribution of three closely related species of the dog family, the
coyote, jackal and dingo, is shown on the world map below.

• If a population of a single species Dog family/ original population of the dog’s

ancestor lived on a large continent

• They become separated by a geographical barrier/ by continental drift/ ocean

• The population splits into three

• There is now no gene flow between the three populations, Jackal, Coyote and
Dingo

• Since each population may be exposed to different environmental conditions

on the three continents/ islands

• natural selection occurs independently in each of the Three populations

• such that the individuals of the three populations become very different from
each other

• genotypically and phenotypically

• Even if the three populations were to mix again

• they will not be able to interbreed

• The three populations are now different species, Coyote, Jackal and Dingo

pg. 45 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
ACTIVITY 8
8.1.

8.1.1. Define a population. (2)

8.1.2. Describe how speciation of the GRAND CANYON squirrels took place. (5)

pg. 46 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
ACTIVITY 9

9.1. Darwin discovered two different species of tortoises on two different islands
in the Galapagos. One had a domed shell and short neck, the other had an
elongated shell and a longer neck. The two islands had very different
vegetation. One of the islands (island X) was rather barren, dry and arid. It
had no grass but rather short tree-like cactus plants. On the other island
(island Y), there were no cactus plants but it had a good supply of water and
grass grew freely. The diagram below shows the two main???

9.1.1. Which tortoise would be found on island Y (2)

9.2.2. Describe how the two tortoise species become different (6)

9.2.3. List FOUR sources of variation that could have led to the variation in the (4)
tortoise population

9.2.4. Explain the role of natural selection on island X where more of tortoise 2 are
found. (6)

pg. 47 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
Teaching Tool 6: Reproductive isolation mechanisms

10. Reproductive isolation mechanisms that help to keep TWO

DIFFERENT species separate:

10.1 Breeding at different times of the year

Different species will have different breeding seasons or, in the case of plants, will
flower at different times of the year, in order to prevent cross-pollination.

10.2 Species-specific courtship behaviour

Some animals have very specific courtship behaviours that do not attract
individuals of other species, even if they are closely related species.
Courtship behaviour is a physical or chemical signal that an organism is ready to
mate.
This can include anything from being brightly coloured, to singing elaborate mating
songs or mating dances, to the secretion of pheromones in order to attract a mate.

pg. 48 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 10.3 Plant adaptation to different pollinators
Many plants and their flowers are specifically adapted for specific pollinators.
Some closely related species of plants have different characteristics such as
flower shape, size, colour, reward type (nectar or pollen), scent and timing of
flowering all play a role in attracted certain pollinators to them.
Also, cross-pollination between the different species is prevented.

pg. 49 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 10.4 Infertile offspring
Even if two species are able to physically mate and produce offspring, they will
still be reproductively isolated due to the fact the most hybrid offspring are
infertile.

10.5 Prevention of fertilisation

Incompatible sex- organs- the shape, size and location of genitals do not match
those of another’s species.

(The genital opening of these snails are not aligned, and mating cannot be
completed)

pg. 50 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
ACTIVITY 10
10.1. Identify the reproductive isolation mechanisms hat is illustrated in the (5)
diagrams below.

Insects have very specific copulatory organs.

May

Species 1 Species 2

pg. 51 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 Sheep and goat hybrid dies before birth

ACTIVITY 11

11.1.1. What is meant by the term reproductive isolation? (1)

11.1.2. Describe species - specific courtship behaviour. (2)

11.1.3. Give THREE examples of species- specific courtship behaviour. (3)

pg. 52 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 (1)

Differences in flowers structure in black and white sage select

for different pollinating bees. Big bees do not fit on black sage
petals.

11.2.1 Identify the reproductive isolation mechanism that is illustrated in the

(1)
diagram above

11.2.2. Explain what the significance of this isolation mechanism is (2)

11.2.3. Explain the development of infertile offspring between two species. (3)

11.2.4 Give an example of infertile offspring between two species. (2)

pg. 53 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
pg. 54 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 11. Evolution in present times
Teaching Tool 7 Evolution in present times
Evolution is always happening. Most of the time it is impossible to observe changes in
populations and species because evolution happens very slowly – thus the theory of
gradualism. However, there are some cases (e.g.: rapidly producing organisms such
as viruses and bacteria) that allow scientists to study how species change in response
to environmental factors. Pathogens (viruses and bacteria) evolve quickly because
there is lots of natural variation amongst them and the fact that mutations occur most
often in rapidly reproducing organisms.
The evolution of drug resistance in bacteria

