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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the pre-1947 history of the Indian subcontinent. For the post-
1947 history of India, see History of India (1947–present). For the post-1947 history
of the Indian subcontinent, see South Asia § Contemporary era.
"Ancient India" and "Indian history" redirect here. For outline, see Outline of South
Asian history.

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 Indus Valley Civilisation, at peak phase (2600–1900
BCE)
Anatomically modern humans first arrived on the Indian subcontinent between
73,000 and 55,000 years ago.[1] The earliest known human remains in South Asia
date to 30,000 years ago. Sedentariness began in South Asia around 7000 BCE;[2] by
4500 BCE, settled life had spread,[2] and gradually evolved into the Indus Valley
Civilisation, which flourished between 2500 BCE and 1900 BCE in present-day
Pakistan and north-western India. Early in the second millennium BCE, persistent
drought caused the population of the Indus Valley to scatter from large urban centres
to villages. Indo-Aryan tribes moved into the Punjab from Central Asia in
several waves of migration. The Vedic Period of the Vedic people in northern India
(1500–500 BCE) was marked by the composition of their extensive collections of
hymns (Vedas). The social structure was loosely stratified via the varna system,
incorporated into the highly evolved present-day Jāti system. The pastoral and
nomadic Indo-Aryans spread from the Punjab into the Gangetic plain. Around 600
BCE, a new, interregional culture arose; then, small chieftaincies (janapadas) were
consolidated into larger states (mahajanapadas). Second urbanization took place,
which came with the rise of new ascetic movements and religious concepts,
[3]
including the rise of Jainism and Buddhism. The latter was synthesized with the
preexisting religious cultures of the subcontinent, giving rise to Hinduism.

Indian cultural influence (Greater India)

Timeline of Indian history

Chandragupta Maurya overthrew the Nanda Empire and established the first great
empire in ancient India, the Maurya Empire. India's Mauryan king Ashoka is widely
recognised for his historical acceptance of Buddhism and his attempts to
spread nonviolence and peace across his empire. The Maurya Empire would
collapse in 185 BCE, on the assassination of the then-emperor Brihadratha by his
general Pushyamitra Shunga. Shunga would form the Shunga Empire in the north
and north-east of the subcontinent, while the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom would claim
the north-west and found the Indo-Greek Kingdom. Various parts of India were ruled
by numerous dynasties, including the Gupta Empire, in the 4th to 6th centuries CE.
This period, witnessing a Hindu religious and intellectual resurgence is known as
the Classical or Golden Age of India. Aspects of Indian civilisation, administration,
culture, and religion spread to much of Asia, which led to the establishment of
Indianised kingdoms in the region, forming Greater India.[4][5] The most significant
event between the 7th and 11th centuries was the Tripartite struggle centred
on Kannauj. Southern India saw the rise of multiple imperial powers from the middle
of the fifth century. The Chola dynasty conquered southern India in the 11th century.
In the early medieval period, Indian mathematics, including Hindu numerals,
influenced the development of mathematics and astronomy in the Arab world,
including the creation of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system.[6]
Islamic conquests made limited inroads into modern Afghanistan and Sindh as early
as the 8th century,[7] followed by the invasions of Mahmud Ghazni.[8] The Delhi
Sultanate was founded in 1206 CE by Central Asian Turks who were Indianized.[9][10][11]
[12]
They ruled a major part of the northern Indian subcontinent in the early 14th
century. It was ruled by Multiple Turk, Afghan and Indian dynasties, Including the
Turco-Mongol Indianized Tughlaq Dynasty[13] but declined in the late 14th century
following the invasions of Timur[14] and saw the advent of the Deccan sultanates.
[15]
The wealthy Bengal Sultanate also emerged as a major power, lasting over three
centuries.[16] During this period, multiple strong Hindu kingdoms, notably
the Vijayanagara Empire and the Rajput states, emerged and played significant roles
in shaping the cultural and political landscape of India.
The early modern period began in the 16th century, when the Mughal
Empire conquered most of the Indian subcontinent,[17] signaling the proto-
industrialisation, becoming the biggest global economy and manufacturing power.[18][19]
[20]
The Mughals suffered a gradual decline in the early 18th century, largely due to
the rising power of the Marathas, who took control of extensive regions of the Indian
subcontinent.[21][22] The East India Company, acting as a sovereign force on behalf of
the British government, gradually acquired control of huge areas of India between
the middle of the 18th and the middle of the 19th centuries. Policies of company rule
in India led to the Indian Rebellion of 1857. India was afterwards ruled directly by
the British Crown, in the British Raj. After World War I, a nationwide struggle for
independence was launched by the Indian National Congress, led by Mahatma
Gandhi. Later, the All-India Muslim League would advocate for a separate Muslim-
majority nation state. The British Indian Empire was partitioned in August 1947 into
the Dominion of India and Dominion of Pakistan, each gaining its independence.
Prehistoric era (until c. 3300 BCE)
This section contains too many or overly lengthy quotations. Please
help summarize the quotations. Consider transferring direct quotations
to Wikiquote or excerpts to Wikisource. (July 2021)
 Mesolithic rock art at the Bhimbetka rock shelters, Madhya Pradesh, showing a wild animal, perhaps a
mythical one, attacking human hunters. Although the rock art has not been directly dated, [23] it has been
argued on circumstantial grounds that many paintings were completed by 8000 BCE,[24] and some slightly
earlier.[25]

A dolmen erected by Neolithic people in Marayur, Kerala, India.

Stone Age (6,000 BCE) carvings of Edakkal Caves in Kerala, India.

Paleolithic
Main article: South Asian Stone Age
Hominin expansion from Africa is estimated to have reached the Indian
subcontinent approximately two million years ago, and possibly as early as 2.2
million years ago.[26][27][28] This dating is based on the known presence of Homo
erectus in Indonesia by 1.8 million years ago and in East Asia by 1.36 million years
ago, as well as the discovery of stone tools at Riwat in Pakistan.[27][29] Although some
older discoveries have been claimed, the suggested dates, based on the dating
of fluvial sediments, have not been independently verified.[28][30]
The oldest hominin fossil remains in the Indian subcontinent are those of Homo
erectus or Homo heidelbergensis, from the Narmada Valley in central India, and are
dated to approximately half a million years ago.[27][30] Older fossil finds have been
claimed, but are considered unreliable.[30] Reviews of archaeological evidence have
suggested that occupation of the Indian subcontinent by hominins was sporadic until
approximately 700,000 years ago, and was geographically widespread by
approximately 250,000 years ago.[30][28]
According to a historical demographer of South Asia, Tim Dyson:
Modern human beings—Homo sapiens—originated in Africa. Then, intermittently,
sometime between 60,000 and 80,000 years ago, tiny groups of them began to enter
the north-west of the Indian subcontinent. It seems likely that initially they came by
way of the coast. It is virtually certain that there were Homo sapiens in the
subcontinent 55,000 years ago, even though the earliest fossils that have been
found of them date to only about 30,000 years before the present.[31]
According to Michael D. Petraglia and Bridget Allchin:
Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonisation of South Asia by modern
humans originating in Africa. ... Coalescence dates for most non-European
populations average to between 73–55 ka.[32]
Historian of South Asia, Michael H. Fisher, states:
Scholars estimate that the first successful expansion of the Homo sapiens range
beyond Africa and across the Arabian Peninsula occurred from as early as 80,000
years ago to as late as 40,000 years ago, although there may have been prior
unsuccessful emigrations. Some of their descendants extended the human range
ever further in each generation, spreading into each habitable land they
encountered. One human channel was along the warm and productive coastal lands
of the Persian Gulf and northern Indian Ocean. Eventually, various bands entered
India between 75,000 years ago and 35,000 years ago.[33]
Archaeological evidence has been interpreted to suggest the presence
of anatomically modern humans in the Indian subcontinent 78,000–74,000 years
ago,[34] although this interpretation is disputed.[35][36] The occupation of South Asia by
modern humans, initially in varying forms of isolation as hunter-gatherers, has turned
it into a highly diverse one, second only to Africa in human genetic diversity.[37]
According to Tim Dyson:
Genetic research has contributed to knowledge of the prehistory of the
subcontinent's people in other respects. In particular, the level of genetic diversity in
the region is extremely high. Indeed, only Africa's population is genetically more
diverse. Related to this, there is strong evidence of 'founder' events in the
subcontinent. By this is meant circumstances where a subgroup—such as a tribe—
derives from a tiny number of 'original' individuals. Further, compared to most world
regions, the subcontinent's people are relatively distinct in having practised
comparatively high levels of endogamy.[37]

Neolithic

Mehrgarh site in Beluchistan, Pakistan

Settled life emerged on the subcontinent in the western margins of the Indus
River alluvium approximately 9,000 years ago, evolving gradually into the Indus
Valley Civilisation of the third millennium BCE.[2][38] According to Tim Dyson: "By 7,000
years ago agriculture was firmly established in Baluchistan... [and] slowly spread
eastwards into the Indus valley." Michael Fisher adds:[39]
The earliest discovered instance ... of well-established, settled agricultural society is
at Mehrgarh in the hills between the Bolan Pass and the Indus plain (today in
Pakistan) (see Map 3.1). From as early as 7000 BCE, communities there started
investing increased labor in preparing the land and selecting, planting, tending, and
harvesting particular grain-producing plants. They also domesticated animals,
including sheep, goats, pigs, and oxen (both humped zebu [Bos indicus] and
unhumped [Bos taurus]). Castrating oxen, for instance, turned them from mainly
meat sources into domesticated draft-animals as well.[39]

Bronze Age (c. 3300 – c. 1800 BCE)

Indus Valley Civilisation
Main article: Indus Valley Civilisation
See also: List of Indus Valley Civilisation sites

Harappan Period at peak, c. 2600 - 1900 BCE

The Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent began around 3300 BCE.[citation needed] The
Indus Valley region was one of three early cradles of civilisation in the Old World; the
Indus Valley civilisation was the most expansive,[40] and at its peak, may have had a
population of over five million.[41]
The civilisation was primarily centred in modern-day Pakistan, in the Indus river
basin, and secondarily in the Ghaggar-Hakra River basin. The mature Indus
civilisation flourished from about 2600 to 1900 BCE, marking the beginning of urban
civilisation on the Indian subcontinent. It included cities such
as Harappa, Ganweriwal, and Mohenjo-daro in modern-day Pakistan,
and Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, and Lothal in modern-day India.

Mohenjo-daro (one of the largest Indus cities). View

of the site's Great Bath, showing the surrounding urban layout.
 Dholavira, a city of the Indus Valley civilisation,
with stepwell steps to reach the water level in artificially constructed reservoirs [42]

Archaeological remains of washroom drainage

system at Lothal
Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley, the Harappans, developed new
techniques in metallurgy and handicraft, and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin.
[43]
The civilisation is noted for its cities built of brick, and its roadside drainage
system, and is thought to have had some kind of municipal organisation. The
civilisation also developed an Indus script, the earliest of the ancient Indian scripts,
which is presently undeciphered.[44] This is the reason why Harappan language is not
directly attested, and its affiliation uncertain.[45]

Three stamp seals and their impressions

showing Indus script characters alongside animals: unicorn (left), bull (centre),
and elephant (right); at Guimet Museum
After the collapse of Indus Valley civilisation, the inhabitants migrated from the river
valleys of Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra, towards the Himalayan foothills of Ganga-
Yamuna basin.[46]
Ochre Coloured Pottery culture
 Sinauli chariot, photograph of the Archaeological
Survey of India. [47]

During 2nd millennium BCE, Ochre Coloured Pottery culture was in Ganga Yamuna
Doab region. These were rural settlement with agriculture and hunting. They were
using copper tools such as axes, spears, arrows, and swords, and had domesticated
animals.[48]
Iron Age (c. 1800 – 200 BCE)
See also: Iron Age in India
Vedic period (c. 1500 – 600 BCE)
Main articles: Vedic period, Historical Vedic religion, and Vedas
See also: Indo-Aryan peoples and Indo-Aryan migrations
Starting c. 1900 BCE, Indo-Aryan tribes moved into the Punjab from Central Asia in
several waves of migration.[49][50] The Vedic period is when the Vedas were composed
of liturgical hymns from the Indo-Aryan people. The Vedic culture was located in part
of north-west India, while other parts of India had a distinct cultural identity. Many
regions of the Indian subcontinent transitioned from the Chalcolithic to the Iron
Age in this period.[51]
The Vedic culture is described in the texts of Vedas, still sacred to Hindus, which
were orally composed and transmitted in Vedic Sanskrit. The Vedas are some of the
oldest extant texts in India.[52] The Vedic period, lasting from about 1500 to 500 BCE,
[53][54]
contributed the foundations of several cultural aspects of the Indian subcontinent.
Vedic society

An early 19th century manuscript in

the Devanagari script of the Rigveda, originally transmitted orally [55]

Historians have analysed the Vedas to posit a Vedic culture in the Punjab region,
and the upper Gangetic Plain.[51] The Peepal tree and cow were sanctified by the time
of the Atharva Veda.[56] Many of the concepts of Indian philosophy espoused later,
like dharma, trace their roots to Vedic antecedents.[57]
Early Vedic society is described in the Rigveda, the oldest Vedic text, believed to
have been compiled during the 2nd millennium BCE,[58][59] in the north-western region
of the Indian subcontinent.[60] At this time, Aryan society consisted of predominantly
tribal and pastoral groups, distinct from the Harappan urbanisation which had been
abandoned.[61] The early Indo-Aryan presence probably corresponds, in part, to
the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture in archaeological contexts.[62][63]
At the end of the Rigvedic period, the Aryan society expanded from the north-
western region of the Indian subcontinent into the western Ganges plain. It became
increasingly agricultural and was socially organised around the hierarchy of the
four varnas, or social classes. This social structure was characterised both by
syncretising with the native cultures of northern India[64] but also eventually by the
excluding of some indigenous peoples by labelling their occupations impure.[65] During
this period, many of the previous small tribal units and chiefdoms began to coalesce
into Janapadas (monarchical, state-level polities).[66]
Sanskrit epics
Main articles: Mahabharata and Ramayana
See also: List of historic Indian texts and List of Hindu texts

