LIMES

1. INTRODUCTION

Lime was used as the main cementing material before the invention of Portland cement for mortars and plasters.
While Portland cement has almost replaced lime, lime is still being used where it is locally available as a cheap
alternative.

2. MANUFACTURE OF LIME

Lime is obtained by calcining limestone. Limestone is quarried, crushed to size and calcined in the kiln. Lime has
a specific gravity of about 3.40 and it is usually sold as hydrated lime (dry hydrate). Quicklime is finely crushed,
slaked with little water and ground to a fine homogeneous powder. The production is a two-stage process as
shown below:

Stage 1: Limestone (CaCO3) is calcined at 800-900oC to produce quicklime (CaO) and CO2.

Stage 2: Quicklime reacts with water to yield Ca(OH)2 (slaked lime).

3. TYPES OF LIME

Depending on the type of limestone calcined, different types of lime could be obtained. Nonetheless, two
categories are available. These are the non hydraulic and hydraulic limes.

Non hydraulic lime is obtained from limestone like chalk, shells etc. that are free from clay impurities. It sets by
absorbing CO2 from the atmosphere. Hence, strength development is by carbonation.

Hydraulic lime is obtained from limestone with clay impurities (i.e. small quantities of silica, alumina and iron
oxide) resulting in compounds like C 3S, C2S, C3A and C4AF). Hence, it sets under water (by hydration) and
develops strength by carbonation.

4. IMPURITIES IN LIME

Impurity Effects
MgCO3  Allows lime to slake and set slowly.
 imparts high strength. Up to 5% will impart excellent hydraulic properties.
Clay Responsible for hydraulic properties
 < 5%- No hydraulic property (No setting or hardening under water).
 10-30%- Excellent hydraulic properties.
Silica High percentage will result in poor cementing and hydraulic properties. > 15% will result in
poor lime.
Iron Compounds Responsible for colour. 2-5% is okay.
Fe2O3
SO4  Slows down slaking action.
 Increases setting.
Alkalis Up to 5% will improve hydraulicity in hydraulic lime.

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5. CHARACTERISTICS OF LIME

1. It has good plasticity- It is easy to work with.

2. It stiffens easily- It is resistant to moisture.
3. Its cementing properties make it suitable for masonry works.
4. Shrinkage on drying is small- It has high water retentivity.
5. Strength development is slow. Hence strength is comparatively low.
 0.5-1.0 N/mm2 after a month.
 5-7 N/mm2 after several decades.

This is because on setting, the CaCO 3 on the surface will reduce ingress of CO 2 into the interior, thus
reducing the rate of carbonation. Hence, to obtain a higher strength of up to 30-40 N/mm 2, artificial
carbonation would be required.

6. SLAKING OF LIME

 Lime is used as slaked lime. Hence, quicklime should be completely hydrated by slaking it for about 3-14
days in slaking tanks. Quicklime should be slaked immediately after calcining or else will carbonate and
become unsuitable for sound construction work.
 Hydrated lime, although immediately usable, should be soaked overnight or longer for better results.
 Slaking is accompanied by increase in volume. About 2-3 times in non-hydraulic limes and 50% in
hydraulic limes.

7. USES OF LIME

1. Putty: This is hydrated lime mixed with water and stirred to form a thick cream of uniform consistency. It
is allowed to stay for 12-24 hours before use.
2. Mortar: Lime + Sand + Water. Lime should be slaked to prevent popping and pitting after placing. To
prevent cracks (due to shrinkage during drying), 3-4 parts (by volume) of sand is added. Hence, sand will
reduce drying shrinkage and improve hardening.
3. Soil stabilization for embankment and brick/block manufacture.
4. Paint/white wash.
5. Flux in metallurgical processes.
6. Concrete work: Added to PC to increase plasticity and workability.

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CEMENTS
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Cements are adhesive and cohesive materials capable of bonding together particles of solid matters into a compact
durable mass. The cements used for concrete set and harden under water by virtue of hydration reaction. Hence,
they are called hydraulic cements. Common cements are Portland cements, High Alumina cement, Super-
sulphated cement and in recent times the Supplementary cements.