Low --------------------->High

Antibiotic restance level

- With any population there is genetic variation

- Some bacteria are more resistant to antibiotics
than others
- If the amount of antibiotics taken is too low, or
the full course of antibiotics is not completed
- Those who are less resistant to antibiotics will
Original population die
- Those who are more resistant will survive

- The population of resistant bacteria increase

- Continued use of antibiotics had little effect on
the resistant bacteria
- The resistant bacteria reproduce and pass the
resistant gene on to the next generation and
increased
- Non- resistant bacteria decrease
- The antibiotics will now be ineffective

- The antibiotics acts as the selective mechanism.

- Natural selection plays a role in the evolution of antibiotic resistant bacteria.

pg. 55 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 ACTIVITY 12

12 The introduction of DDT represents a change in the environment of the (1)

mosquito. Study the diagram and answer the questions

12.1.1. Give a suitable heading for the diagram above. (2)

12.1.2. What process is represented by:

a) A (1)
b) B (1)

12.1.3 Describe the composition of the first generation (2)

12.1.4 Explain how these two dark mosquitoes evolved in the first generation (3)

12.1.5 Describe the composition of the survivors of the second pesticide application (2)

pg. 56 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 12. Evidence for common ancestors
Teaching Tool 8 - The place of humans in the phylogenetic tree
Human Evolution
The place of the family Hominidae in the animal kingdom

Hominidae is the family name for all primates including all African Apes

• Humas are mammals and belong to the class MAMMALIA, because their bodies
is covered with hair and they suckle their young
• The order they belong to is PRIMATES. - Primates includes human, apes,
orangutangs, gorillas an chimpanzees

pg. 57 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 • The Family HOMINIDAE includes HOMINIDS
HOMININS
Great Apes HOMINIDS (refers to bipedalism)

(bipedal)
Orangutan
Ardipithecus
Gorilla
Australopithecus
Chimpanzee
Homo

Hominids refer to the modern and extinct Great apes (i.e. modern humans,
chimpanzees, orangutans and all their immediate ancestors)
Great Apes is also referring to as African Apes
Hominin – the group consisting of modern humans , extinct human species and
all our immediate ancestors (including members of the genera Homo,
Australopithecus and Ardipithecus). Are all bipedal organisms.
Ardipithecus, Australopithecus and early Homo- species are considered fossil
ancestors of modern humans (learners must know this line of development)
Modern Humans are classified in the genus and species – Homo sapiens
Homo – sapiens
Genus – Homo
Specie- sapiens
# The genus name and species name must be underlined / cursive #
# Read what the question asks – Give the Genus, species, family, class or
order name

12.1 Interpretation of a Phylogenetic tree to show the place of humans in the

Animal Kingdom ( in grade 12 it is not necessary to emphasis the
clinogram) (is it not cladogram?)

The evolutionary relationships of ancestral species and their descendants can be

illustrated using a branching phylogenetic tree. A phylogenetic tree indicates
which ancestors gave rise to which descendants.

pg. 58 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 How to interpretate a Phylogenetic tree:

• The root of the phylogenetic diagram represents the ancestor, and the tips of the
branches, the descendants of that ancestor. To move upwards is to move forward
in time.

(3 and 4 are more related to each other because there we have a more recent
common ancestor)

• Speciation is represented as a branching of the tree, as a single ancestral lineage

gives rise to two or more daughter lines.

• Each lineage has a part of its history that is unique and parts that are shared with
other lineages, as illustrated below …

pg. 59 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 • And each lineage has ancestors that are unique to that lineage and
common ancestors that are shared with other lineages.

ACTIVITY 13

13 The diagram below shows possible relationships between

members of Hominids.