Manuscript illustration of the Battle of

Kurukshetra.
The Sanskrit epics Ramayana and Mahabharata were composed during this period.
[67]
The Mahabharata remains the longest single poem in the world.[68] Historians
formerly postulated an "epic age" as the milieu of these two epic poems, but now
recognise that the texts went through multiple stages of development over centuries.
[69]
The existing texts of these epics are believed to belong to the post-Vedic age,
between c. 400 BCE and 400 CE.[69][70]
Janapadas
Main article: Janapada
See also: Battle of the Ten Kings and List of ancient Indo-Aryan peoples and tribes
 Late Vedic era map showing the boundaries
of Āryāvarta with Janapadas in northern India, beginning of Iron Age kingdoms in
India – Kuru, Panchala, Kosala, Videha
The Iron Age in the Indian subcontinent from about 1200 BCE to the 6th century
BCE is defined by the rise of Janapadas, which are realms, republics and kingdoms
—notably the Iron Age Kingdoms of Kuru, Panchala, Kosala and Videha.[71][72]
The Kuru Kingdom (c. 1200–450 BCE) was the first state-level society of the Vedic
period, corresponding to the beginning of the Iron Age in north-western India, around
1200–800 BCE,[73] as well as with the composition of the Atharvaveda.[74] The Kuru
state organised the Vedic hymns into collections and developed the srauta ritual to
uphold the social order.[74] Two key figures of the Kuru state were king Parikshit and
his successor Janamejaya, who transformed this realm into the dominant political,
social, and cultural power of northern India.[74] When the Kuru kingdom declined, the
centre of Vedic culture shifted to their eastern neighbours, the Panchala kingdom.
[74]
The archaeological PGW (Painted Grey Ware) culture, which flourished in north-
eastern India's Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh regions from about 1100 to
600 BCE,[62] is believed to correspond to the Kuru and Panchala kingdoms.[74][75]
During the Late Vedic Period, the kingdom of Videha emerged as a new centre of
Vedic culture, situated even farther to the East (in what is today Nepal
and Bihar state);[63] reaching its prominence under the king Janaka, whose court
provided patronage for Brahmin sages and philosophers such as Yajnavalkya, Aruni,
and Gārgī Vāchaknavī.[76] The later part of this period corresponds with a
consolidation of increasingly large states and kingdoms, called Mahajanapadas,
across Northern India.
Second urbanisation (c. 600 – 200 BCE)

City of Kushinagar in the 5th century BCE according

to a 1st-century BCE frieze in Sanchi Stupa 1 Southern Gate
The period between 800 and 200 BCE saw the formation of the Śramaṇa movement,
from which Jainism and Buddhism originated. The first Upanishads were written
during this period. After 500 BCE, the so-called "second urbanisation"[note 1] started,
with new urban settlements arising at the Ganges plain.[77] The foundations for the
"second urbanisation" were laid prior to 600 BCE, in the Painted Grey Ware
culture of the Ghaggar-Hakra and Upper Ganges Plain; although most PGW sites
were small farming villages, "several dozen" PGW sites eventually emerged as
relatively large settlements that can be characterised as towns, the largest of which
were fortified by ditches or moats and embankments made of piled earth with
wooden palisades.[78]
The Central Ganges Plain, where Magadha gained prominence, forming the base of
the Maurya Empire, was a distinct cultural area,[79] with new states arising after
500 BCE.[80][81] It was influenced by the Vedic culture,[82] but differed markedly from the
Kuru-Panchala region.[79] "It was the area of the earliest known cultivation of rice in
South Asia and by 1800 BCE was the location of an advanced Neolithic population
associated with the sites of Chirand and Chechar".[83] In this region, the Śramaṇic
movements flourished, and Jainism and Buddhism originated.[77]
Buddhism and Jainism
Main articles: Upanishads and Śramaṇa
Further information: History of Hinduism, History of Buddhism, History of
Jainism, Indian religions, and Indian philosophy
Upanishads and Śramaṇa movements

A page of Isha Upanishad manuscript.

Mahavira, the 24th and last Tirthankara of Jainism.

Gautama Buddha's cremation stupa, Kushinagar (Kushinara).

The time between 800 BCE and 400 BCE witnessed the composition of the
earliest Upanishads,[84][85][86] which form the theoretical basis of classical Hinduism, and
are also known as the Vedanta (conclusion of the Vedas).[87]
The increasing urbanisation of India in the 7th and 6th centuries BCE led to the rise
of new ascetic or "Śramaṇa movements" which challenged the orthodoxy of rituals.
[84]
Mahavira (c. 599–527 BCE), proponent of Jainism, and Gautama Buddha (c. 563–
483 BCE), founder of Buddhism, were the most prominent icons of this movement.
Śramaṇa gave rise to the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept
of samsara, and the concept of liberation.[88] Buddha found a Middle Way that
ameliorated the extreme asceticism found in the Śramaṇa religions.[89]
Around the same time, Mahavira (the 24th Tirthankara in Jainism) propagated a
theology that was to later become Jainism.[90] However, Jain orthodoxy believes the
teachings of the Tirthankaras predates all known time and scholars
believe Parshvanatha (c. 872 – c. 772 BCE), accorded status as the
23rd Tirthankara, was a historical figure. The Vedas are believed to have
documented a few Tirthankaras and an ascetic order similar to
the Śramaṇa movement.[91]
Mahajanapadas
Main article: Mahajanapadas

Mahajanapadas, Sixteen most powerful and large

kingdoms and republics of the era, located mainly across the Indo-Gangetic plains
The period from c. 600 BCE to c. 300 BCE witnessed the rise of the Mahajanapadas,
sixteen powerful and vast kingdoms and oligarchic republics. These Mahajanapadas
evolved and flourished in a belt stretching from Gandhara in the north-west
to Bengal in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent and included parts of the
trans-Vindhyan region.[92] Ancient Buddhist texts, like the Aṅguttara Nikāya,[93] make
frequent reference to these sixteen great kingdoms and republics—
Anga, Assaka, Avanti, Chedi, Gandhara, Kashi, Kamboja, Kosala, Kuru, Magadha,
Malla, Matsya (or Machcha), Panchala, Surasena, Vṛji, and Vatsa. This period saw
the second major rise of urbanism in India after the Indus Valley Civilisation.[94]
Early "republics" or gaṇasaṅgha,[95] such as Shakyas, Koliyas, Mallakas,
and Licchavis had republican governments. Gaṇasaṅghas,[95] such as the Mallakas,
centered in the city of Kusinagara, and the Vajjika League, centred in the city
of Vaishali, existed as early as the 6th century BCE and persisted in some areas
until the 4th century CE.[96] The most famous clan amongst the ruling confederate
clans of the Vajji Mahajanapada were the Licchavis.[97]
This period corresponds in an archaeological context to the Northern Black Polished
Ware culture. Especially focused in the Central Ganges plain but also spreading
across vast areas of the northern and central Indian subcontinent, this culture is
characterised by the emergence of large cities with massive fortifications, significant
population growth, increased social stratification, wide-ranging trade networks,
construction of public architecture and water channels, specialised craft industries, a
system of weights, punch-marked coins, and the introduction of writing in the form
of Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts.[98][99] The language of the gentry at that time
was Sanskrit, while the languages of the general population of northern India are
referred to as Prakrits.
Many of the sixteen kingdoms had merged into four major ones by the time
of Gautama Buddha. These four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala, and Magadha.[94]
Early Magadha dynasties
Main articles: Magadha and Greater Magadha
See also: Magadha period, Pradyota dynasty, Haryanka dynasty, and Shaishunaga
dynasty
Maghada dynasties

Magadha state c. 600 BCE, which is later expanded from its capital Rajagriha – under the Haryanka
dynasty and the later Shishunaga dynasty.

Indian warrior of the Achaemenid army, circa 480 BCE, on the Tomb of Xerxes I.

Magadha formed one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas (Sanskrit: "Great Realms")

or kingdoms in ancient India. The core of the kingdom was the area of Bihar south of
the Ganges; its first capital was Rajagriha (modern Rajgir)
then Pataliputra (modern Patna). Magadha expanded to include most of Bihar and
Bengal with the conquest of Licchavi and Anga respectively,[100] followed by much of
eastern Uttar Pradesh and Orissa. The ancient kingdom of Magadha is heavily
mentioned in Jain and Buddhist texts. It is also mentioned in
the Ramayana, Mahabharata and Puranas.[101] The earliest reference to the Magadha
people occurs in the Atharva-Veda where they are found listed along with
the Angas, Gandharis, and Mujavats. Magadha played an important role in the
development of Jainism and Buddhism. Republican communities (such as the
community of Rajakumara) are merged into Magadha kingdom. Villages had their
own assemblies under their local chiefs called Gramakas. Their administrations were
divided into executive, judicial, and military functions.
Early sources, from the Buddhist Pāli Canon, the Jain Agamas and the
Hindu Puranas, mention Magadha being ruled by the Pradyota
dynasty and Haryanka dynasty (c. 544–413 BCE) for some 200 years, c. 600–
413 BCE. King Bimbisara of the Haryanka dynasty led an active and expansive
policy, conquering Anga in what is now eastern Bihar and West Bengal. King
Bimbisara was overthrown and killed by his son, Prince Ajatashatru, who continued
the expansionist policy of Magadha. During this period, Gautama Buddha, the
founder of Buddhism, lived much of his life in the Magadha kingdom. He attained
enlightenment in Bodh Gaya, gave his first sermon in Sarnath and the first Buddhist
council was held in Rajgriha.[102] The Haryanka dynasty was overthrown by
the Shaishunaga dynasty (c. 413–345 BCE). The last Shishunaga ruler, Kalasoka,
was assassinated by Mahapadma Nanda in 345 BCE, the first of the so-called Nine
Nandas (Mahapadma Nanda and his eight sons).
Nanda Empire and Alexander's campaign
Main article: Nanda Empire
See also: Indian campaign of Alexander the Great
The Nanda Empire (c. 345–322 BCE), at its peak, extended from Bengal in the east,
to the Punjab region in the west and as far south as the Vindhya Range.
[103]
The Nanda dynasty built on the foundations laid by
their Haryanka and Shishunaga predecessors.[104] Nanda empire have built a vast
army, consisting of 200,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalry, 2,000 war chariots and
3,000 war elephants (at the lowest estimates).[105][106]
Maurya Empire
Main article: Maurya Empire
Maurya Empire

Maurya Empire at its peak under Ashoka the Great.

Ashokan pillar at Vaishali, 3rd century BCE.

The Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE) unified most of the Indian subcontinent into one
state, and was the largest empire ever to exist on the Indian subcontinent.[107] At its
greatest extent, the Mauryan Empire stretched to the north up to the natural
boundaries of the Himalayas and to the east into what is now Assam. To the west, it
reached beyond modern Pakistan, to the Hindu Kush mountains in what is now
Afghanistan. The empire was established by Chandragupta Maurya assisted by
Chanakya (Kautilya) in Magadha (in modern Bihar) when he overthrew the Nanda
Empire.[108]
Chandragupta rapidly expanded his power westwards across central and western
India, and by 317 BCE the empire had fully occupied north-western India. The
Mauryan Empire defeated Seleucus I, founder of the Seleucid Empire, during
the Seleucid–Mauryan war, thus gained additional territory west of the Indus River.
Chandragupta's son Bindusara succeeded to the throne around 297 BCE. By the
time he died in c. 272 BCE, a large part of the Indian subcontinent was under
Mauryan suzerainty. However, the region of Kalinga (around modern day Odisha)
remained outside Mauryan control, perhaps interfering with trade with the south. [109]

The Mauryan carved door of Lomas Rishi, one of

the Barabar Caves, c. 250 BCE
Bindusara was succeeded by Ashoka, whose reign lasted until his death in about
232 BCE.[110] His campaign against the Kalingans in about 260 BCE, though
successful, led to immense loss of life and misery. This led Ashoka to shun violence,
and subsequently to embrace Buddhism.[109] The empire began to decline after his
death and the last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha, was assassinated by Pushyamitra
Shunga to establish the Shunga Empire.[110]
Under Chandragupta Maurya and his successors, internal and external trade,
agriculture, and economic activities all thrived and expanded across India thanks to
the creation of a single efficient system of finance, administration, and security. The
Mauryans built the Grand Trunk Road, one of Asia's oldest and longest major roads
connecting the Indian subcontinent with Central Asia.[111] After the Kalinga War, the
Empire experienced nearly half a century of peace and security under Ashoka.
Mauryan India also enjoyed an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and
expansion of scientific knowledge. Chandragupta Maurya's embrace
of Jainism increased social and religious renewal and reform across his society,
while Ashoka's embrace of Buddhism has been said to have been the foundation of
the reign of social and political peace and non-violence across India.[citation needed] Ashoka
sponsored Buddhist missions into Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, West Asia, North
Africa, and Mediterranean Europe.[112]
The Arthashastra written by Chanakya and the Edicts of Ashoka are the primary
written records of the Mauryan times. Archaeologically, this period falls in the era
of Northern Black Polished Ware. The Mauryan Empire was based on a modern and
efficient economy and society. However, the sale of merchandise was closely
regulated by the government.[113] Although there was no banking in the Mauryan
society, usury was customary. A significant amount of written records on slavery are
found, suggesting a prevalence thereof.[114] During this period, a high-quality steel
called Wootz steel was developed in south India and was later exported to China
and Arabia.[115]
Sangam period
Main articles: Sangam period, Sources of ancient Tamil history, Sangam literature,
and Five Great Epics
See also: Three Crowned Kings, Tamilakam, and List of Tamil monarchs

Tamilakam, located at the tip of South India during the Sangam period, ruled by Chera dynasty, Chola
dynasty and the Pandyan dynasty.