2.0 PORTLAND CEMENTS

Portland cement is a mixture of calcareous materials (limestone) and argillaceous materials (clay) burned together
in a kiln to form a clinker rich in calcium silicates. Joseph Aspin was the first to introduce Portland cement in
1824 by heating a mixture of limestone and finely grinded clay in a furnace at a high temperature. In 1845, Isaac
Johnson invented the cement by increasing the temperature to produce cement clinker (prototype of the modern
cement) from the mixture of limestone and clay. The name ‘Portland cement’ is due to the resemblance of the
cement to a natural stone quarried from Portland in Dorset in UK. The clinker is ground to a fine powder with a
small proportion of gypsum (CaSO4) to prevent flash setting when the cement is mixed with water.

2.1 Manufacture of Portland cement

The mixing and grinding of the raw materials could be done in a wet or dry condition as stated below.

The dry process involves

1. Grinding the crushed limestone and crushed clay in the Ball Mill.
2. Blending the materials in the required proportion and storing the dry powder (raw meal) in the Raw Meal
Silo.
3. Preheating the raw meal to 800oC in the Preheater.
4. Heating the raw meal (at 1450-1650oC) in the Rotary Kiln to form clinker (3-25 mm in diameter).
5. Cooling the clinker in a cooler, grinding it with gypsum in a ball mill to prevent flash setting and storing
in a silo.
6. Packing cement in bags or drums and transporting it.

The wet process involves

1. Mixing crushed limestone with water in a Wash Mill.
2. Mixing crushed clay with water in a Wash Mill.
3. Mixing limestone and clay in the right proportion, blending the mixture (with about 35-50% water
content) to a creamy consistency and storing the slurry in a Slurry Tank.
4. Heating the slurry (at 1450-1650oC) in the Rotary Kiln to form clinker (3-25 mm in diameter).
5. Cooling the clinker in a cooler, grinding it with gypsum in a ball mill to prevent flash setting and storing
in a silo.
6. Packing cement in bags or drums and transporting it.

2.2 Types of Portland cement

Several types of Portland cement have been developed to provide special properties. These cements contain the
same active compounds but in different proportions depending on their oxide compositions. These compounds are
tricalcium silicate (C3S), dicalcium silicate (C 2S), tricalcium aluminate (C 3A) and tetracalcium aluminoferrite
(C4AF).

2.2.1 Ordinary Portland cement (OPC)

This is the most widely used Portland cement. It comes in 3 strength classes (32.5, 42.5 and 52.5) which are
measures of the minimum compressive strength values expected of them at 28 days. The oxide composition could
be obtained by X-ray Fluorescence (XRF). Cement is placed in a standard mould, compressed under load and
installed on XRF machine connected to a computer. Cement is bombarded with X-rays and based on the different
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wavelengths of the emitted energies, the oxide compositions of the cement would be obtained. Below is a typical
oxide composition of an OPC.

Table 1: Oxide composition of OPC

Oxide % Function(s)
CaO (Lime) 60-65 Controls strength and soundness.
Deficiency reduces strength and setting times.
SiO2 (Silica) 17-25 Gives strength.
Excess slows setting.
Al2O3 (Alumina) 3-8 Responsible for quick setting.
Excess lowers strength.
0.5-6 Imparts colour
Fe2O3 (Iron oxide) In small quantity, helps fusion of cement materials.
Excess results in hard clinker difficult to grind.
MgO (Magnesia) 0.5-4 Imparts colour and hardness.
Excess causes cracks and unsoundness.
Na2O, K2O (Alkalis) 0.5-1.3 These residues, in excess, will cause efflorescence and
TiO2 0.1-0.4 cracking due to ASR. (In addition, alkalis will accelerate
P2O5 0.1-0.2 setting).
SO3 (Sulphate) 1-2 Responsible for soundness (ettringite formation)

The compound composition of OPC, could be obtained from the oxide composition by using the Bogue’s
equations given below.
C3S = 4.07 (CaO) – 7.60 (SiO2) – 6.72 (Al2O3) – 1.43 (Fe2O3) – 2.85 (SO3)
C2S = 2.87 (SiO2) – 0.75 (3CaO.SiO2)
C3A = 2.65 (Al2O3) – 1.69 (Fe2O3)
C4AF = 3.04 (Fe2O3)

Typical values for the compound composition of OPC are given in Table 2.