POSSIBLE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN HOMINIDS

Present

Homo sapiens
Time (million years ago)

Homo erectus
Australopithecus robustus
Australopithecus boisei
Homo habilis

Australopithecus
africanus Australopithecus afarensis

13.1.1 What is the name given to this diagram? (1)

pg. 60 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 13.1.2 How many of each of the following are represented in the
diagram?
a) Genera

b) Species (2)

13.1.3 Explain why A. robustus and A. boisei are more closely

related than A. boisei and A. afarensis. (2)

13.1.4 Which hominid is the common ancestral of all the hominids in

this diagram? (1)

13.1.5 Give the:

a) Family to which all humans belong to (1)
b) Genera to which all humans belong to (1)
c) Name of the ancestral of Homo sapiens (1)
(5)

Teaching Tool 9: Humans vs African apes

1.2 Characteristics we share with other primates.

pg. 61 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 1. Upright posture: the back limbs of hominids are generally stronger
than their front limbs, enabling them to stand erect (upright) and use
their hands for grasping; standing erect also gives a better view of
surroundings and exposure of genitals to attract the opposite sex

2. Large brains: relative to their body size, hominids have larger brains
than other species in the Animal Kingdom. This allows them to process
and store information.

3. Long upper arms / front limbs: apes are normally quadrupeds, and this
requires longer front limbs. Longer front limbs also make it easier to grasp and
swing from branches.

4. Two eyes in the front of the head, this provides good binocular vision as
both eyes work together.

5. The eyes have cones for colour vision that gives greater clarity.

6. Two teats/nipples only

7. Freely rotating arms: arms can be lifted above the head to swing from
branch to branch, or to pick fruit hanging relatively high above the ground.
(learners must also know the significance of this characteristic)

8. Elbow joints allowing rotation of forearm this allows the limb to extend or
flex to grasp and reach for objects. It also enables the flexing and rotation of
the wrists

9. Bare fingertips or nails instead of claws: Digits (finger and toes) have soft,
broad, and very sensitive pads. The flat fingernails or toenails protect these
pads.

10. Opposable thumb: the thumbs of hominids are positioned so that it

can oppose other digits, enabling the hand to grip an object

11. Sexual dimorphism – this refers to differences between

males and females of the same species. Humans and apes are sexually
dimorphic. This is linked to competition.
12. Rotate hands at least 180º

13. Olfactory brain centres reduced/reduced sense of smell

14. Parts of the brain that process information from the hands and eyes are
enlarged

#Note (correct way of stating them)

pg. 62 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 Correct way to state Incorrect way

Large brain relative to body size Not just large brain- elephants have large brain
too
Two eyes in front of the head Two eyes
Long upper arms Long arms
Upright posture Can stand up straight
Two teats/nipples Two mammal glands
Freely rotating arms Rotating arms
Elbow joints allowing rotation of Elbow rotate
forearm

ACTIVITY 13

13 Skeletons of an African ape and a human

13.1.1. Organism A and B belong to the same order and family.

Give the name of the order and family (1)

13.1.2. Give FOUR similarities they share regarding their upper

limbs (4)

pg. 63 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 13.1.4. Which organism: (1)
a) Belongs to the hominin group
b) Is quadrupedal
c) Belongs to Mammalia

13.1.5. What is the different function of the opposable thumbs of

organism A and B (2)

13.1.6. Give any other similarities that you did not mention in 1.2

Anatomical differences between Africa apes and humans (also emphasis the
significance)

pg. 64 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 Differences between Homo sapiens and other primates

Homo sapiens Other primates

1. Larger cranium 1. Smaller cranium

2. Flat face/ 2. Face sloping/
Forehead slope less backwards Foreheads slope more backwards
3. Foramen magnum more forward 3. Foramen magnum more backwards
at the bottom of the skull Position at the bottom of the skull

4. Brow ridges are not well developed 4. Brow ridges are well developed
5. Smaller canines 5. Larger canines
6. Smaller spaces/diastema between the 6. Larger spaces/diastema between the
teeth teeth
7. Jaws with teeth on a gentle/round curve/C - 7. Jaws with teeth in a rectangular/U
shape shape
8. Jaws 8. Jaws
None – prognathous/ prognathous/
Less protruding jaw More protruding jaw
9. Lower jaw has a well-developed chin 9. Lower jaw has poorly developed chin
10. No cranial ridge 10. Cranial ridges at the top of the cranium
11. Spine more curve/ S- shape 11. Less curve/ C- Shape

12. Pelvic gridle short and wide 12. Pelvic gridle long and narrow

13. Palate small and round 13. Palate long and rectangular

pg. 65 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 (visible features)
Mistakes made when answering anatomical differences/ visible differences

Brain size- if the brain is not indicated in a

diagram, you cannot state large brain and
small brain when the question refers to
visible differences.