Ilango Adigal, author of Silappatikaram, one of the five great epics of Tamil literature.[116]

During the Sangam period Tamil literature flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the
4th century CE. Three Tamil dynasties, collectively known as the Three Crowned
Kings of Tamilakam: Chera dynasty, Chola dynasty, and the Pandya dynasty ruled
parts of southern India.[117]
The Sangam literature deals with the history, politics, wars, and culture of the Tamil
people of this period.[118] Unlike Sanskrit writers who were mostly Brahmins, Sangam
writers came from diverse classes and social backgrounds and were mostly non-
Brahmins.[119]
Around c. 300 BCE – c. 200 CE, Pathupattu, an anthology of ten mid-length book
collections, which is considered part of Sangam Literature, were composed; the
composition of eight anthologies of poetic works Ettuthogai as well as the
composition of eighteen minor poetic works Patiṉeṇkīḻkaṇakku; while Tolkāppiyam,
the earliest grammarian work in the Tamil language was developed.[120] Also, during
Sangam period, two of the Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature were
composed. Ilango Adigal composed Silappatikaram, which is a non-religious work,
that revolves around Kannagi,[121] and Manimekalai, composed by Chithalai
Chathanar, is a sequel to Silappatikaram, and tells the story of the daughter
of Kovalan and Madhavi, who became a Buddhist Bhikkhuni.[122][123]
Classical period (c. 200 BCE – c. 650 CE)
Main article: Classical India

Ancient India during the rise of the Shunga Empire from the North, Satavahana dynasty from
the Deccan, and Pandyan dynasty and Chola dynasty from the southern part of India.

Great Chaitya in the Karla Caves. The shrines were developed over the period from the 2nd
century BCE to the 5th century CE.


 Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves is home to the Hathigumpha inscription, which was
inscribed under Kharavela, then Emperor of Kalinga of the Mahameghavahana dynasty.

Relief of a multi-storied temple, 2nd century CE, Ghantasala Stupa.[124][125]

The time between the Maurya Empire in the 3rd century BCE and the end of
the Gupta Empire in the 6th century CE is referred to as the "Classical" period of
India.[126] The Gupta Empire (4th–6th century) is regarded as the "Golden Age" of
Hinduism, although a host of kingdoms ruled over India in these centuries. Also,
the Sangam literature flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE in
southern India.[127] During this period, India's economy is estimated to have been the
largest in the world, having between one-third and one-quarter of the world's wealth,
from 1 CE to 1000 CE.[128][129]
Early classical period (c. 200 BCE – c. 320 CE)
Shunga Empire
Main article: Shunga Empire
Shunga Empire

East Gateway and Railings, Bharhut Stupa, 2nd century BCE.

Shunga art Ancient vina, 1st century BCE.

 Royal family, 1st century BCE in West Bengal.

The Shungas originated from Magadha, and controlled large areas of the central and
eastern Indian subcontinent from around 187 to 78 BCE. The dynasty was
established by Pushyamitra Shunga, who overthrew the last Maurya emperor. Its
capital was Pataliputra, but later emperors, such as Bhagabhadra, also held court
at Vidisha, modern Besnagar.[130]
Pushyamitra Shunga ruled for 36 years and was succeeded by his son Agnimitra.
There were ten Shunga rulers. However, after the death of Agnimitra, the empire
rapidly disintegrated;[131] inscriptions and coins indicate that much of northern and
central India consisted of small kingdoms and city-states that were independent of
any Shunga hegemony.[132] The empire is noted for its numerous wars with both
foreign and indigenous powers. They fought with the Mahameghavahana
dynasty of Kalinga, Satavahana dynasty of Deccan, the Indo-Greeks, and possibly
the Panchalas and Mitras of Mathura.
Art, education, philosophy, and other forms of learning flowered during this period
including architectural monuments such as the Stupa at Bharhut and the renowned
Great Stupa at Sanchi. The Shunga rulers helped to establish the tradition of royal
sponsorship of learning and art. The script used by the empire was a variant
of Brahmi and was used to write the Sanskrit language. The Shunga Empire played
an imperative role in patronising Indian culture at a time when some of the most
important developments in Hindu thought were taking place.
Satavahana Empire
Main article: Satavahana Empire
Satavahana Empire

Sanchi Stupa Two and Southern Gateway, 1st century CE (UNESCO World Heritage Site).
 Indian ship on lead coin of Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi, testimony to the naval, seafaring and trading
capabilities of the Sātavāhanas during the 1st–2nd century CE.

The Śātavāhanas were based from Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh as well

as Junnar (Pune) and Prathisthan (Paithan) in Maharashtra. The territory of the
empire covered large parts of India from the 1st century BCE onward. The
Sātavāhanas started out as feudatories to the Mauryan dynasty, but declared
independence with its decline.
The Sātavāhanas are known for their patronage of Hinduism and Buddhism, which
resulted in Buddhist monuments from Ellora (a UNESCO World Heritage Site)
to Amaravati. They were one of the first Indian states to issue coins with their rulers
embossed. They formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade as well as
the transfer of ideas and culture to and from the Indo-Gangetic Plain to the southern
tip of India.
They had to compete with the Shunga Empire and then the Kanva
dynasty of Magadha to establish their rule. Later, they played a crucial role to protect
large part of India against foreign invaders like the Sakas, Yavanas and Pahlavas. In
particular, their struggles with the Western Kshatrapas went on for a long time. The
notable rulers of the Satavahana Dynasty Gautamiputra Satakarni and Sri Yajna
Sātakarni were able to defeat the foreign invaders like the Western Kshatrapas and
to stop their expansion. In the 3rd century CE, the empire was split into smaller
states.[133]
Trade and travels to India
Further information: Silk Road transmission of Buddhism

Silk Road and Spice trade, ancient trade routes that

linked India with the Old World; carried goods and ideas between the ancient
civilisations of the Old World and India. The land routes are marked as red, and the
water routes are marked as blue.
The spice trade in Kerala attracted traders from all over the Old World to India.
India's Southwest coastal port Muziris had established itself as a major spice trade
centre from as early as 3,000 BCE, according to Sumerian records. Jewish traders
arrived in Kochi, Kerala, India as early as 562 BCE.[134] The Greco-Roman
world followed by trading along the incense route and the Roman-India routes.
 During the 2nd century BCE Greek and Indian ships met to trade at Arabian ports
[135]

such as Aden.[136] During the first millennium, the sea routes to India were controlled
by the Indians and Ethiopians that became the maritime trading power of the Red
Sea.
Indian merchants involved in spice trade took Indian cuisine to Southeast Asia,
where spice mixtures and curries became popular with the native inhabitants.
[137]
Buddhism entered China through the Silk Road in the 1st or 2nd century CE.
[138]
Hindu and Buddhist religious establishments of South and Southeast Asia came
to be centres of production and commerce as they accumulated capital donated by
patrons. They engaged in estate management, craftsmanship, and trade. Buddhism
in particular travelled alongside the maritime trade, promoting literacy, art, and the
use of coinage.[139]
Kushan Empire
Main article: Kushan Empire
Kushan Empire

Kushan territories (full line) and maximum extent of Kushan dominions under Kanishka (dotted line),
according to the Rabatak inscription.

Depiction of the Buddha in Kanishka's coinage, Mathura art, 2nd century CE.

The Kushan Empire expanded out of what is now Afghanistan into the northwest of
the Indian subcontinent under the leadership of their first emperor, Kujula Kadphises,
about the middle of the 1st century CE. The Kushans were possibly a Tocharian
speaking tribe,[140] one of five branches of the Yuezhi confederation.[141][142] By the time
of his grandson, Kanishka the Great, the empire spread to encompass much
of Afghanistan,[143] and then the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent.[144]
Emperor Kanishka was a great patron of Buddhism; however, as Kushans expanded
southward, the deities of their later coinage came to reflect its new Hindu majority.[145]
[146]
Historian Vincent Smith said about Kanishka:
He played the part of a second Ashoka in the history of Buddhism.[147]
The empire linked the Indian Ocean maritime trade with the commerce of the Silk
Road through the Indus valley, encouraging long-distance trade, particularly between
China and Rome. The Kushans brought new trends to the budding and
blossoming Gandhara art and Mathura art, which reached its peak during Kushan
rule.[148] The period of peace under Kushan rule is known as Pax Kushana. By the 3rd
century, their empire in India was disintegrating and their last known great emperor
was Vasudeva I.[149][150]
Classical period (c. 320 – 650 CE)
Gupta Empire
Main article: Gupta Empire
Further
information: Meghadūta, Abhijñānaśākuntala, Kumārasambhava, Panchatantra, Ar
yabhatiya, Indian numerals, and Kama Sutra
Gupta Empire

Gupta Empire around 420 CE at its peak territorial extent under Kumaragupta I.

Current structure of the Mahabodhi Temple built during the Gupta era, 5th century CE. The location are
marked where the Buddha is said to have attained enlightenment.

The Gupta period was noted for cultural creativity, especially in literature,
architecture, sculpture, and painting.[151] The Gupta period produced scholars such
as Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma, and Vatsyayana. The Gupta
period marked a watershed of Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices
to legitimise their rule, but they also patronised Buddhism, an alternative to
Brahmanical orthodoxy. The military exploits of the first three rulers – Chandragupta
I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II – brought much of India under their
leadership.[152] Science and political administration reached new heights during the
Gupta era. Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural centre and
established it as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions.[153][154] The
period of peace under Gupta rule is known as Pax Gupta.
The latter Guptas successfully resisted the northwestern kingdoms until the arrival of
the Alchon Huns, who established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the
5th century CE, with their capital at Bamiyan.[155] However, much of the southern India
including Deccan were largely unaffected by these events.[156][157]
Vakataka Empire
Main article: Vakataka Empire
The Vākāṭaka Empire originated from the Deccan in the mid-third century CE. Their
state is believed to have extended from the southern edges of Malwa and Gujarat in
the north to the Tungabhadra River in the south as well as from the Arabian Sea in
the western to the edges of Chhattisgarh in the east. They were the most important
successors of the Satavahanas in the Deccan, contemporaneous with the Guptas in
northern India and succeeded by the Vishnukundina dynasty.
The Vakatakas are noted for having been patrons of the arts, architecture and
literature. The rock-cut Buddhist viharas and chaityas of Ajanta Caves (a UNESCO
World Heritage Site) were built under the patronage of Vakataka
emperor, Harishena.[158][159]

Ajanta Caves, 30 rock-cut Buddhist cave monument built under the Vakatakas.

Buddhist monks praying in front of the Dagoba of Chaitya Cave 26 of the Ajanta Caves.
 

Buddhist "Chaitya Griha" or prayer hall, with a seated Buddha, Cave 26 of the Ajanta Caves.

Many foreign ambassadors, representatives, and travelers are included as devotees

attending the Buddha's descent from Trayastrimsa Heaven; painting from Cave 17 of the
Ajanta Caves.
Kamarupa Kingdom
Main article: Kamarupa Kingdom

Copper Plate Seal of Kamarupa Kings at Madan Kamdev ruins.

Samudragupta's 4th-century Allahabad pillar inscription mentions Kamarupa
(Western Assam)[160] and Davaka (Central Assam)[161] as frontier kingdoms of the
Gupta Empire. Davaka was later absorbed by Kamarupa, which grew into a large
kingdom that spanned from Karatoya river to near present Sadiya and covered the
entire Brahmaputra valley, North Bengal, parts of Bangladesh and, at
times Purnea and parts of West Bengal.[162]
Ruled by three dynasties Varmanas (c. 350–650 CE), Mlechchha dynasty (c. 655–
900 CE) and Kamarupa-Palas (c. 900–1100 CE), from their capitals in present-
day Guwahati (Pragjyotishpura), Tezpur (Haruppeswara) and North
Gauhati (Durjaya) respectively. All three dynasties claimed their descent
from Narakasura.[citation needed] In the reign of the Varman king, Bhaskar Varman (c. 600–
650 CE), the Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited the region and recorded his travels.
Later, after weakening and disintegration (after the Kamarupa-Palas), the Kamarupa
tradition was somewhat extended until c. 1255 CE by the Lunar I (c. 1120–1185 CE)
and Lunar II (c. 1155–1255 CE) dynasties.[163] The Kamarupa kingdom came to an
end in the middle of the 13th century when the Khen dynasty under Sandhya of
Kamarupanagara (North Guwahati), moved his capital to Kamatapur (North Bengal)
after the invasion of Muslim Turks, and established the Kamata kingdom.[164]
Pallava Empire
Main article: Pallava Empire

Shore Temple (UNESCO World Heritage Site)

at Mahabalipuram built by Narasimhavarman II.
The Pallavas, during the 4th to 9th centuries were, alongside the Guptas of
the North, great patronisers of Sanskrit development in the South of the Indian
subcontinent. The Pallava reign saw the first Sanskrit inscriptions in a script
called Grantha.[165] Early Pallavas had different connexions to Southeast
Asian countries. The Pallavas used Dravidian architecture to build some very
important Hindu temples and academies in Mamallapuram, Kanchipuram and other
places; their rule saw the rise of great poets. The practice of dedicating temples to
different deities came into vogue followed by fine artistic temple architecture and
sculpture style of Vastu Shastra.[166]
Pallavas reached the height of power during the reign of Mahendravarman I (571–
630 CE) and Narasimhavarman I (630–668 CE) and dominated the Telugu and
northern parts of the Tamil region until the end of the 9th century.[167]
Kadamba Empire
Main article: Kadamba Empire
 Kadamba shikara (tower) with Kalasa (pinnacle) on
top, Doddagaddavalli.
Kadambas originated from Karnataka, was founded by Mayurasharma in 345 CE
which at later times showed the potential of developing into imperial proportions.
King Mayurasharma defeated the armies of Pallavas of Kanchi possibly with help of
some native tribes. The Kadamba fame reached its peak during the rule
of Kakusthavarma, a notable ruler with whom the kings of Gupta Dynasty of northern
India cultivated marital alliances. The Kadambas were contemporaries of
the Western Ganga Dynasty and together they formed the earliest native kingdoms
to rule the land with absolute autonomy. The dynasty later continued to rule as a
feudatory of larger Kannada empires, the Chalukya and the Rashtrakuta empires, for
over five hundred years during which time they branched into minor dynasties
(Kadambas of Goa, Kadambas of Halasi and Kadambas of Hangal).
Empire of Harsha
Main articles: Harsha and Pushyabhuti dynasty
Harsha ruled northern India from 606 to 647 CE. He was the son
of Prabhakarvardhana and the younger brother of Rajyavardhana, who were
members of the Vardhana dynasty and ruled Thanesar, in present-day Haryana.

