Defects

The solid solution

Many engineering materials contain amounts of different components. Typical
examples of these solid solutions are metallic alloys. Figure 1 shows the solid
solution of Cu in Ni along a (100)plane.This is a substitutional solid solution with
nickel atoms substituting for copper atoms o fcc atom sites. Nickel is here the
solute dissolving i the copper solvent .
Such substitutional solid solution occurs when the two different atoms (here Cu
and Ni) do not differ greatly i size.
 Defects
The solid solution
When atoms sizes vary greatly, substitution by a smaller atom o a crystal
structure may be energetically unstable. In this case it is more stable for the
smaller atom to fit in the space among adjacent atoms in the crystal structure. An
example of such a interstitial solid solution is show i Fig.2 which shows carbon
dissolved interstitially in α -iron. This is a dominant phase in steels that we will
examine further later i this course. Less than 0 .1%C is soluble i α -iron which
produces significant local straining to the α -iron crystal structure.
 Defects
Point Defects
Imperfections associated with the crystalline point lattice are called point defects .
In this course we consider only the following forms of point defects:
•Vacancy: a point imperfection i a crystal lattice where a atom is missing from an
atomic site (see Fig.3).
•Interstitial: a point imperfection i a crystal lattice where a impurity atom is
positioned in an interstitial site between the matrix atoms. When the interstitial
atom is of the same kind as the atoms of the matrix we are talking about a self-
interstitial imperfection (Fig.3).
 Defects
Diffusion Processes

Atoms are free to move from one lattice site to another due to thermal excitation.
This motion is called Diffusion.

Diffusion may also be described as the mixing of atoms of the same or different
substances as a result of random thermal motion.

Diffusion can be used to enhance the properties of materials. For example, the
surface of steel parts can be hardened by diffusing carbon in to the steel at the
surface (carburization of steels).

Diffusion is also used in the semi-conductor industry to dope high purity crystals
of germanium and silicon to produce transistors.
 Defects
Diffusion Processes
Diffusion processes can be characterized as follows:
•Self-diffusion: the migration of atoms i a pure material
•Substitutional diffusion: the migration of solute atoms i a solvent lattice in
which the solute and solvent atoms are approximately the same size. The
presence of vacancies makes the Diffusion possible (Fig.4).
•Interstitial diffusion: the migration of interstitial atoms i a matrix lattice.

It is also common to discuss about volume Diffusion when referring to atomic

migration in the grain interiors of a polycrystalline aggregate. On the other hand,
grain-boundary Diffusion refers to the atomic migration at the grain boundaries of
a polycrystalline aggregate.
 Defects
Diffusion Processes
Random Walk: Each diffusing atom may make a series of jumps from one
equilibrium site in the crystal to the next in a random fashion. Each jump being to
a empty neighboring site. When many of these elementary jumps are added
together, they allow the atoms to travel large distances through the crystals (see
Fig.5).
 Defects
Diffusion Processes
Figure 6(1-3) defines 3 possible diffusion mechanisms for pure materials. The
vacancy mechanism 6(4)requires least energy and hence will be the predominant
mechanism. For materials where interstitial atoms are present, an atom moves
through the crystal by jumping directly from one interstitial site to another
(Fig.6(4)).
Dislocations
Defects
The strength of a perfect crystal
We already have derived the stress/strain curve using the potential between two
atoms. The slope of the interatomic force/distance curve at the equilibrium
separation is proportional to the Young ’s modulus E (recall our calculation E =S
r o in lecture 5).The maximum I the force-displacement curve is typically reached
at 1 .25 r 0 and if the stress applied to the material is sufficient to exceed this
maximum force per bond, fracture is bound to occur.
We will denote the stress to which the bond will rupture is ˜σ and we will call it the
ideal strength of the material. From Fig.1 we approximate that:.
Dislocations
Defects
The strength of a perfect crystal
Better estimates of σ’ are possible
using more complex interatomic
potentials. They give about σ’=E/15 .
Let us see if real materials show this
strength. Figure 2 shows the ratio of
the yield stress Y (in the chart
denoted as σ Y ) to the elastic
modulus E .The heavy line at the top
is at the level E/15 . Glasses and some
ceramics lie close to this line as do
most polymers. However, all metals
have yield strengths far below the
ideal strength limit by a factor as high
as 105 . We will next see that the
existence and motion of defects
allows materials to deform plastically
at stress levels that are much less
than σ .
Dislocations
Defects
Figure 3 defines a edge dislocation from a
continuum point of view and by showing the
arrangement of atoms near the dislocation. To
make a edge dislocation you can imagine cutting
the block of Fig.3(a) up to the line marked as
⊥−⊥, then displacing the material below the cut
relative to that above by a distance b (equal to
the atom size) normal to the line ⊥−⊥and finally
gluing the cut-and-displaced surfaces back
together (Fig.3(b)). As show i Fig.3(b)or i Fig.4,the
material in the middle of the bloc know contains
a half- plane of atoms with its lower edge lying
along the line ⊥−⊥(the dislocation line). This line
defect is called a edge dislocation because it is
formed by the edge of the half-plane of atoms. An
edge dislocation is briefly denoted as ⊥.
Dislocations
Defects
 Defects