Skull with brain

Skull without a brain

Foramen magnum

Human- more forward position

African apes-more backwords position

In both cases you must refer to more

forward/backwards position at the bottom of
the skull

Brow ridges are well or not well develop.

(number 4)

No marks will be allocated for:

• Big and small brow ridges

• Visible and not visible
• Prominent and not prominent

pg. 66 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
Lower jaw has a well-developed chin or
poorly develop chin (number 6)

No marks will be allocated for:

• Prominent and not prominent

• Big and small chin

JAWS In African Apes

In Humans Prognathous

None – prognathous OR

OR More protruding

Less protruding
Teeth

Canines is larger or smaller

It is canines and not teeth

Not:

Big and small

Larger and shorter
Larger and smaller teeth

pg. 67 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 The significance of the structural changes that characterise the evolution of
modern humans

Structure Significance

Foramen magnum This represents a change from quadrupedal in

ape-like beings
The foramen magnum was in a backward
position at the bottom of the skull in the ape- To bipedalism in modern humans, leading to
like beings✓ the following in modern humans:
but in a forward position at the bottom of the
skull in modern humans✓ • Increased awareness of the
environment in sensing danger/food
• Freeing of the hands to use
implements/carry objects/weapons/
offspring
• Exposure of a large surface area for
thermoregulation S /lose body heat to
surroundings in hot conditions/reduce
overheating
• Display of sex organs /breasts as part
of courtship behaviour

Cranium This allowed space for a larger brain in

Modern humans have a larger cranium than humans than in ape-like beings, making the
the ape-like beings following possible:
Modern humans have a less sloping forehead
than the ape-like beings • Better co-ordination of movement
Modern humans have a cranium that is more • Processing of a large amount of
rounded than the ape-like beings information
• Processing information faster
• Development of spoken and written
languages to communicate

Structure Significance

Jaws • This corresponds with a change in diet

from hard, raw food✓ in the ape-like
Humans have jaws that are non-prognathous beings
compared to the jaws of ape-like beings which • To softer, cooked food✓ in humans
are prognathous

pg. 68 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
Dentition/Teeth
• This corresponds with the decreased
In ape-like beings there are gaps/diastema need to bite and tear
between incisors and canines • and an increased need to grind and
but no gaps between the teeth in humans chew in humans
Humans have smaller canines than the ape- • in view of the change in diet to soft,
like beings cooked food
Humans have flatter molars and pre-molars
than the ape-like beings
Chin • Developed chin assists with speech in
humans
In humans the chin is more developed
compared to the ape-like beings

Zygomatic arch • This corresponds with the decreased

need for attachment of strong muscles
In humans the zygomatic arch is less • due to the decreased jaw size in
developed than in the ape-like beings humans

Pelvis • Support greater wight due to the

upright position
Humans have a (Wide and short) pelvis, apes
have a (Long and Narrow pelvis)

Spine • For flexibility

• Shock absorption
Humans’ spine is more curve/ S- shape and
ape-like beings is less curve/ C- Shape

pg. 69 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 ACTIVITY 14

Fossilised skulls of three different species of primates

14.1. Give the label for X and Y (1)

14.2. Give the LETTER of the skull that belongs to a:

a) Hominidae
b) Hominin
c) Bipedal organism (3)

14.3. Explain how the change in the skull from B to C could indicate (4)
change in intelligence

14.4 Tabulate FIVE visible differences between the skulls of A and C (2)

(20)

pg. 70 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 2. Out of Africa Theory
Teaching tool 10: The out of Africa Hypothesis
Modern humans originated in Africa and then migrated to other continents.

13.1 Evidence for the 'Out-of-Africa' hypothesis:

13.1.1 Fossil evidence:

Information on each of the following fossils that serve as evidence for the
It must be explained as stated here

'Out-of-Africa' hypothesis:
o Ardipithecus fossils found in Africa only
o Australopithecus fossils found in Africa only (Karabo, Little Foot, Taung
Child, Mrs Ples)
o Homo -fossils -
- Homo habilis found in Africa only
- Oldest fossils of Homo erectus and Homo sapiens found in Africa,
- Younger fossils were found in other parts of the world)

pg. 71 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 Evidence from fossils of different ages show that the anatomical characteristics of
organisms changed gradually over time.