Coin of Emperor Harsha, c. 606–647 CE. [168]

After the downfall of the prior Gupta Empire in the middle of the 6th century, North
India reverted to smaller republics and monarchical states. The power vacuum
resulted in the rise of the Vardhanas of Thanesar, who began uniting the republics
and monarchies from the Punjab to central India. After the death of Harsha's father
and brother, representatives of the empire crowned Harsha emperor in April 606 CE,
giving him the title of Maharaja.[169] At the peak, his Empire covered much of North
and Northwestern India, extended East until Kamarupa, and South until Narmada
River; and eventually made Kannauj (in present Uttar Pradesh) his capital, and ruled
until 647 CE.[170]
The peace and prosperity that prevailed made his court a centre of cosmopolitanism,
attracting scholars, artists and religious visitors.[170] During this time, Harsha converted
to Buddhism from Surya worship.[171] The Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited the court
of Harsha and wrote a very favourable account of him, praising his justice and
generosity.[170] His biography Harshacharita ("Deeds of Harsha") written by Sanskrit
poet Banabhatta, describes his association with Thanesar and the palace with a two-
storied Dhavalagriha (White Mansion).[172][173]
Early medieval period (mid 6th – c. 1200)
Main articles: Medieval India, Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent,
and Tripartite Struggle
Early medieval India began after the end of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century CE.
[126]
This period also covers the "Late Classical Age" of Hinduism, which began after
the collapse of the Empire of Harsha in the 7th century,[174] and ended in the 13th
century with the rise of the Delhi Sultanate in Northern India;[175] the beginning of
Imperial Kannauj, leading to the Tripartite struggle; and the end of the Later
Cholas with the death of Rajendra Chola III in 1279 in Southern India; however some
aspects of the Classical period continued until the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire in
the south around the 17th century.
From the fifth century to the thirteenth, Śrauta sacrifices declined, and initiatory
traditions of Buddhism, Jainism or more
commonly Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism expanded in royal courts.[176] This
period produced some of India's finest art, considered the epitome of classical
development, and the development of the main spiritual and philosophical systems
which continued to be in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.
In the 7th century, Kumārila Bhaṭṭa formulated his school of Mimamsa philosophy
and defended the position on Vedic rituals against Buddhist attacks. Scholars note
Bhaṭṭa's contribution to the decline of Buddhism in India.[177] In the 8th century, Adi
Shankara travelled across the Indian subcontinent to propagate and spread the
doctrine of Advaita Vedanta, which he consolidated; and is credited with unifying the
main characteristics of the current thoughts in Hinduism.[178][179][180] He was a critic of
both Buddhism and Minamsa school of Hinduism;[181][182][183][184] and
founded mathas (monasteries) for the spread and development of Advaita Vedanta.
[185]
Muhammad bin Qasim's invasion of Sindh (modern Pakistan) in 711 witnessed
further decline of Buddhism.[186]
From the 8th to the 10th century, three dynasties contested for control of northern
India: the Gurjara Pratiharas of Malwa, the Palas of Bengal, and the Rashtrakutas of
the Deccan. The Sena dynasty would later assume control of the Pala Empire; the
Gurjara Pratiharas fragmented into various states, notably the Paramaras of Malwa,
the Chandelas of Bundelkhand, the Kalachuris of Mahakoshal,
the Tomaras of Haryana, and the Chauhans of Rajputana, these states were some
of the earliest Rajput kingdoms;[187] while the Rashtrakutas were annexed by
the Western Chalukyas.[188] During this period, the Chaulukya dynasty emerged; the
Chaulukyas constructed the Dilwara Temples, Modhera Sun Temple, Rani ki
vav[189] in the style of Māru-Gurjara architecture, and their capital Anhilwara
(modern Patan, Gujarat) was one of the largest cities in the Indian subcontinent, with
the population estimated at 100,000 in c. 1000.
The Chola Empire emerged as a major power during the reign of Raja Raja Chola
I and Rajendra Chola I who successfully invaded parts of Southeast Asia and Sri
Lanka in the 11th century.[190] Lalitaditya Muktapida (r. 724–760 CE) was an emperor
of the Kashmiri Karkoṭa dynasty, which exercised influence in northwestern India
from 625 until 1003, and was followed by Lohara dynasty. Kalhana in
his Rajatarangini credits king Lalitaditya with leading an aggressive military
campaign in Northern India and Central Asia.[191][192][193]
The Hindu Shahi dynasty ruled portions of eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan,
and Kashmir from the mid-7th century to the early 11th century. While in Odisha,
the Eastern Ganga Empire rose to power; noted for the advancement of Hindu
architecture, most notable being Jagannath Temple and Konark Sun Temple, as well
as being patrons of art and literature.

Martand Sun Temple Central shrine, dedicated to the deity Surya, and built by the third ruler
of the Karkota dynasty, Lalitaditya Muktapida, in the 8th century

Konark Sun Temple at Konark, Orissa, built by Narasimhadeva I (1238–1264) of the Eastern
Ganga dynasty

Kandariya Mahadeva Temple in the Khajuraho complex was built by the Chandelas


 Jagannath Temple at Puri, built by Anantavarman Chodaganga Deva of the Eastern Ganga
dynasty
Chalukya Empire
Main article: Chalukya dynasty
The Chalukya Empire ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th
and the 12th centuries, as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest
dynasty, known as the "Badami Chalukyas", ruled from Vatapi (modern Badami)
from the middle of the 6th century. The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their
independence at the decline of the Kadamba kingdom of Banavasi and rapidly rose
to prominence during the reign of Pulakeshin II. The rule of the Chalukyas marks an
important milestone in the history of South India and a golden age in the history
of Karnataka. The political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms
to large empires with the ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas. A Southern India-based
kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between the Kaveri and
the Narmada Rivers. The rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient administration,
overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture
called "Chalukyan architecture". The Chalukya dynasty ruled parts of southern and
central India from Badami in Karnataka between 550 and 750, and then again
from Kalyani between 970 and 1190.

Galaganatha Temple at Pattadakal complex (UNESCO World Heritage) is an example

of Badami Chalukya architecture

Bhutanatha temple complex at Badami, next to a waterfall, during the monsoon.

 

Vishnu image inside the Badami Cave Temple Complex. Example of Indian rock-cut
architecture

8th century Durga temple exterior view at Aihole complex. It includes Hindu, Buddhist and
Jain temples and monuments
Rashtrakuta Empire
Main article: Rashtrakuta Empire
Founded by Dantidurga around 753,[194] the Rashtrakuta Empire ruled from its capital
at Manyakheta for almost two centuries.[195] At its peak, the Rashtrakutas ruled from
the Ganges-Yamuna Doab in the north to Cape Comorin in the south, a fruitful time
of architectural and literary achievements.[196][197]
The early rulers of this dynasty were Hindu, but the later rulers were strongly
influenced by Jainism.[198] Govinda III and Amoghavarsha were the most famous of
the long line of able administrators produced by the dynasty. Amoghavarsha was
also an author and wrote Kavirajamarga, the earliest known Kannada work on
poetics.[195][199] Architecture reached a milestone in the Dravidian style, the finest
example of which is seen in the Kailasanath Temple at Ellora. Other important
contributions are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple
at Pattadakal in Karnataka.
The Arab traveller Suleiman described the Rashtrakuta Empire as one of the four
great Empires of the world.[200] The Rashtrakuta period marked the beginning of the
golden age of southern Indian mathematics. The great south Indian
mathematician Mahāvīra had a huge impact on medieval south Indian
mathematicians.[201] The Rashtrakuta rulers also patronised men of letters in a variety
of languages.[195]
 

Kailasa temple, is one of the largest rock-cut ancient Hindu temples located in Ellora

Shikhara of Indra Sabha at Ellora Caves

Statue of the Buddha seated. A part of the Carpenter's cave (Buddhist Cave 10).

Jain Tirthankara Mahavira with Yaksha Matanga and Yakshi Siddhaiki at Ellora Caves
Gurjara-Pratihara Empire
Main article: Gurjara-Pratihara Empire
The Gurjara-Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving east of
the Indus River. Nagabhata I defeated the Arab army under Junaid and Tamin during
the Umayyad campaigns in India.[202] Under Nagabhata II, the Gurjara-Pratiharas
became the most powerful dynasty in northern India. He was succeeded by his
son Ramabhadra, who ruled briefly before being succeeded by his son, Mihira
Bhoja. Under Bhoja and his successor Mahendrapala I, the Pratihara Empire
reached its peak of prosperity and power. By the time of Mahendrapala, its territory
stretched from the border of Sindh in the west to Bihar in the east and from the
Himalayas in the north to around the Narmada River in the south.[203] The expansion
triggered a tripartite power struggle with the Rashtrakuta and Pala empires for
control of the Indian subcontinent.
By the end of the 10th century, several feudatories of the empire took advantage of
the temporary weakness of the Gurjara-Pratiharas to declare their independence,
notably the Paramaras of Malwa, the Chandelas of Bundelkhand, the Tomaras of
Haryana, the Chauhans of Rajputana,[204] and the Kalachuris of Mahakoshal.[citation needed]

One of the four entrances of the Teli ka Mandir, built by the Pratihara emperor Mihira Bhoja.
[205]

Sculptures near Teli ka Mandir, Gwalior Fort

 

Jainism-related cave monuments and statues carved into the rock face inside Siddhachal
Caves, Gwalior Fort

Ghateshwara Mahadeva temple at Baroli Temples complex. Complex of eight temples, built
by the Gurjara-Pratiharas, within a walled enclosure
Gahadavala dynasty
Main article: Gahadavala dynasty
Gahadavala dynasty ruled parts of the present-day Indian states of Uttar Pradesh
and Bihar, during 11th and 12th centuries. Their capital was located at Varanasi.[206]
Khayaravala dynasty
Main article: Khayaravala dynasty
The Khayaravala dynasty, ruled parts of the present-day Indian states
of Bihar and Jharkhand, during 11th and 12th centuries. Their capital was located at
Khayaragarh in Shahabad district. Pratapdhavala and Shri Pratapa were king of the
dynasty.[207]

Rohtasgarh Fort.
Pala Empire
 Excavated ruins of Nalanda, a centre of Buddhist
learning from 450 to 1193
Main article: Pala Empire
The Pala Empire was founded by Gopala I.[208][209][210] It was ruled by a Buddhist dynasty
from Bengal. The Palas reunified Bengal after the fall of Shashanka's Gauda
Kingdom.[211]
The Palas were followers of the Mahayana and Tantric schools of Buddhism,[212] they
also patronised Shaivism and Vaishnavism.[213] The empire reached its peak
under Dharmapala and Devapala. Dharmapala is believed to have conquered
Kanauj and extended his sway up to the farthest limits of India in the north-west. [213]
The Pala Empire can be considered as the golden era of Bengal.[214] Dharmapala
founded the Vikramashila and revived Nalanda,[213] considered one of the first great
universities in recorded history. Nalanda reached its height under the patronage of
the Pala Empire.[214][215] The Palas also built many viharas. They maintained close
cultural and commercial ties with countries of Southeast Asia and Tibet. Sea trade
added greatly to the prosperity of the Pala Empire.
Cholas
Main article: Chola dynasty

Chola Empire under Rajendra Chola, c. 1030

Medieval Cholas rose to prominence during the middle of the 9th century and
established the greatest empire South India had seen.[216] They successfully united
the South India under their rule and through their naval strength extended their
influence in the Southeast Asian countries such as Srivijaya.[190] Under Rajaraja Chola
I and his successors Rajendra Chola I, Rajadhiraja Chola, Virarajendra
Chola and Kulothunga Chola I the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural
power in South Asia and South-East Asia.[217][218] Rajendra Chola I's navies occupied
the sea coasts from Burma to Vietnam,[219] the Andaman and Nicobar Islands,
the Lakshadweep (Laccadive) islands, Sumatra, and the Malay Peninsula. The
power of the new empire was proclaimed to the eastern world by the expedition to
the Ganges which Rajendra Chola I undertook and by the occupation of cities of the
maritime empire of Srivijaya in Southeast Asia, as well as by the repeated
embassies to China.[220]
They dominated the political affairs of Sri Lanka for over two centuries through
repeated invasions and occupation. They also had continuing trade contacts with the
Arabs and the Chinese empire.[221] Rajaraja Chola I and his son Rajendra Chola I
gave political unity to the whole of Southern India and established the Chola Empire
as a respected sea power.[222] Under the Cholas, the South India reached new heights
of excellence in art, religion and literature. In all of these spheres, the Chola period
marked the culmination of movements that had begun in an earlier age under the
Pallavas. Monumental architecture in the form of majestic temples and sculpture in
stone and bronze reached a finesse never before achieved in India.[223]

Srirangam Ranganathaswamy Temple is

the world's largest functioning Hindu temple present in Tamil Nadu, India
[224]

The granite gopuram (tower) of Brihadeeswarar Temple, 1010

Chariot detail at Airavatesvara Temple built by Rajaraja Chola II in the 12th century
 

The pyramidal structure above the sanctum at Brihadisvara Temple.