Table 2: Compound or mineralogical composition

Compound Symbo Formula % Properties
l
It reacts rapidly with water forming CSH the
Tricalcium Silicate (Alite) C3S 3CaO.SiO2 55 main contributor to strength development.
Hence, low heat cement requires a lower
content of C3S.
It reacts slowly forming CSH. Heat of
Dicalcium Silicate (Belite) C2S 2CaO.SiO2 20 hydration is low. Hence, it will contribute to
strength development at later ages.
In the absence of gypsum, C 3A reacts
Tricalcium Aluminate (Celite) C3A 3CaO.Al2O3 10 rapidly to give a flash set. It evolves high
heat of hydration and contributes much to
early age strength and little to later-age
strength.
It does not produce much heat or strength. It
Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite (Felite) C4AF 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 8 is responsible for flash set and has poor
cementing value.

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2.2.2 Rapid-hardening Portland cement
It is similar to OPC but more finely grinded so that it gains strength rapidly at early ages. Hence, it would help
ensure early stripping of formwork especially in precast concrete. Since it produces more heat than OPC, it would
also be good for concrete-work in cold weather. Note: Rapid hardening does not imply quick setting.

2.2.3 Sulphate-resisting Portland cement

When OPC is exposed to SO 4 solution in soil, CAH will form Tricalcium Sulphoaluminate (Ettringite) which has
a great tendency for volume change and spalling of concrete. Hence, Sulphate-resisting PC is a Portland cement
with a low C3A content. This is achieved by adding iron oxide to react with C 3A to form C4AF. The higher iron
content gives it a darker colour.

2.2.4 White Portland cement

This is produce from pure chalk (limestone) and white china clay (with small iron content). It is similar to OPC in
setting and strength development. However, it must be handled with care during batching, mixing and placing to
avoid contamination and staining.

2.2.5 Portland blast-furnace cement

This is a pozzolanic cement made from OPC and granulated blast-furnace slag (up to 65%). Slag has little
hydraulicity. Hence, it is activated by the Ca(OH)2 produced by the hydration reaction of OPC. It evolves less heat
and gains strength slowly than OPC. Hence, it is a low heat cement. While strengths at early ages are lower than
in OPC, the 28-day strengths are similar. It is good for concrete in hot weather and mass concrete-work.

2.2.6 Portland pulverised-fuel ash cement

This is a pozzolanic cement made from OPC and PFA (15-35%). Just like Portland blast-furnace cement, it has
little hydraulicity and it is a low heat cement. Hence, it has the same properties with blast-furnace cement.

2.2.7 Portland low heat cement

It is characterized by reduced C 3A and high C2S and C4AF contents, low early strength and equal 28-day strength
with OPC.

3.0 OTHER CEMENTS

3.1 High alumina cement
It is manufactured by heating a mixture of Bauxite (Al 2O3) and limestone at high temperatures. The high rate of
hydration leads to a rapid gain in strength at early ages. Hence, while it is good for precast concrete and urgent
repair works requiring quick setting, it is not good for concrete in hot weather or mass concrete. It has a good
resistance to fire (used for refractory concrete) and chemical attack (sea water, acids, sulphates etc.).

3.2 Supersulphated cement

It is manufactured from a mixture of granulated blast furnace slag (70% max.) and CaSO4 to limit the C 3A
content and make it less susceptible to sulphate attack. It is a low heat cement. Hence, it is suitable for concrete in
hot weather or mass concrete. It has high resistance to water penetration and chemical attack (especially SO 4).
Hence, it is good for underground concrete work especially sewers and pipes in ground water.

3.3 Supplementary cements

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These are pozzolanic cements obtained as by-products of agricultural or industrial wastes. They are also known as
cement additions or pozzolans. They have intrinsic hydraulicity and hence delayed hydration reaction. Common
examples are fly ash, GGBS, silica fume and metakaolin.
Fly ash is a by-product of coal-fire power generation stations. It is used up to 55% content to reduce cost.
Particles are spherical in shape resulting in reduced water demand and improved particle packing and reduced
permeability. It has poor performance at early ages but would contribute to strength development at later ages due
to continuous pozzolanic reaction.