Tree phyla are used in the fossil evidence

Ardipithecus → Australopithecus → Homo (what learners must know in fossil

evidence – lines of evidence)

# It is very important to know the line of fossil evidence and the fossils that is
used as reference (where they are found, who discovered them etc.)

Fossils that are used as reference

Ardipithecus Ardipithecus ramidus
Australopithecus Australopithecus afarensis – Lucy
Australopithecus africanus
Mrs. Ples
Taung child
Little foot
Australopithecus sediba
Karabo

Homo Homo habilis (the one that used tools)

Homo erectus (the first to stand up
straight)

pg. 72 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 Homo sapiens (modern humans of today)

Changes in structure that characterise human evolution (learners are expected

to list the differences and the significance that these differences are bringing
along)

Emphasis on evolutionary trends provided by the anatomical features of fossils of

the following three genera: o Ardipithecus o Australopithecus o Homo as well as:
• The age of each fossil found / timeline for the existence of the three genera.
• The fossil sites where they were found, emphasis on the fossil sites that form a
part of the Cradle of Humankind
• The scientists who discovered them

Australopithecus Homo habilis Homo

sapience’s

• Bipedalism (Shift of foramen magnum to a more forward position)

• A more rounded skull and increased cranium size
• A flatter face due to:
• less sloping forehead
• less protruding jaws (decreased prognathous)
• a more developed chin
• A more rounded jaw
• Increased size of skeleton which mean increased height
• Change in dentition

The table below shows the characteristics of different organisms (as obtained from a
study of their fossils) that are thought to be in the same lineated to the evolution of
modern humans.

The fossils are dealt with in the order in which they appeared on earth.
(the characteristics will be given to learners, but learner must know who
discovered the fossil)

pg. 73 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 Organism When Fossil site discover Characteristics
organi ed by
Ardipithecu 5–4
smmya North-East Tim White Brain size: 300–350ml
s ramidus existed Ethiopia Forward position of foramen
(Ardi) magnum Very prognathous
(more protruding jaws) Heavy
brow ridges
Pelvis structure: bipedal and
tree climbing
Australopithecu 4 – 2,7 mya Ethiopia, Donald Brain size: 375–550ml
s afarensis Kenya, Johans Forward position of
(Lucy) Tanzania on foramen magnum Very
prognathous
Heavy brow ridges
Canines large and
pointed
Long arms.
No cranial ridge

Australopithecu 3 – 2 mya Mrs. Ples Robert Brain size: 428–625 ml

s africanus Sterfontein Broom Forward position of
(Mrs. Ples, foramen magnum
Taung Taung; Raymo Prognathous
child, Sterkfontein nd Dart Brow ridges
Littlefoot) Teeth large, canines
Little foot Ron not long
Sterkfontein Clark
Long arms
No cranial ridge
Australopithecu 1,9 – 1,8 Malapa Cave Lee Brain size: 420 ml Less
s sediba mya – in the cradle Berger prognathous Brow ridges
(Karabo) of humankind Large teeth, canines not long
Long arms
No cranial ridge

Homo habilis 2,2 – 1,6 Tanzania Louis and Brain size: 650 ml Less
mya Mary prognathous
Leakey Less pronounced brow ridges
Human-like teeth – smaller
canines. Long arms

pg. 74 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
Homo erectus 2 – 0,4 Java in Eugene Brain size: 900 ml Prognathous
mya Indonesia Dubois Cranial ridges Short canines
and then Longer legs and shorter arms
Swartkrans

Homo sapiens 200 000 Makapansgat Tim White Brain size: 1200–1800 ml No
years ago in Limpopo; brow ridges
– present Border Cave Small teeth Short arms
in KZN;
Blombos
Cave in the
Western Cape

Australopithecus Fossils found in the Cradle of humankind

• Hominid species found in South Africa
• Mrs. Ples(Australopithecus africanus),
• Little foot (Australopithecus africanus),
• Taung child(Australopithecus africanus),
• Karabo(Australopithecus sediba) is also regarded as Is the missing link
between Australopithecus africanus and Homo erectus.

13.1.2 Genetic evidence: mitochondrial DNA

Apart from DNA in the nucleus, DNA also occurs in the mitochondria as
mitochondrial DNA
• mtDNA of the sperm cell does
not fuse with mtDNA of the egg
cell
• mtDNA is therefore handed down from
mother to child
• By following mutations in
mtDNA, we can trace
our female line of descent.
• Analysis of mitochondrial DNA leads to ancestral
female who lived in East Africa about 150 000 years ago.