Brihadeeswara Temple Entrance Gopurams at Thanjavur

Western Chalukya Empire
Main article: Western Chalukya Empire
The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of the western Deccan, South India,
between the 10th and 12th centuries.[225] Vast areas between the Narmada River in
the north and Kaveri River in the south came under Chalukya control.[225] During this
period the other major ruling families of the Deccan, the Hoysalas, the Seuna
Yadavas of Devagiri, the Kakatiya dynasty and the Southern Kalachuris, were
subordinates of the Western Chalukyas and gained their independence only when
the power of the Chalukya waned during the latter half of the 12th century. [226]
The Western Chalukyas developed an architectural style known today as a
transitional style, an architectural link between the style of the early Chalukya
dynasty and that of the later Hoysala empire. Most of its monuments are in the
districts bordering the Tungabhadra River in central Karnataka. Well known
examples are the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi, the Mallikarjuna Temple at
Kuruvatti, the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali, Siddhesvara Temple at Haveri, and
the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi.[227] This was an important period in the development of
fine arts in Southern India, especially in literature as the Western Chalukya kings
encouraged writers in the native language of Kannada, and Sanskrit like the
philosopher and statesman Basava and the great mathematician Bhāskara II.[228][229]
 

Shrine outer wall and Dravida style superstructure (shikhara) at Siddhesvara

Temple at Haveri

Ornate entrance to the closed hall from the south at Kalleshvara Temple at Bagali

Shrine wall relief, molding frieze and miniature decorative tower in Mallikarjuna Temple at
Kuruvatti
 

Rear view showing lateral entrances of the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi

Late medieval period (c. 1200–1526)

Main article: Medieval India
See also: Muslim kingdoms in the Indian subcontinent
The late medieval period is marked by repeated invasions of the Muslim Central
Asian nomadic clans,[230][231] the rule of the Delhi sultanate, and by the growth of other
dynasties and empires, built upon military technology of the Sultanate.[232] It turned
from a turkic Monopoly to an Indianized Indo-Muslim polity [233][234][235][236]
Delhi Sultanate
Main article: Delhi Sultanate
The Delhi Sultanate was a series of successive Islamic states based in Delhi, ruled
by several dynasties of Turkic, Indic[237][238],Turko-Indian[239] and Pashtun origins.[240] It
ruled large parts of the Indian subcontinent from the 13th to the early 16th century.
[241]
In the 12th and 13th centuries, Central Asian Turks invaded parts of northern India
and established the Delhi Sultanate in the former Hindu holdings.[242] The
subsequent Mamluk dynasty of Delhi managed to conquer large areas of northern
India, while the Khalji dynasty conquered most of central India while forcing the
principal Hindu kingdoms of South India to become vassal states.[241]
The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting "Indo-
Muslim" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music,
literature, religion, and clothing. It is surmised that the language of Urdu was born
during the Delhi Sultanate period. The Delhi Sultanate is the only Indo-Islamic
empire to enthrone one of the few female rulers in India, Razia Sultana (1236–1240).
While initially disruptive due to the passing of power from native Indian elites to
Turkic Muslim, Indic muslim and Pashtun muslim elites, the Delhi Sultanate was
responsible for integrating the Indian subcontinent into a growing world system,
drawing India into a wider international network, which had a significant impact on
Indian culture and society.[243] However, the Delhi Sultanate also caused large-scale
destruction and desecration of temples in the Indian subcontinent.[244]
The Mongol invasions of India were successfully repelled by the Delhi Sultanate
during the rule of Alauddin Khalji. A major factor in their success was their
Turkic Mamluk slave army, who were highly skilled in the same style of nomadic
cavalry warfare as the Mongols. It is possible that the Mongol Empire may have
expanded into India were it not for the Delhi Sultanate's role in repelling them. [245] By
repeatedly repulsing the Mongol raiders,[246] the sultanate saved India from the
devastation visited on West and Central Asia. Soldiers from that region and learned
men and administrators fleeing Mongol invasions of Iran migrated into the
subcontinent, thereby creating a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture in the north.[245]
A Turco-Mongol conqueror in Central Asia, Timur (Tamerlane), attacked the reigning
Sultan Nasir-u Din Mehmud of the Tughlaq dynasty in the north Indian city of Delhi.
[247]
The Sultan's army was defeated on 17 December 1398. Timur entered Delhi and
the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins after Timur's army had killed and
plundered for three days and nights. He ordered the whole city to be sacked except
for the sayyids, scholars, and the "other Muslims" (artists); 100,000 war prisoners
were put to death in one day.[248] The Sultanate suffered significantly from the sacking
of Delhi. Though revived briefly under the Lodi dynasty, it was but a shadow of the
former.

Qutb Minar, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, whose construction was begun by Qutb ud-Din
Aibak, the first Sultan of Delhi.

Dargahs of Sufi-saint Nizamuddin Auliya, and poet and musician Amir Khusro in Delhi.
Vijayanagara Empire
Main article: Vijayanagara Empire
 Map of the Sangama dynasty of the Vijayanagara
Empire
The Vijayanagara Empire was established in 1336 by Harihara I and his
brother Bukka Raya I of Sangama Dynasty,[249] which originated as a political heir of
the Hoysala Empire, Kakatiya Empire,[250] and the Pandyan Empire.[251] The empire
rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the south Indian powers to ward
off Islamic invasions by the end of the 13th century. It lasted until 1646, although its
power declined after a major military defeat in 1565 by the combined armies of
the Deccan sultanates. The empire is named after its capital city of Vijayanagara,
whose ruins surround present day Hampi, now a World Heritage Site in Karnataka,
India.[252]
In the first two decades after the founding of the empire, Harihara I gained control
over most of the area south of the Tungabhadra river and earned the title
of Purvapaschima Samudradhishavara ("master of the eastern and western seas").
By 1374 Bukka Raya I, successor to Harihara I, had defeated the chiefdom of Arcot,
the Reddys of Kondavidu, and the Sultan of Madurai and had gained control
over Goa in the west and the Tungabhadra-Krishna doab in the north.[253][254]
Harihara II, the second son of Bukka Raya I, further consolidated the kingdom
beyond the Krishna River and brought the whole of South India under the
Vijayanagara umbrella.[255] The next ruler, Deva Raya I, emerged successful against
the Gajapatis of Odisha and undertook important works of fortification and irrigation.
[256]
Italian traveller Niccolo de Conti wrote of him as the most powerful ruler of India.
[257]
Deva Raya II succeeded to the throne in 1424 and was possibly the most capable
of the Sangama Dynasty rulers.[258] He quelled rebelling feudal lords as well as
the Zamorin of Calicut and Quilon in the south. He invaded the island of Sri Lanka
and became overlord of the kings of Burma at Pegu and Tanasserim.[259][260][261]
The Vijayanagara Emperors were tolerant of all religions and sects, as writings by
foreign visitors show.[262] The kings used titles such as Gobrahamana
Pratipalanacharya (literally, "protector of cows and Brahmins")
and Hindurayasuratrana (lit, "upholder of Hindu faith") that testified to their intention
of protecting Hinduism and yet were at the same time staunchly Islamicate in their
court ceremonials and dress.[263] The empire's founders, Harihara I and Bukka Raya I,
were devout Shaivas (worshippers of Shiva), but made grants to
the Vaishnava order of Sringeri with Vidyaranya as their patron saint, and
designated Varaha (an avatar of Vishnu) as their emblem.[264] Nobles from Central
Asia's Timurid kingdoms also came to Vijayanagara.[265] The
later Saluva and Tuluva kings were Vaishnava by faith, but worshipped at the feet of
Lord Virupaksha (Shiva) at Hampi as well as Lord Venkateshwara (Vishnu)
at Tirupati.[266] A Sanskrit work, Jambavati Kalyanam by King Krishnadevaraya, called
Lord Virupaksha Karnata Rajya Raksha Mani ("protective jewel of Karnata Empire").
[267]
The kings patronised the saints of the dvaita order (philosophy of dualism)
of Madhvacharya at Udupi.[268]

Photograph of the ruins of the Vijayanagara Empire at Hampi, now a UNESCO World
Heritage Site in 1868[269]

Gajashaala, or elephant's stable, was built by the Vijayanagar rulers for their war elephants.
[270]

Vijayanagara marketplace at Hampi, along with the sacred tank located on the side of
Krishna temple.
 

Stone temple car in Vitthala Temple at Hampi

The empire's legacy includes many monuments spread over South India, the best
known of which is the group at Hampi. The previous temple building traditions in
South India came together in the Vijayanagara Architecture style. The mingling of all
faiths and vernaculars inspired architectural innovation of Hindu temple construction.
South Indian mathematics flourished under the protection of the Vijayanagara
Empire in Kerala. The south Indian mathematician Madhava of
Sangamagrama founded the famous Kerala School of Astronomy and
Mathematics in the 14th century which produced a lot of great south Indian
mathematicians like Parameshvara, Nilakantha Somayaji and Jyeṣṭhadeva.
[271]
Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies
such as water management systems for irrigation.[272] The empire's patronage
enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, and
Sanskrit, while Carnatic music evolved into its current form.[273]
Vijayanagara went into decline after the defeat in the Battle of Talikota (1565). After
the death of Aliya Rama Raya in the Battle of Talikota, Tirumala Deva Raya started
the Aravidu dynasty, moved and founded a new capital of Penukonda to replace the
destroyed Hampi, and attempted to reconstitute the remains of Vijayanagara Empire.
[274]
Tirumala abdicated in 1572, dividing the remains of his kingdom to his three sons,
and pursued a religious life until his death in 1578. The Aravidu dynasty successors
ruled the region but the empire collapsed in 1614, and the final remains ended in
1646, from continued wars with the Bijapur sultanate and others.[275][276][277] During this
period, more kingdoms in South India became independent and separate from
Vijayanagara. These include the Mysore Kingdom, Keladi Nayaka, Nayaks of
Madurai, Nayaks of Tanjore, Nayakas of Chitradurga and Nayak Kingdom of
Gingee – all of which declared independence and went on to have a significant
impact on the history of South India in the coming centuries.[275]
Other kingdoms
Main articles: Guhila dynasty and Kingdom of Mewar


Vijaya Stambha (Tower of Victory).

Temple inside Chittorgarh fort

Man Singh (Manasimha) palace at the Gwalior fort

Chinese manuscript Tribute Giraffe with Attendant, depicting a giraffe presented by Bengali
envoys in the name of Sultan Saifuddin Hamza Shah of Bengal to the Yongle
Emperor of Ming China


 Mahmud Gawan Madrasa was built by Mahmud Gawan, the Wazir of the Bahmani Sultanate
as the centre of religious as well as secular education
For two and a half centuries from the mid-13th century, politics in Northern India was
dominated by the Delhi Sultanate, and in Southern India by the Vijayanagar Empire.
However, there were other regional powers present as well. After fall of Pala Empire,
the Chero dynasty ruled much of Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Jharkhand from
the 12th to the 18th centuries.[278][279][280] The Reddy dynasty successfully defeated the
Delhi Sultanate and extended their rule from Cuttack in the north to Kanchi in the
south, eventually being absorbed into the expanding Vijayanagara Empire.[281]
In the north, the Rajput kingdoms remained the dominant force in Western and
Central India. The Mewar dynasty under Maharana Hammir defeated and
captured Muhammad Tughlaq with the Bargujars as his main allies. Tughlaq had to
pay a huge ransom and relinquish all of Mewar's lands. After this event, the Delhi
Sultanate did not attack Chittor for a few hundred years. The Rajputs re-established
their independence, and Rajput states were established as far east as Bengal and
north into the Punjab. The Tomaras established themselves at Gwalior, and Man
Singh Tomar reconstructed the Gwalior Fort.[282] During this period, Mewar emerged
as the leading Rajput state; and Rana Kumbha expanded his kingdom at the
expense of the Sultanates of Malwa and Gujarat.[282][283] The next great Rajput
ruler, Rana Sanga of Mewar, became the principal player in Northern India. His
objectives grew in scope – he planned to conquer Delhi. But, his defeat in the Battle
of Khanwa consolidated the new Mughal dynasty in India.[282] The Mewar dynasty
under Maharana Udai Singh II faced further defeat by Mughal emperor Akbar, with
their capital Chittor being captured. Due to this event, Udai Singh II founded Udaipur,
which became the new capital of the Mewar kingdom. His son, Maharana Pratap of
Mewar, firmly resisted the Mughals. Akbar sent many missions against him. He
survived to ultimately gain control of all of Mewar, excluding the Chittor Fort.[284]
In the south, the Bahmani Sultanate was the chief rival of the Vijayanagara, and
frequently created difficulties for the Vijayanagara.[285] In the early 16th
century Krishnadevaraya of the Vijayanagar Empire defeated the last remnant of
Bahmani Sultanate power,[286] resulting it being split into five small Deccan sultanates.
[287]
In 1490, Ahmadnagar declared independence, followed by Bijapur and Berar in
the same year; Golkonda became independent in 1518 and Bidar in 1528.
[288]
Although generally rivals, they did ally against the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565,
permanently weakening Vijayanagar in the Battle of Talikota.
In the East, the Gajapati Kingdom remained a strong regional power to reckon with,
associated with a high point in the growth of regional culture and architecture.
Under Kapilendradeva, Gajapatis became an empire stretching from the
lower Ganga in the north to the Kaveri in the south.[289] In Northeast India, the Ahom
Kingdom was a major power for six centuries;[290][291] led by Lachit Borphukan, the
Ahoms decisively defeated the Mughal army at the Battle of Saraighat during
the Ahom-Mughal conflicts.[292] Further east in Northeastern India was the Kingdom of
Manipur, which ruled from their seat of power at Kangla Fort and developed a
sophisticated Hindu Gaudiya Vaishnavite culture.[293][294][295]
The Sultanate of Bengal was the dominant power of the Ganges–Brahmaputra
Delta, with a network of mint towns spread across the region. It was a Sunni
Muslim monarchy with Indo-Turkic, Arab, Abyssinian and Bengali Muslim elites. The
sultanate was known for its religious pluralism where non-Muslim communities co-
existed peacefully. The Bengal Sultanate had a circle of vassal states,
including Odisha in the southwest, Arakan in the southeast, and Tripura in the east.
In the early 16th century, the Bengal Sultanate reached the peak of its territorial
growth with control over Kamrup and Kamata in the northeast
and Jaunpur and Bihar in the west. It was reputed as a thriving trading nation and
one of Asia's strongest states. The Bengal Sultanate was described by contemporary
European and Chinese visitors as a relatively prosperous kingdom and the "richest
country to trade with". The Bengal Sultanate left a strong architectural legacy.
Buildings from the period show foreign influences merged into a distinct Bengali
style. The Bengal Sultanate was also the largest and most prestigious authority
among the independent medieval Muslim-ruled states in the history of Bengal. Its
decline began with an interregnum by the Suri Empire, followed
by Mughal conquest and disintegration into petty kingdoms.
Bhakti movement and Sikhism
Main articles: Bhakti movement, Buddhism in India, and Sikhism
See also: History of Sikhism
The Bhakti movement refers to the theistic devotional trend that emerged in
medieval Hinduism[296] and later revolutionised in Sikhism.[297] It originated in the
seventh-century south India (now parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala), and spread
northwards.[296] It swept over east and north India from the 15th century onwards,
reaching its zenith between the 15th and 17th century.[298]