GGBS is a by-product of steel industry. It is used up to 75% content. Particles are angular in shape (as in OPC)
resulting in more water demand than fly ash. It is finer than OPC resulting in better particle packing and reduced
permeability. It has poor performance at early ages but would also contribute to strength development at later
ages.

Silica fume is a by-product of the production of ferro-silicon metals available in densified or slurry form. It is
used up to 5-10% content due to its high cost. The particles are extremely fine and spherical in shape resulting in
high reactivity and better performance (than GGBS and fly ash) at early ages, reduced bleeding, high water
demand and poor workability, improved packing and reduced permeability.

Metakaolin is a by-product of calcinations of kaolinite. It is used up to 5-15% content due to its high cost. The
particles are angular in shape and while they are finer than that of Portland cement, fly ash and GGBS, they are
slightly coarser than that of silica fume resulting in high reactivity and better performance (than GGBS and fly
ash) at early ages, reduced bleeding, high water demand (than silica fume), poor workability, improved packing
and reduced permeability.

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CONCRETE

Concrete is a mixture of cement, aggregates (fine and coarse), water and admixtures in the right proportion to
achieve the desired strength and durability performance.

AGGREGATES

Aggregates are the gravels, crushed rocks and sands which are mixed with cement and water to make concrete.
Aggregates form the bulk of the volume of concrete and can affect its performance. Hence, the selection of
suitable material is important. Fine aggregates are natural sand, crushed rock and gravel most of which passes
through a 5 mm BS sieve. Coarse aggregates are of similar material most of which are retained on a 5 mm BS
sieve. Most concretes are made from natural aggregates. Manufactured aggregates, especially lightweight
aggregates are sometimes used.

The maximum size of coarse aggregates is governed by the type of work to be done. For RC, concrete should be
placed around reinforcement without difficulty especially in the cover zone and corners of formwork. It is usual
for coarse aggregates for RC to have a nominal maximum size of 20 mm. Aggregates of 40 mm maximum size
can be used for foundations, mass concrete and similar sections where there are no restrictions to the flow of
concrete. The use of larger aggregates will also reduce water demand.

Aggregates should be hard and should not contain materials which are likely to decompose or change in volume
when used. Aggregates should be clean and free from organic impurities. Coatings of clay, for example, will
prevent proper bonding of the material. An excessive amount of fine dust may prevent the particles of stone from
being properly coated with cement and thus lower concrete strength. Aggregates deficient in fines also tend to
increase bleeding characteristics of concrete which can result in poor vertical finishes.

The proportion of different sizes of particles making up the aggregate is termed grading. It is given in terms of
percentages by weight passing through the designated sieves as defined in the standard. Gap grading will occur
when some of the intermediate sizes are absent. An aggregate containing a high proportion of large particles is
referred to as being coarsely graded and one containing a high proportion of small particles as finely graded. All-
in aggregate (consisting of both fine and coarse aggregates) should not be used for structural concrete to avoid
excessive variation in workability and strength from batch to batch. Storage should take cognissance of
contamination, moisture content and intermingling of sizes. Partitions should be provided for different sizes to
prevent spillage from one size to another.

WATER

Portable water is required. Impurities (suspended solids, organic matter, dissolved salts etc) could adversely affect
the properties of concrete (especially setting and hardening). While, the use of sea water would not adversely
affect plain Portland cement concrete, it must not be used for reinforced or prestressed concrete because of the
danger of corrosion of steel.

ADMIXTURE

This is a material, usually in liquid form, added o concrete during mixing to modify the properties of fresh
concrete. Incorrect dosage of admixtures may adversely affect the strength and other properties of concrete. The
following are common types of admixture

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 1. Accelerating admixtures: They increase the initial rate of chemical reaction between cement and water so
that concrete stiffens, hardens and develops strength more quickly especially in cold weather. They have
negligible effect on the workability and 28-day strength. Accelerators will increase drying shrinkage and
therefore not good for mass concrete or concrete in hot weather. Calcium chloride is the most widely used
accelerator.
2. Retarding admixtures: They slow down initial reaction between cement and water. Hence, concrete would
stay longer than normal. It is good in hot weather or mass concrete. The use of retarders will affect
formwork striking time and could increase the risk of bleeding. Later-age strengths are not significantly
affected.
3. Water reducing admixtures: They are also known as plasticizer or superplasticiser. They reduce the inter-
particle attraction between cement particles to reduce slump and produce a more workable concrete at
reduced water content. Overdosing may retard strength development.
4. Air-entraining admixtures are organic compounds which provide air bubbles about 0.5m in size in order
to reduce the resistance of concrete to frost action.