Dislocations
Dislocation motion
produces plastic strain.
Figure 5 shows how the
atoms rearrange as the
dislocation moves
through the crystal. When
one dislocation moves
entirely through a crystal
the lower part is displaced
from the upper part by a
distance b called the
Burgers vector.
Dislocations Defects
Various edge dislocation conventions are de fined i Fig.6 where the
dislocation is show without the atoms and using the symbol ⊥for the
position of the dislocation line.
Dislocations Defects
The way in which a dislocation moves is similar to the way a carpet can be
moved across the floor simply by moving rocks along the carpet (see Fig.7).
This is a much easier process than pulling the whole carpet across the floor
at one go.
Dislocations Defects
While making the edge dislocation of Fig.3(a), we could after making the cut
displaced the lower part of the crystal under the upper part in a direction
parallel to the bottom of the cut instead of normal to it. Figure 8 shows the
result that we call a screw dislocation . Like a edge dislocation, motion of a
screw dislocation produces plastic deformation.
Dislocations Defects
Any dislocation can be thought as a combination of a screw and a edge
dislocation in the form of little steps of each of them (see Fig.12).The
Burgers vector for the mixed dislocation is neither perpendicular or parallel
to the dislocation line but retains a fixed orientation in space consistent with
the previous definitions for the pure edge and screw dislocations.
The atomic arrangement around a mixed dislocation is difficult to visualize
but the Burgers vector provides a convenient and useful description..
Dislocations Defects
Dislocations can be seen by electron microscopy.
Dislocations Defects
Burgers vector
The Burgers vector is a characteristic entity of a dislocation. Let us denote
with t the tangent vector of a dislocation segment (line) (see Fig.16). Looking
straight down t ,we create a Burgers circuit by taking a clockwise atom to
atom path around the dislocation, i.e. MNOPQ. If the same path is taken in a
dislocation free crystal, the circuit does not close.
The vector required to close it is called the Burgers vector b .
Dislocations Defects
Burgers vector
Figure 17 shows the construction of the Burgers vector in an edge
dislocation by taking a loop around the dislocation and the same loop in a
dislocation free crystal. The vector b needed to close the loop is the Burgers
vector. It can be seen from this construction that:

For a edge dislocation : b ⊥ t

Dislocations Defects
Burgers vector
Figure 18 shows the construction
of the Burgers vector in an screw
dislocation by taking a loop
around the dislocation and the
same loop in a dislocation free
crystal. Notice that the Burgers
vector b needed to close the loop
in a dislocation-free crystal in
such that:
Dislocations Defects
Burgers vector
The Burgers vector b also specifies the amount and direction of slip
produced across a slip plane when a dislocation moves through it. Figure 19
shows ‘the deck of cards ’analogy of the dislocation motion. The shear
stress τ show i this Figure represents the magnitude of the shear stress due
to the applied loads resolved o the slip plane i the direction of b .Individual
crystal structures (FCC,BCC,HCP) have known slip planes and as such
calculation of τ becomes trivial. We will next examine the slip planes for the
various crystallographic structures.
Dislocations Defects
Slip We could translate the Burgers vector from the loop to the edge
dislocation, as shown in Figure 4-4. After this translation, we find that the
Burgers vector and the edge dislocation define a plane in the lattice. The
Burgers vector and the plane are helpful in explaining how materials deform.
When a shear force acting in the direction of the Burgers vector is applied to
a crystal containing a dislocation, the dislocation can move by breaking the
bonds between the atoms in one plane. The cut plane is shifted slightly to
establish bonds with the original partial plane of atoms. This shift causes the
dislocation to move one atom spacing to the side.
Dislocations Defects
If this process continues, the dislocation moves through the crystal until a
step is produced on the exterior of the crystal; the crystal has then been
deformed. If dislocations could be continually introduced into one side of the
crystal and moved along the same path through the crystal, the crystal would
eventually be cut in half.
Dislocations Defects
The process by which a dislocation moves and causes a material to deform
is called slip. The direction in which the dislocation moves, the slip direction,
is the direction of the Burgers vector for edge dislocations. During slip, the
edge dislocation sweeps out the plane formed by the Burgers vector and the
dislocation; this plane is called the slip plane. The combination of slip
direction and slip plane is the slip system. A screw dislocation produces the
same result; the dislocation moves in a direction perpendicular to the
Burgers vector, although the crystal deforms in a direction parallel to the
Burgers vector.
During slip, a dislocation moves from one set of surroundings to an identical
set of surroundings. The Peierls-Nabarro stress (Equation 4-1) is required to
move the dislocation from one equilibrium location to another,