 The Bhakti movement regionally developed around different gods and

goddesses, such
as Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva), Shaktism (Shakti goddesses),
and Smartism.[299][300][301] The movement was inspired by many poet-saints,
who championed a wide range of philosophical positions ranging from
theistic dualism of Dvaita to absolute monism of Advaita Vedanta.[302][303]
 Sikhism is a monotheistic and panentheistic religion based on the spiritual
teachings of Guru Nanak, the first Guru,[304] and the ten successive Sikh
gurus. After the death of the tenth Guru, Guru Gobind Singh, the Sikh
scripture, Guru Granth Sahib, became the literal embodiment of the
eternal, impersonal Guru, where the scripture's word serves as the
spiritual guide for Sikhs.[305][306][307]
 Buddhism in India flourished in the Himalayan kingdoms of Namgyal
Kingdom in Ladakh, Sikkim Kingdom in Sikkim, and Chutia
Kingdom in Arunachal Pradesh of the Late medieval period.


 Rang Ghar, built by Pramatta Singha in Ahom kingdom's capital Rangpur, is one of the
earliest pavilions of outdoor stadia in the Indian subcontinent

Chittor Fort is the largest fort on the Indian subcontinent; it is one of the six Hill Forts of
Rajasthan

Ranakpur Jain temple was built in the 15th century with the support of the Rajput state
of Mewar

Gol Gumbaz built by the Bijapur Sultanate, has the second largest pre-modern dome in the
world after the Byzantine Hagia Sophia

Early modern period (1526–1858)

The early modern period of Indian history is dated from 1526 to 1858, corresponding
to the rise and fall of the Mughal Empire, which inherited from the Timurid
Renaissance. During this age India's economy expanded, relative peace was
maintained and arts were patronised. This period witnessed the further development
of Indo-Islamic architecture;[308][309] the growth of Marathas and Sikhs enabled them to
rule significant regions of India in the waning days of the Mughal empire.[17] With the
discovery of the Cape route in the 1500s, the first Europeans to arrive by sea and
establish themselves, were the Portuguese in Goa and Bombay.[310]
Mughal Empire
Main article: Mughal Empire
See also: Bengal Subah, Muslin trade in Bengal, Mughal architecture, Army of the
Mughal Empire, Mughal clothing, and Mughal painting
Mughal Empire

Map of the Mughal Empire at its peak in year 1700

Taj Mahal is the jewel of Muslim architecture in India UNESCO World Heritage Site declaration, 1983.[311]

In 1526, Babur swept across the Khyber Pass and established the Mughal Empire,
which at its zenith covered much of South Asia.[312] However, his son Humayun was
defeated by the Afghan warrior Sher Shah Suri in 1540, and Humayun was forced to
retreat to Kabul. After Sher Shah's death, his son Islam Shah Suri and his Hindu
general Hemu Vikramaditya established secular rule in North India from Delhi until
1556, when Akbar (r. 1556–1605), grandson of Babur, defeated Hemu in the Second
Battle of Panipat on 6 November 1556 after winning Battle of Delhi. Akbar tried to
establish a good relationship with the Hindus. Akbar declared "Amari" or non-killing
of animals in the holy days of Jainism. He rolled back the jizya tax for non-Muslims.
The Mughal emperors married local royalty, allied themselves with local maharajas,
and attempted to fuse their Turko-Persian culture with ancient Indian styles, creating
a unique Indo-Persian culture and Indo-Saracenic architecture.
Akbar married a Rajput princess, Mariam-uz-Zamani, and they had a
son, Jahangir (r. 1605–1627).[313] Jahangir followed his father's policy. The Mughal
dynasty ruled most of the Indian subcontinent by 1600. The reign of Shah Jahan (r.
1628–1658) was the golden age of Mughal architecture. He erected several large
monuments, the most famous of which is the Taj Mahal at Agra.
It was one of the largest empires to have existed in the Indian subcontinent, [314] and
surpassed China to become the world's largest economic power, controlling 24.4%
of the world economy,[315] and the world leader in manufacturing,[316] producing 25% of
global industrial output.[317] The economic and demographic upsurge was stimulated
by Mughal agrarian reforms that intensified agricultural production,[318] and a relatively
high degree of urbanisation.[319]
Other Mughal UNESCO World Heritage Sites

Agra Fort showing Yamuna river and Taj Mahal in the background

Fatehpur Sikri, near Agra, showing Buland Darwaza, the complex built by Akbar, the third
Mughal emperor

Red Fort, Delhi, constructed in the year 1648

The Mughal Empire reached the zenith of its territorial expanse during the reign
of Aurangzeb (r. 1658–1707), under whose reign India surpassed Qing China as the
world's largest economy.[320][321] Aurangzeb was less tolerant than his predecessors,
reintroducing the jizya tax and destroying several historical temples, while at the
same time building more Hindu temples than he destroyed,[322] employing significantly
more Hindus in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors, and advancing
administrators based on ability rather than religion.[323] However, he is often blamed
for the erosion of the tolerant syncretic tradition of his predecessors, as well as
increasing religious controversy and centralisation. The English East India
Company suffered a defeat in the Anglo-Mughal War.[324][325]

18th-century political formation in India

The Mughals suffered several blows due to invasions
from Marathas, Rajputs, Jats and Afghans. In 1737, the Maratha general Bajirao of
the Maratha Empire invaded and plundered Delhi. Under the general Amir Khan
Umrao Al Udat, the Mughal Emperor sent 8,000 troops to drive away the 5,000
Maratha cavalry soldiers. Baji Rao easily routed the novice Mughal general. In 1737,
in the final defeat of Mughal Empire, the commander-in-chief of the Mughal Army,
Nizam-ul-mulk, was routed at Bhopal by the Maratha army. This essentially brought
an end to the Mughal Empire.[citation needed] While Bharatpur State under Jat ruler Suraj
Mal, overran the Mughal garrison at Agra and plundered the city.[326] In 1739, Nader
Shah, emperor of Iran, defeated the Mughal army at the Battle of Karnal.[327] After this
victory, Nader captured and sacked Delhi, carrying away treasures including
the Peacock Throne.[328] Mughal rule was further weakened by constant native Indian
resistance; Banda Singh Bahadur led the Sikh Khalsa against Mughal religious
oppression; Hindu Rajas of Bengal, Pratapaditya and Raja Sitaram Ray revolted;
and Maharaja Chhatrasal, of Bundela Rajputs, fought the Mughals and established
the Panna State.[329] The Mughal dynasty was reduced to puppet rulers by
1757. Vadda Ghalughara took place under the Muslim provincial government based
at Lahore to wipe out the Sikhs, with 30,000 Sikhs being killed, an offensive that had
begun with the Mughals, with the Chhota Ghallughara,[330] and lasted several decades
under its Muslim successor states.[331]
Maratha Empire
Main article: Maratha Empire
Further information: Maratha Army, Maratha Navy, and Battles involving the
Maratha Empire
Maratha Empire
 Maratha Empire at its peak in 1760 (yellow area), covering much of the Indian subcontinent, stretching
from South India to present-day Pakistan

Shaniwarwada palace fort in Pune, the seat of the Peshwa rulers of the Maratha Empire until 1818

The Maratha kingdom was founded and consolidated by Chatrapati Shivaji.

[332]
However, the credit for making the Marathas formidable power nationally goes
to Peshwa (chief minister) Bajirao I. Historian K.K. Datta wrote that Bajirao I "may
very well be regarded as the second founder of the Maratha Empire".[333]
In the early 18th century, under the Peshwas, the Marathas consolidated and ruled
over much of South Asia. The Marathas are credited to a large extent for
ending Mughal rule in India.[334][335][336] In 1737, the Marathas defeated a Mughal army in
their capital, in the Battle of Delhi. The Marathas continued their military
campaigns against the Mughals, Nizam, Nawab of Bengal and the Durrani Empire to
further extend their boundaries. At its peak, the domain of the Marathas
encompassed most of the Indian subcontinent.[337] The Marathas even attempted to
capture Delhi and discussed putting Vishwasrao Peshwa on the throne there in place
of the Mughal emperor.[338]
The Maratha empire at its peak stretched from Tamil Nadu in the south,
[339]
to Peshawar (modern-day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan[340] [note 2]) in the north,
and Bengal in the east. The Northwestern expansion of the Marathas was stopped
after the Third Battle of Panipat (1761). However, the Maratha authority in the north
was re-established within a decade under Peshwa Madhavrao I.[342]
Under Madhavrao I, the strongest knights were granted semi-autonomy, creating a
confederacy of United Maratha states under the Gaekwads of Baroda,
the Holkars of Indore and Malwa, the Scindias of Gwalior and Ujjain,
the Bhonsales of Nagpur and the Puars of Dhar and Dewas. In 1775, the East India
Company intervened in a Peshwa family succession struggle in Pune, which led to
the First Anglo-Maratha War, resulting in a Maratha victory.[343] The Marathas
remained a major power in India until their defeat in the Second and Third Anglo-
Maratha Wars (1805–1818).
Sikh Empire
Main article: Sikh Empire
See also: Sikh architecture
The Sikh Empire was a political entity that governed the Northwestern regions of the
Indian subcontinent, based around the Punjab region, from 1799 to 1849. It was
forged, on the foundations of the Khalsa, under the leadership of Maharaja Ranjit
Singh (1780–1839).[citation needed]
Maharaja Ranjit Singh consolidated much of northern India into an empire using
his Sikh Khalsa Army, trained in European military techniques and equipped with
modern military technologies. Ranjit Singh proved himself to be a master strategist
and selected well-qualified generals for his army. He successfully ended the Afghan-
Sikh Wars. In stages, he added central Punjab, the provinces of Multan and
Kashmir, and the Peshawar Valley to his empire.[344][345]
At its peak in the 19th century, the empire extended from the Khyber Pass in the
west, to Kashmir in the north, to Sindh in the south, running along Sutlej river
to Himachal in the east. After the death of Ranjit Singh, the empire weakened,
leading to conflict with the British East India Company. The First Anglo-Sikh
War and Second Anglo-Sikh War marked the downfall of the Sikh Empire, making it
among the last areas of the Indian subcontinent to be conquered by the British.
Other kingdoms