CONCRETE MIXING

Concrete is prepared in accordance with BS EN 12390- 2. Concrete mixing involves the following:

 Batching of materials- In a good concrete work, the concrete mix design should precede the batching of
materials. The mix design will result in the mix proportion on which the batch proportion and the
batching of materials would be based.
 Dampening of mixer pan and paddle of mixer.
 Addition of gravel and sand and dry-mixing for 30-60 seconds.
 Adding half of mix water and mix for about 1-2 minutes to ensure homogeneous mix. (Note: For
laboratory dry aggregates cover for 8 minutes to allow water absorption by aggregates).
 Add cement (spread evenly over the aggregates) and mixed for 1 minute to obtain homogeneous mix.
 Add the remaining water (with admixtures) and mix for a further 2 minutes to obtain a homogeneous mix.

MIX DESIGN QUESTION

a. Using saturated surface dry (SSD) aggregates, determine the mix proportion of concrete using the following
/details:
 Water content = 160 kg/m3.
 w/c ratio = 0.5
 Proportion of fine aggregates = 40% (Note: proportion of fine aggregates depends on the %fines passing
600 µm sieve, w/c ratio, slump and maximum size aggregate)

b. Using the following specific gravity (PC = 3.20, sand = 2.8, gravel = 2.8, determine the yield corrected mix
proportion.

c. If the total quantity of concrete required is 100 m3, determine the batch proportion for the SSD aggregates.

d. Using the following %water absorption (sand 1%, gravel 1.5%), determine
 the mix proportion for the laboratory-dry-aggregate concrete.
 the yield corrected mix proportion and the batch proportion for the lab-dry-aggregate concrete.

TRANSPORTATION OF CONCRETE

8
Concrete is transported with head pans and wheel barrows on small sites and with dumpers, vehicles, crane and
skip and by pumping on larger sites. Ready-mixed concrete are transported to sites in vehicles continuously
agitated to prevent setting. pumping is beneficial when access is difficult or restricted.
TESTS OF PROPERTIES OF CEMENT SYSTEMS

Common tests performed on fresh and harden properties of cement systems are standard consistency and setting
times of cement pastes and plastic density, slump and compressive strength of concrete. Durability tests such as
permeation tests and carbonation and chloride resistance tests are also relevantly common.

Standard consistency involves determining the quantity of water which will give a standard consistence with 500g
of cement in accordance with BS EN 196- 3. After mixing the cement with an initial quantity of water (say 125g),
the cement paste is placed in a mould (standard mould). The mould is placed on the Vicat apparatus and the
plunger is gently lowered. The standard consistency is the water content at which the depth of penetration is 6±2
mm to the base.

Setting times could be used to determine the rapidity of the initial stiffening of cement systems. Setting times are
determined with a paste of standard consistency in accordance with BS EN 196- 3 using the automatic Vicat
apparatus. The initial setting time is the time difference between when water was added to cement and when the
needle of the Vicat apparatus can only penetrate a distance of 36±1 mm. The final setting time is the time
difference between when water was added to cement and when the needle of the Vicat apparatus can only leave a
mark on the surface (i.e. when penetration distance is less than 1 mm).

Plastic density could be used to confirm the yield of concrete produced. The plastic density test involves
compacting fresh concrete into a rigid and water-tight container of known volume and mass. The plastic density is
obtained by dividing the mass of concrete by the volume of concrete.

The slump is a measure of the workability of concrete. Slump test is carried out using truncated cone
(100x200x300 mm) and tamping rod (16x 600 mm). This involves dampening the inner surface of the cone and
tamping rod. With the cone firmly held in position with the aid of the foot rests, fresh concrete is placed in three
layers, compacted on each occasion with 25 strokes of the tamping rod and level finished. The cone is carefully
removed and placed inverted next to the slumped concrete. The difference in the heights is the slump.