Given the amount of genetic material shared between humans and other
hominids (the apes), they must have had a common ancestor who lived
approximately 5 – 6 million years ago.

pg. 75 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 13.1.3 Cultural evidence: toolmaking
• A very important aspect of human evolution, separating humans from other
hominids, is the development and use of tools.

• Art also contributed. The earliest known art dates from about 100 000 years
ago, and the earliest cave paintings (see Figure 26 below), of which we have
an abundance in South Africa, were made some 40 000 years ago

• Behaviour like burial sites

pg. 76 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 ACTIVITY 15

15 The extract below is about human evolution

15.1 .1 Name the TWO lines of evidence for human evolution that is
referred to in the extract above (2)

15.1.2 How long did Homo floresiensis exist on Earth? (1)

-
15.1.3 Name ONE Homo ancestor mentioned in the extract (1)

15.1.4 Describe ONE feature of the skull that can be used as evidence (2)
for bipedalism

15.1.5 State TWO similarities between the hands of African apes and (3)
modern humans.

15.1.6 State THREE features of the jaw of H. floresiensis that might

have led scientists to believe that it resembled that of
Australopithecus, rather than of a Homo species

15.1.7 Draw a table to show the brain volumes of the different Homo (4)
species, using information from the extract.

pg. 77 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 15.2. Scientists use fossils as evidence for human evolution. The
brain volume of some extinct primates has been estimated from
their fossils and have been compared to the brain volumes of
living primates

15.2.1. What type of evidence of human evolution is given in the table (1)

15.2.1. Give the

a) Family to which all these fossils belong to (1)

b) First primate that become extinct (1)
c) Genes of erectus (1)
-
15.2.3 Name FOUR fossils of Australopithecus that is found in Africa (4)
only

15.2.4 The brain of an organism is not preserved as a fossil.

How do scientists determine the brain volume of extinct
primates? (2)

15.2.5 Give evidence in the table that suggests that:

a) Homo habilis and Homo erectus may have existed at

the same time (1)
b) Ardipithecus was the most primitive of all the primate
genera (1)

15.2.6 Draw a bar graph to show the average brain volume of EACH
of the species of the genus Homo. (6)

pg. 78 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 15.2.7 Explain how genetic evidence as a line of evidence contributes
to human evolution.

ACTIVITY 16

16 The image below is of Mrs. Ples

16.1.1 Give the

a) Genus and species to which Mrs. Ples belong to (1)

b) Site where Mrs. Ples is found - The scientist that found (1)
Mrs. Ples – (1)

16.1.2 Name THREE ape-like features of this skull (3)

16.1.3 If asked to decide whether a complete skull with jaw- bones was (8)
that of Ardipithecus or Australopithecus, describe what four
features would you examine

2 16.2.1. Complete the table

Organism Fossil site Discovered by

Aridipithecus
Lee Berger
Indonesia and
Swartkrans
Makapansgat in Tim White
Limpopo; Border
Cave in KZN
Lucy Donald Johanson
Sterkfontein R Dart

pg. 79 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP
 16.2.2. Give the name of the Australopithecus afarensis that was found
in Kenya and Tanzania

16.2.3. Give the Australopithecus africanus that was discovered by

a) Robert Broom
b) R Dart
c) Lee Berger
d) Ron Clark

We would like to express our profound gratitude to the following bodies for their
contributions to the compilation of this Content Manual for Winter Classes.

National Senior Certificate, 2022 – 23 National Diagnostic Report.

Gauteng Department of Education - Secondary School Improvement Programme

(SSIP) 2015.
KwaZulu-Natal Department of Education - 2023 LFSC Composite Revision Document
– Final.
GMMDC – Life Sciences Grade 12 – Teacher’s Guide.
Department of Basic Education - Life Sciences GR 12 Exam Guidelines 2021 Eng
Department of Basic Education – Sources from Various Previous Question Papers.
Content adapted from - MD Watson, with assistance of: J Brümmer; A Esterhuizen and
Cvan Heerden.
All the questions in this study guide are adapted from question bank compiled by Free State
Subject Advisors.

pg. 80 LIFE SCIENCES: EVOLUTION GRADE 12 CONTENT MANUAL TEACHER/LEARNER: ADAPTED BY L. MONYANE, Z.SANDA & R.BISHOP