Territories of India in 1763

The Kingdom of Mysore in southern India expanded to its greatest extent
under Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan in the later half of the 18th century. Under
their rule, Mysore fought series of wars against the Marathas and British or their
combined forces. The Maratha–Mysore War ended in April 1787, following the
finalising of treaty of Gajendragad, in which Tipu Sultan was obligated to pay tribute
to the Marathas. Concurrently, the Anglo-Mysore Wars took place, where the
Mysoreans used the Mysorean rockets. The Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1798–1799)
saw the death of Tipu. Mysore's alliance with the French was seen as a threat to the
British East India Company, and Mysore was attacked from all four sides. The Nizam
of Hyderabad and the Marathas launched an invasion from the north. The British
won a decisive victory at the Siege of Seringapatam (1799).
Hyderabad was founded by the Qutb Shahi dynasty of Golconda in 1591. Following
a brief Mughal rule, Asif Jah, a Mughal official, seized control of Hyderabad and
declared himself Nizam-al-Mulk of Hyderabad in 1724. The Nizams lost considerable
territory and paid tribute to the Maratha Empire after being routed in multiple battles,
such as the Battle of Palkhed.[346] However, the Nizams maintained their sovereignty
from 1724 until 1948 through paying tributes to the Marathas, and later, being
vassals of the British. Hyderabad State became a princely state in British India in
1798.
The Nawabs of Bengal had become the de facto rulers of Bengal following the
decline of Mughal Empire. However, their rule was interrupted by Marathas who
carried out six expeditions in Bengal from 1741 to 1748, as a result of which Bengal
became a tributary state of Marathas. On 23 June 1757, Siraj ud-Daulah, the last
independent Nawab of Bengal was betrayed in the Battle of Plassey by Mir Jafar. He
lost to the British, who took over the charge of Bengal in 1757, installed Mir Jafar on
the Masnad (throne) and established itself to a political power in Bengal.[347] In 1765
the system of Dual Government was established, in which the Nawabs ruled on
behalf of the British and were mere puppets to the British. In 1772 the system was
abolished and Bengal was brought under the direct control of the British. In 1793,
when the Nizamat (governorship) of the Nawab was also taken away, they remained
as mere pensioners of the British East India Company.[348][349]
In the 18th century, the whole of Rajputana was virtually subdued by the Marathas.
The Second Anglo-Maratha War distracted the Marathas from 1807 to 1809, but
afterward Maratha domination of Rajputana resumed. In 1817, the British went to
war with the Pindaris, raiders who were fled in Maratha territory, which quickly
became the Third Anglo-Maratha War, and the British government offered its
protection to the Rajput rulers from the Pindaris and the Marathas. By the end of
1818 similar treaties had been executed between the other Rajput states and Britain.
The Maratha Sindhia ruler of Gwalior gave up the district of Ajmer-Merwara to the
British, and Maratha influence in Rajasthan came to an end.[350] Most of the Rajput
princes remained loyal to Britain in the Revolt of 1857, and few political changes
were made in Rajputana until Indian independence in 1947. The Rajputana
Agency contained more than 20 princely states, most notable being Udaipur
State, Jaipur State, Bikaner State and Jodhpur State.
After the fall of the Maratha Empire, many Maratha dynasties and states became
vassals in a subsidiary alliance with the British. With the decline of the Sikh Empire,
after the First Anglo-Sikh War in 1846, under the terms of the Treaty of Amritsar, the
British government sold Kashmir to Maharaja Gulab Singh and the princely state of
Jammu and Kashmir, the second-largest princely state in British India, was created
by the Dogra dynasty.[351][352] While in eastern and north-eastern India, the Hindu and
Buddhist states of Cooch Behar Kingdom, Twipra Kingdom and Kingdom of
Sikkim were annexed by the British and made vassal princely state.
After the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire, Polygar states emerged in Southern India;
and managed to weather invasions and flourished until the Polygar Wars, where they
were defeated by the British East India Company forces.[353] Around the 18th century,
the Kingdom of Nepal was formed by Rajput rulers.[354]
European exploration
Main article: Colonial India
 The route followed in Vasco da Gama's first voyage
(1497–1499)p
In 1498, a Portuguese fleet under Vasco da Gama discovered a new sea route from
Europe to India, which paved the way for direct Indo-European commerce. The
Portuguese soon set up trading posts in Velha Goa, Damaon, Dio island,
and Bombay. The Portuguese instituted the Goa Inquisition, where new Indian
converts were punished for suspected heresy against Christianity and non-Christians
were condemned.[355] Goa remained the main Portuguese territory until it
was annexed by India in 1961.[356]
The next to arrive were the Dutch, with their main base in Ceylon. They established
ports in Malabar. However, their expansion into India was halted after their defeat in
the Battle of Colachel by the Kingdom of Travancore during the Travancore-Dutch
War. The Dutch never recovered from the defeat and no longer posed a large
colonial threat to India.[357][358]
The internal conflicts among Indian kingdoms gave opportunities to the European
traders to gradually establish political influence and appropriate lands. Following the
Dutch, the British — who set up in the west coast port of Surat in 1619 — and the
French both established trading outposts in India. Although continental European
powers controlled various coastal regions of southern and eastern India during the
ensuing century, they eventually lost all their territories in India to the British, with the
exception of the French outposts of Pondichéry and Chandernagore, and the
Portuguese colonies of Goa, Daman and Diu.[citation needed]
East India Company rule in India
Main articles: East India Company and Company rule in India
India under East India Company rule

India in 1765 and 1805 showing East India Company Territories in pink
 India in 1837 and 1857 showing East India Company (pink) and other territories

The English East India Company was founded in 1600. It gained a foothold in India
with the establishment of a factory in Masulipatnam on the Eastern coast of India in
1611 and a grant of rights by the Mughal emperor Jahangir to establish a factory
in Surat in 1612. In 1640, after receiving similar permission from the Vijayanagara
ruler farther south, a second factory was established in Madras on the southeastern
coast. The islet of Bom Bahia in present-day Mumbai (Bombay), was a
Portuguese outpost not far from Surat, it was presented to Charles II of
England as dowry, in his marriage to Catherine of Braganza; Charles in turn leased
Bombay to the Company in 1668. Two decades later, the company established
a trade post in the River Ganges delta. During this time other companies established
by the Portuguese, Dutch, French, and Danish were similarly expanding in the
subcontinent.
The company's victory under Robert Clive in the 1757 Battle of Plassey and another
victory in the 1764 Battle of Buxar (in Bihar), consolidated the company's power, and
forced emperor Shah Alam II to appoint it the diwan, or revenue collector, of Bengal,
Bihar, and Orissa. The company thus became the de facto ruler of large areas of
the lower Gangetic plain by 1773. It also proceeded by degrees to expand its
dominions around Bombay and Madras. The Anglo-Mysore Wars (1766–99) and
the Anglo-Maratha Wars (1772–1818) left it in control of large areas of India south of
the Sutlej River. With the defeat of the Marathas, no native power represented a
threat for the company any longer.[359]
The expansion of the company's power chiefly took two forms. The first of these was
the outright annexation of Indian states and subsequent direct governance of the
underlying regions that collectively came to comprise British India. The annexed
regions included the North-Western Provinces (comprising Rohilkhand, Gorakhpur,
and the Doab) (1801), Delhi (1803), Assam (Ahom Kingdom 1828)
and Sindh (1843). Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, and Kashmir were annexed
after the Anglo-Sikh Wars in 1849–56 (Period of tenure of Marquess of Dalhousie
Governor General). However, Kashmir was immediately sold under the Treaty of
Amritsar (1850) to the Dogra Dynasty of Jammu and thereby became a princely
state. In 1854, Berar was annexed along with the state of Oudh two years later.[citation
needed]
 

Warren Hastings, the first governor-general of Fort William (Bengal) who oversaw the
company's territories in India

Gold coin, minted 1835, with obverse showing the bust of William IV, king of United Kingdom
from 26 June 1830 to 20 June 1837, and reverse marked "Two mohurs" in English
(do ashrafi in Urdu) issued during Company rule in India

Photograph (1855) showing the construction of the Bhor Ghaut incline bridge, Bombay; the
incline was conceived by George Clark, the Chief Engineer in the East India Company's
Government of Bombay
The second form of asserting power involved treaties in which Indian rulers
acknowledged the company's hegemony in return for limited internal autonomy.
Since the company operated under financial constraints, it had to set
up political underpinnings for its rule.[360] The most important such support came from
the subsidiary alliances with Indian princes.[360] In the early 19th century, the territories
of these princes accounted for two-thirds of India.[360] When an Indian ruler who was
able to secure his territory wanted to enter such an alliance, the company welcomed
it as an economical method of indirect rule that did not involve the economic costs of
direct administration or the political costs of gaining the support of alien subjects. [361]
In return, the company undertook the "defense of these subordinate allies and
treated them with traditional respect and marks of honor."[361] Subsidiary alliances
created the Princely States of the Hindu maharajas and the Muslim nawabs.
Prominent among the princely states
were Cochin (1791), Jaipur (1794), Travancore (1795), Hyderabad (1798), Mysore (1
799), Cis-Sutlej Hill States (1815), Central India Agency (1819), Cutch and Gujarat
Gaikwad territories (1819), Rajputana (1818),[362] and Bahawalpur (1833).
Indian indenture system
Main article: Indian indenture system
The Indian indenture system was an ongoing system of indenture, a form of debt
bondage, by which 3.5 million Indians were transported to colonies of European
powers to provide labour for the (mainly sugar) plantations. It started from the end of
slavery in 1833 and continued until 1920. This resulted in the development of a
large Indian diaspora that spread from the Caribbean to the Pacific Ocean and the
growth of large Indo-Caribbean and Indo-African populations.
Late modern and contemporary period (1857 – 1947)
Rebellion of 1857 and its consequences
Main article: Indian Rebellion of 1857

Lakshmibai, the Rani of Jhansi, one of the principal leaders of the rebellion who earlier had
lost her kingdom as a result of the Doctrine of lapse.

Bahadur Shah Zafar the last Mughal Emperor. Crowned Emperor of India by the rebels, he
was deposed by the British and died in exile in Burma.
 

Charles Canning, the Governor-General of India during the rebellion.

Lord Dalhousie, the Governor-General of India from 1848 to 1856, who devised the Doctrine
of Lapse.
The Indian rebellion of 1857 was a large-scale rebellion by soldiers employed by the
British East India Company in northern and central India against the company's rule.
The spark that led to the mutiny was the issue of new gunpowder cartridges for the
Enfield rifle, which was insensitive to local religious prohibition. The key mutineer
was Mangal Pandey.[363] In addition, the underlying grievances over British taxation,
the ethnic gulf between the British officers and their Indian troops and land
annexations played a significant role in the rebellion. Within weeks after Pandey's
mutiny, dozens of units of the Indian army joined peasant armies in widespread
rebellion. The rebel soldiers were later joined by Indian nobility, many of whom had
lost titles and domains under the Doctrine of Lapse and felt that the company had
interfered with a traditional system of inheritance. Rebel leaders such as Nana
Sahib and the Rani of Jhansi belonged to this group.[364]
After the outbreak of the mutiny in Meerut, the rebels very quickly reached Delhi. The
rebels had also captured large tracts of the North-Western
Provinces and Awadh (Oudh). Most notably, in Awadh, the rebellion took on the
attributes of a patriotic revolt against British presence.[365] However, the British East
India Company mobilised rapidly with the assistance of friendly Princely states, but it
took the British the better part of 1858 to suppress the rebellion. Due to the rebels
being poorly equipped and having no outside support or funding, they were brutally
subdued.[366]
In the aftermath, all power was transferred from the British East India Company to
the British Crown, which began to administer most of India as provinces. The Crown
controlled the company's lands directly and had considerable indirect influence over
the rest of India, which consisted of the Princely states ruled by local royal families.
There were officially 565 princely states in 1947, but only 21 had actual state
governments, and only three were large (Mysore, Hyderabad, and Kashmir). They
were absorbed into the independent nation in 1947–48.[367]
British Raj (1858–1947)
Main article: British Raj
British Raj

The British Indian Empire in 1909. British India is shown in pink; the princely states in yellow.

A 1903 stereographic image of Victoria Terminus a terminal train station, in Mumbai, completed in 1887,
and now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

After 1857, the colonial government strengthened and expanded its infrastructure via
the court system, legal procedures, and statutes. The Indian Penal Code came into
being.[368] In education, Thomas Babington Macaulay had made schooling a priority
for the Raj in 1835 and succeeded in implementing the use of English for instruction.
By 1890 some 60,000 Indians had matriculated.[369] The Indian economy grew at
about 1% per year from 1880 to 1920, and the population also grew at 1%. However,
from 1910s Indian private industry began to grow significantly. India built a modern
railway system in the late 19th century which was the fourth largest in the world.
[370]
Historians have been divided on issues of economic history, with the Nationalist
school arguing that India was poorer due to British rule.[371]
In 1905, Lord Curzon split the large province of Bengal into a largely Hindu western
half and "Eastern Bengal and Assam", a largely Muslim eastern half. The British goal
was said to be efficient administration but the people of Bengal were outraged at the
apparent "divide and rule" strategy. It also marked the beginning of the organised
anti-colonial movement. When the Liberal party in Britain came to power in 1906, he
was removed. Bengal was reunified in 1911. The new Viceroy Gilbert Minto and the
new Secretary of State for India John Morley consulted with Congress leaders on
political reforms. The Morley-Minto reforms of 1909 provided for Indian membership
of the provincial executive councils as well as the Viceroy's executive council. The
Imperial Legislative Council was enlarged from 25 to 60 members and separate
communal representation for Muslims was established in a dramatic step towards
representative and responsible government.[372] Several socio-religious organisations
came into being at that time. Muslims set up the All India Muslim League in 1906 to
protect the interests of the aristocratic Muslims. The Hindu
Mahasabha and Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) sought to represent Hindu
interests though the latter always claimed it to be a "cultural" organisation.[373] Sikhs
founded the Shiromani Akali Dal in 1920.[374] However, the largest and oldest political
party Indian National Congress, founded in 1885, attempted to keep a distance from
the socio-religious movements and identity politics.[375]

Two silver rupee coins issued by the British Raj in 1862 and 1886 respectively, the first in
obverse showing a bust of Victoria, Queen, the second of Victoria, Empress. Victoria
became Empress of India in 1876.

Ronald Ross, left, at Cunningham's laboratory of Presidency Hospital in Calcutta, where the
transmission of malaria by mosquitoes was discovered, winning Ross the second Nobel
Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1902.
 

A Darjeeling Himalayan Railway train shown in 1870. The railway became a UNESCO World
Heritage Site in 1999.