Compressive strength test is commonly performed on hardened concrete specimens using 100 mm cubes. At the
required age, the test specimen is loaded to failure with the crushing machine. The compressive strength is
obtained by dividing the failure load with the area of the cube.

9
BRICKS

1. INTRODUCTION
Bricks are products of clay. Clay is a earthen mineral mass (or fragmented rock). It consists of kaolin
(2SiO2.Al2O3.2H2O) with small quantities of other minerals. The plastic and viscous mass formed when clay is
mixed with water has the property of
1. retaining its shape when moulded and dried and
2. acquiring hardness and strength when burnt.

Brick is rectangular in shape. Standard sizes are 190 x 90 x 90 mm and 190 x 90 x 40 mm.
Length of brick = 2 * (Width of brick) + Mortar thickness and
Height of brick = Width of brick

Bricks are cheap, durable and easy to handle and work with. It is used for walls, partitions, piers, footings and
other load-bearing structures.

2. CLASSIFICATION OF BRICKS
1. For design purpose, bricks are classified on the basis of their compressive strength and water absorption.
2. On the basis of use, we have:
i. Common bricks- They are used for general works (with little or no consideration for appearance,
strength and durability.
ii. Facing bricks- They have good appearance (texture and colour) and are durable under severe
exposure.
iii. Engineering bricks- They are strong, impermeable and smooth (limited absorption) and are good
for load-bearing structures.

3. On the basis of manufacture, we have hand-made and machine-made bricks.

4. On the basis of type, we have
i. Solid bricks consisting of
 Small holes not exceeding 25% of the volume of bricks. Small holes are holes less than
20 mm in diameter (or with area less than 500 mm2).
 Frogs not exceeding 20% of the total volume of bricks. Typical frog dimensions are
100x40x10-20 mm.
ii. Perforated bricks with small holes exceeding 25% of the total volume of bricks.
iii. Hollow bricks with total hole (not small holes) exceeding 25% of the total volume of bricks.
iv. Cellular bricks with holes (closed at one end) exceeding 20% of the total volume of bricks.
v. Coping bricks used on parapet walls or as ridge cap.
vi. Split or splayed bricks such as queen closer, king closer, cant etc.

5. On the basis of class as first, second, third or fourth class bricks:

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 i. First class bricks are characterized by
 Thorough burning to produce deep red or cherry colour.
 Smooth and uniform textured surface (free from holes and fissures), square corners,
parallel, sharp and straight edges.
 Metallic or ringing sound when struck together.
 Water absorption: 12-15% when immersed in cold water for 24 hours.
 Crushing strength of not less than 10 N/mm2.
Hence, they are used for reinforced brickwork, exposed facings and flooring.

ii. Second class bricks have same requirements as first class bricks except that:
 Small cracks and distortions are permitted on the surfaces.
 A higher water absorption values (16-20%) are permitted.
 Crushing strength of not less than 7 N/mm2 is permitted.
Hence, used for other low class masonry works and self-centering construction.

iii. Third class bricks are under-burnt bricks: They are soft and they have light colour and high water
absorption values (about 25%). Hence, they are used for temporary structures.

iv. Fourth class bricks are over-burnt bricks: They are brittle and badly distorted in shape and size.
Hence, they are used as ballast in foundation, floor and pavement construction.

3. CONSTITUENTS A GOOD BRICK EARTH

A good brick earth must contain the following in the right proportions.
Constituent % Function
Helps brick to retain shape (No shrinkage and warping).
Silica 50-60% Contributes to the refractory property of brick.
Excess will make brick brittle and weak.
Absorbs water and makes clay plastic.
Alumina 20-30% Contributes to the refractory property of brick.
Excess will produce cracks.
Helps reduce shrinkage.
Lime 10% Contributes to bonding (lowers fusion point and accelerates silica melting).
Excess will make brick to
i. melt and lose shape.
ii. change colour from red to yellow.
iii. absorb moisture, swells and disintegrate.
Magnesia Makes clay to soften (but at a lower rate than lime).
< 10% Reduces warping.
Imparts red colour (in sufficient oxygen) and dark brown to black (in
Ferric Oxide < 7% insufficient oxygen).
Excess will produce dark blue colour.
Used as flux.
Alkalis < 10% Excess will
i. melt clay.
ii. lead to efflorescence.
Water Small % Required to make clay plastic.
Excess will result in shrinkage during burning.
CO2, SO3 Small % Excess CO2 will affect colour resulting in black patches.
Excess SO3 will form a spongy swollen structure and white patches.
11
4. MANUFACTURE OF BRICKS
Brick manufacture consists of the following stages.
1. Preparation of brick earth:
i. Clay is dug and unsoiled (to remove gravel, biological matters and sand greater than 2 mm).
ii. Clay is weathered (left in heaps and exposed to rain to remove soluble salts). Soil should be
turned over and sprayed with water periodically to ensure soil is thoroughly weathered.
iii. Blending of clay with sandy-earth, calcareous-earth and water in appropriate proportion to
modify its composition.
iv. Tempering- Kneading of clay in pug-mill to the right consistency suitable for moulding.

2. Moulding of bricks: This is the process of giving the required shape to brick. Soft mud could be hand-
moulded. Structural clay products are made from stiff mud using machine. Clay comes out of moulding
machine in the form of a bar and bricks are wire-cut to size.

3. Drying of bricks: Green bricks contain about 7-30% moisture. In order to reduce shrinkage and save fuel
during burning, bricks are dried to reduce moisture content to about 3%. Drying could be in open air
driers (protected from direct sunlight) or in artificial driers (using heat from furnace). Bricks are stacked
raised from ground with a gap of about 1.0 m between adjacent layers of stacks to allow free movement
of workers.

4. Burning of bricks: Burning is done in kilns. The stages involved are:

i. Dehydration stage: This is known as the water smoking stage when water in the pore is driven out
with other carbon and sulphur matters. It occurs between 400 and 650oC.
ii. Oxidation stage: During this stage, the remainder of carbon and sulphur contents is eliminated
and ferrous iron is oxidized to ferric iron. It occurs between 650 and 900oC.
iii. Vitrification stage: Clay is turned into molten mass to produce a hard glassy textured brick on
cooling. It occurs between 900 and 1250oC.

5. TESTING OF BRICKS
Common tests on structural bricks are strength and water absorption tests.
Compressive strength test could be performed on plain and frogged bricks as stated below:
i. For plain bricks:
 Immerse brick in water at room temperature for 24 hours.
 Dry specimen to remove surface moisture and place with flat face horizontal on
compression testing machine.
 Determine the failure load.
 Determine compressive strength using Compressive strength = Failure load/Area of bed
face.

ii. For frogged bricks:

 Frog is flushed level with mortar and stored under damp hessian for 24 hours.
 Immerse brick in water for 3 days.

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  Dry specimen and determine failure load and compressive strength.

The water absorption is a measure of the pore content of bricks. Water absorption could be carried out using:
i. 24-hour immersion cold water test:
% water absorption = w2-w1/w1 * 100
where w1 = Dry weight of brick (after being dried to constant mass at 105oC)
w2 = Weight after immersion in water for 24 hours.

ii. 5-hour boiled water test:

% water absorption = w3-w1/w1 * 100
where w1 = Dry weight of brick (after being dried to constant mass at 105oC)
w3 = Weight after boiling in water for 5 hours.

6. DEFECTS IN BRICKS
1. Overburning of bricks: A soft molten mass is produced resulting in a loss of shape. Hence, it is not good
for construction works.
2. Underburning of bricks: Bricks are not burnt to complete vitrification. Clay is not softened enough to
close the pores. This will result in higher water absorption and lower strength. Hence, it is not
recommended for construction.
3. Efflorescence: When brick absorbs water, the alkali in brick crystallizes out to form grey or white
deposits on brick surface. This is called efflorescence.
4. Checks/Cracks: a lump of lime in brick may absorb water, expand and disintegrate brick resulting in
cracks.
5. Spots: Presence of Iron Sulphide may result in dark spots on bricks.

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