A second-day cancellation of the stamps issued in February 1931 to commemorate the

inauguration of New Delhi as the capital of the British Indian Empire. Between 1858 and
1911, Calcutta had been the capital of the Raj.
Indian Renaissance
Main articles: British Raj and Bengali Renaissance

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817–1898), the author of Causes of the Indian Mutiny, was the
founder of Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College, later the Aligarh Muslim University


 Pandita Ramabai (1858–1922) was a social reformer, and a pioneer in the education and
emancipation of women in India

Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941) was a Bengali language poet, short-story writer, and
playwright, and in addition a music composer and painter, who won the Nobel prize for
Literature in 1913

Srinivasa Ramanujan (1887–1920) was an Indian mathematician who made seminal

contributions to number theory
The Bengali Renaissance refers to a social reform movement, dominated by Bengali
Hindus, in the Bengal region of the Indian subcontinent during the nineteenth and
early twentieth centuries, a period of British rule. Historian Nitish Sengupta describes
the renaissance as having started with reformer and humanitarian Raja Ram Mohan
Roy (1775–1833), and ended with Asia's first Nobel laureate Rabindranath
Tagore (1861–1941).[376] This flowering of religious and social reformers, scholars,
and writers is described by historian David Kopf as "one of the most creative periods
in Indian history."[377]
During this period, Bengal witnessed an intellectual awakening that is in some way
similar to the Renaissance. This movement questioned existing orthodoxies,
particularly with respect to women, marriage, the dowry system, the caste system,
and religion. One of the earliest social movements that emerged during this time was
the Young Bengal movement, which espoused rationalism and atheism as the
common denominators of civil conduct among upper caste educated Hindus.[378] It
played an important role in reawakening Indian minds and intellect across the Indian
subcontinent.
Famines
Main articles: Famine in India and Timeline of major famines in India during British
rule
See also: Demographics of India

Map of famines in India during British Empire in year 1800–1885.

Engraving from The Graphic, October 1877, showing the plight of animals as well as humans
in Bellary district, Madras Presidency, British India during the Great Famine of 1876–1878

Government famine relief, Ahmedabad, India, during the Indian famine of 1899–1900
 

A picture of orphans who survived the Bengal famine of 1943, a man-made disaster by the
British government
During British East India Company and British Crown rule, India experienced some
of deadliest ever recorded famines. These famines, usually resulting from crop
failures and often exacerbated by policies of the colonial government,[379] included
the Great Famine of 1876–1878 in which 6.1 million to 10.3 million people died,
[380]
the Great Bengal famine of 1770 where between 1 and 10 million people died,[381]
[382]
the Indian famine of 1899–1900 in which 1.25 to 10 million people died,[379] and
the Bengal famine of 1943 where between 2.1 and 3.8 million people died.
[383]
The Third plague pandemic in the mid-19th century killed 10 million people in
India.[384] Despite persistent diseases and famines, the population of the Indian
subcontinent, which stood at up to 200 million in 1750,[385] had reached 389 million by
1941.[386]
World War I
Main article: Indian Army during World War I

Indian Cavalry on the Western front 1914

Indian cavalry from the Deccan Horse during the Battle of Bazentin Ridge in 1916.


 Indian Army gunners (probably 39th Battery) with 3.7-inch mountain howitzers, Jerusalem
1917

India Gate is a memorial to 70,000 soldiers of the British Indian Army who died in the period
1914–21 in the First World War
During World War I, over 800,000 volunteered for the army, and more than 400,000
volunteered for non-combat roles, compared with the pre-war annual recruitment of
about 15,000 men.[387] The Army saw early action on the Western Front at the First
Battle of Ypres. After a year of front-line duty, sickness and casualties had reduced
the Indian Corps to the point where it had to be withdrawn. Nearly 700,000 Indians
fought the Turks in the Mesopotamian campaign. Indian formations were also sent to
East Africa, Egypt, and Gallipoli.[388]
Indian Army and Imperial Service Troops fought during the Sinai and Palestine
Campaign's defence of the Suez Canal in 1915, at Romani in 1916 and
to Jerusalem in 1917. India units occupied the Jordan Valley and after the German
spring offensive they became the major force in the Egyptian Expeditionary
Force during the Battle of Megiddo and in the Desert Mounted Corps' advance
to Damascus and on to Aleppo. Other divisions remained in India guarding
the North-West Frontier and fulfilling internal security obligations.
One million Indian troops served abroad during the war. In total, 74,187 died, [389] and
another 67,000 were wounded.[390] The roughly 90,000 soldiers who died fighting in
World War I and the Afghan Wars are commemorated by the India Gate.
World War II
Main article: India in World War II

General Claude Auchinleck (right), Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Army, with the
then Viceroy Wavell (centre) and General Montgomery (left)
 

Indian women training for Air Raid Precautions (ARP) duties in Bombay in 1942

Indian infantrymen of the 7th Rajput Regiment about to go on patrol on the Arakan front in
Burma, 1944

The stamp series "Victory" issued by the Government of British India to commemorate allied
victory in World War II
British India officially declared war on Nazi Germany in September 1939.[391] The
British Raj, as part of the Allied Nations, sent over two and a half million volunteer
soldiers to fight under British command against the Axis powers. Additionally, several
Princely States provided large donations to support the Allied campaign. India also
provided the base for American operations in support of China in the China Burma
India Theatre.
Indians fought throughout the world, including in the European theatre against
Germany, in North Africa against Germany and Italy, against the Italians in East
Africa, in the Middle East against the Vichy French, in the South Asian region
defending India against the Japanese and fighting the Japanese in Burma. Indians
also aided in liberating British colonies such as Singapore and Hong Kong after the
Japanese surrender in August 1945. Over 87,000 soldiers from the subcontinent
died in World War II.
The Indian National Congress denounced Nazi Germany but would not fight it or
anyone else until India was independent. Congress launched the Quit India
Movement in August 1942, refusing to co-operate in any way with the government
until independence was granted. The government immediately arrested over 60,000
national and local Congress leaders. The Muslim League rejected the Quit India
movement and worked closely with the Raj authorities.
Subhas Chandra Bose (also called Netaji) broke with Congress and tried to form a
military alliance with Germany or Japan to gain independence. The Germans
assisted Bose in the formation of the Indian Legion;[392] however, it was Japan that
helped him revamp the Indian National Army (INA), after the First Indian National
Army under Mohan Singh was dissolved. The INA fought under Japanese direction,
mostly in Burma.[393] Bose also headed the Provisional Government of Free
India (or Azad Hind), a government-in-exile based in Singapore.[394][395]
By 1942, neighbouring Burma was invaded by Japan, which by then had already
captured the Indian territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Japan gave nominal
control of the islands to the Provisional Government of Free India on 21 October
1943, and in the following March, the Indian National Army with the help of Japan
crossed into India and advanced as far as Kohima in Nagaland. This advance on the
mainland of the Indian subcontinent reached its farthest point on Indian territory,
retreating from the Battle of Kohima in June and from that of Imphal on 3 July 1944.
The region of Bengal in British India suffered a devastating famine during 1940–
1943. An estimated 2.1–3 million died from the famine, frequently characterised as
"man-made",[396] with most sources asserting that wartime colonial policies
exacerbated the crisis.[397]
Indian independence movement (1885–1947)
Main article: Indian independence movement
See also: Indian independence activists and Pakistan Movement

The first session of the Indian National Congress in 1885. A. O. Hume, the founder, is shown
in the middle (third row from the front). The Congress was the first modern nationalist
movement to emerge in the British Empire in Asia and Africa.[398]


 Front page of the Tribune (25 March 1931), reporting the execution of Bhagat
Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev by the British for the murder of 21-year-old police officer J. P.
Saunders. Bhagat Singh quickly became a folk hero of the Indian independence movement.

From the late 19th century, and especially after 1920, under the leadership of Mahatma
Gandhi (right), the Congress became the principal leader of the Indian independence
movement.[399] Gandhi is shown here with Jawaharlal Nehru, later the first prime minister of
India.
The numbers of British in India were small,[400] yet they were able to rule 52% of the
Indian subcontinent directly and exercise considerable leverage over the princely
states that accounted for 48% of the area.[401]
One of the most important events of the 19th century was the rise of Indian
nationalism,[402] leading Indians to seek first "self-rule" and later "complete
independence". However, historians are divided over the causes of its rise. Probable
reasons include a "clash of interests of the Indian people with British interests",
[402]
"racial discriminations",[403] and "the revelation of India's past".[404]
The first step toward Indian self-rule was the appointment of councillors to advise the
British viceroy in 1861 and the first Indian was appointed in 1909. Provincial Councils
with Indian members were also set up. The councillors' participation was
subsequently widened into legislative councils. The British built a large British Indian
Army, with the senior officers all British and many of the troops from small minority
groups such as Gurkhas from Nepal and Sikhs.[405] The civil service was increasingly
filled with natives at the lower levels, with the British holding the more senior
positions.[406]
Bal Gangadhar Tilak, an Indian nationalist leader, declared Swaraj (home rule) as
the destiny of the nation. His popular sentence "Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall
have it"[407] became the source of inspiration. Tilak was backed by rising public
leaders like Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai, who held the same point of view,
notably they advocated the Swadeshi movement involving the boycott of imported
items and the use of Indian-made goods;[408] the triumvirate were popularly known
as Lal Bal Pal. In 1907, the Congress was split into two factions: The radicals, led by
Tilak, advocated civil agitation and direct revolution to overthrow the British Empire
and the abandonment of all things British. The moderates, led by leaders
like Dadabhai Naoroji and Gopal Krishna Gokhale, on the other hand, wanted reform
within the framework of British rule.[408]
The partition of Bengal in 1905 further increased the revolutionary movement for
Indian independence. The disenfranchisement lead some to take violent action.
The British themselves adopted a "carrot and stick" approach in response to
renewed nationalist demands. The means of achieving the proposed measure were
later enshrined in the Government of India Act 1919, which introduced the principle
of a dual mode of administration, or diarchy, in which elected Indian legislators and
appointed British officials shared power.[409] In 1919, Colonel Reginald Dyer ordered
his troops to fire their weapons on peaceful protestors, including unarmed women
and children, resulting in the Jallianwala Bagh massacre; which led to the Non-
cooperation Movement of 1920–1922. The massacre was a decisive episode
towards the end of British rule in India.[410]
From 1920 leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi began highly popular mass
movements to campaign against the British Raj using largely peaceful methods. The
Gandhi-led independence movement opposed the British rule using non-violent
methods like non-co-operation, civil disobedience and economic resistance.
However, revolutionary activities against the British rule took place throughout the
Indian subcontinent and some others adopted a militant approach like the Hindustan
Republican Association, that sought to overthrow British rule by armed struggle.
The All India Azad Muslim Conference gathered in Delhi in April 1940 to voice its
support for an independent and united India.[411] Its members included several Islamic
organisations in India, as well as 1,400 nationalist Muslim delegates.[412][413][414] The pro-
separatist All-India Muslim League worked to try to silence those nationalist Muslims
who stood against the partition of India, often using "intimidation and coercion". [413]
[414]
The murder of the All India Azad Muslim Conference leader Allah Bakhsh
Soomro also made it easier for the pro-separatist All-India Muslim League to
demand the creation of a Pakistan.[414]
After World War II (c. 1946–1947)
"A moment comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new; when an age ends; and
when the soul of a nation long suppressed finds utterance."
— From, Tryst with destiny, a speech given by Jawaharlal Nehru to the Constituent Assembly of India on the eve
of independence, 14 August 1947.[415]

In January 1946, several mutinies broke out in the armed services, starting with that
of RAF servicemen frustrated with their slow repatriation. The mutinies came to a
head with mutiny of the Royal Indian Navy in Bombay in February 1946, followed by
others in Calcutta, Madras, and Karachi. The mutinies were rapidly suppressed. In
early 1946, new elections were called and Congress candidates won in eight of the
eleven provinces.
Late in 1946, the Labour government decided to end British rule of India, and in early
1947 it announced its intention of transferring power no later than June 1948 and
participating in the formation of an interim government.
Along with the desire for independence, tensions between Hindus and Muslims had
also been developing over the years. Muslim League leader Muhammad Ali
Jinnah proclaimed 16 August 1946 as Direct Action Day, with the stated goal of
highlighting, peacefully, the demand for a Muslim homeland in British India, which
resulted in the outbreak of the cycle of violence that would be later called the "Great
Calcutta Killing of August 1946". The communal violence spread
to Bihar, Noakhali in Bengal, Garhmukteshwar in the United Provinces, and on
to Rawalpindi in March 1947 in which Sikhs and Hindus were attacked or driven
out by Muslims.
 Literacy in India grew very slowly until independence
in 1947. An acceleration in the rate of literacy growth occurred in the 1991–2001
period.
Independence and partition (1947–present)
Main articles: Partition of India, History of India (1947–present), History of Pakistan
(1947–present), and History of Bangladesh

A map of the prevailing religions of the British Indian empire based on district-wise majorities
based on the Indian census of 1909, and published in the Imperial Gazetteer of India. The
partition of the Punjab and Bengal was based on such majorities.

Gandhi touring Bela, Bihar, a village struck by religious rioting in March 1947. On the right
is Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan.
 

Jawaharlal Nehru being sworn in as the first prime minister of independent India by
viceroy Lord Louis Mountbatten at 8:30 AM 15 August 1947.
In August 1947, the British Indian Empire was partitioned into the Union of
India and Dominion of Pakistan. In particular, the partition of Punjab and Bengal led
to rioting between Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs in these provinces and spread to
other nearby regions, leaving some 500,000 dead. The police and army units were
largely ineffective. The British officers were gone, and the units were beginning to
tolerate if not actually indulge in violence against their religious enemies.[416][417][418] Also,
this period saw one of the largest mass migrations anywhere in modern history, with
a total of 12 million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims moving between the newly created
nations of India and Pakistan (which gained independence on 15 and 14 August
1947 respectively).[417] In 1971, Bangladesh, formerly East Pakistan and East Bengal,
seceded from Pakistan.[419]
See also