L = c exp (-kd/b), (4-1)

where L is the shear stress required to move the dislocation, d is the

interplanar spacing between adjacent slip planes, b is the Burgers vector,
and both e and k are constants for the material. The dislocation moves in a
slip system that requires the least expenditure of energy.
Dislocations Defects
Several important factors determine the most likely slip systems that will be
active.
1. The stress required to cause the dislocation to move increases
exponentially with the length of the Burgers vector. Thus, the slip direction
should have a small repeat distance or high linear density. The close-packed
directions in metals satisfy this criterion and are the usual slip directions.
2. The stress required to cause the dislocation to move decreases
exponentially with the interplanar spacing of the slip planes. Slip occurs
most easily between planes of atoms that are smooth (so there are smaller
"hills and valleys" on the surface) and between planes that are far apart (or
have a relatively large interplanar spacing). Planes with a high planar density
fulfill this requirement. Therefore, the slip planes are typically close-packed
planes or those as closely packed as possible. Common slip systems in
several material s are summarized in Table 4-1.
3. Dislocations do not move easily in material s such as silicon or polymers,
which . have covalent bonds. Because of the strength and directionality of
the bonds, the material s typically fail in a brittle manner before the force
becomes high enough to cause appreciable slip.
Dislocations Defects
Several important factors determine the most likely slip systems that will be
active.
4. Materials with an ionic bond, including many ceramics such as MgO, also
are resistant to slip. Movement of a dislocation disrupts the charge balance
around the anions and cations, requiring that bonds between anions and
cations be broken. During slip, ions with a like charge must also pass close
together, causing repulsion. Finally, the repeat distance along the slip
direction, or the Burgers vector, is larger than in metals. Again, brittle failure
of the material typically occurs before the dislocations move.
Dislocations Defects
Slip systems
Dislocations Defects
Slip systems
Surface Defects Defects
Surface defects are the boundaries, or planes, that separate a material into
regions, each region having the same crystal structure but different
orientations.

Material Surface The exterior dimensions of the material represent surfaces

at which the lattice abruptly ends. Each atom at the surface no longer has the
proper coordination number and atomic bonding is disrupted. The exterior
surface may also be very rough, may contain tiny notches, and may be much
more re active than the bulk of the material.

Grain Boundaries The microstructure of most materials consists of many

grains. A grain is a portion of the material within which the arrangement of
the atoms is identical. However, the orientation of the atom arrangement, or
crystal structure, is different for each adjoining grain. Three grains are
shown schematically in Figure 4-14; the lattice in each grain is identical but
the lattices are oriented differently. A grain boundary, the surface that
separates the individual grains, is a narrow zone in which the atoms are not
properly spaced. That is to say, the atoms are so close at some locations in
the ~rain boundary that they cause a region of compression, and in other
areas they are so far apart that they cause a region of tension.
Surface Defects Defects
Grain Boundary
Surface Defects Defects
Grain Boundary
One method of controlling the properties of a material is by controlling the grain
size. By reducing the grain size, we increase the number of grains and, hence,
increase the amount of grain boundary. Any dislocation moves only a short
distance before encountering a grain boundary, and the strength of the metal is
increased. The Hall-Petch equation relates the grain size to the yield strength,
σy = σ0 + Kd-1/2, (4-5)
where σy is the yield strength or the stress at which the material permanently
deforms, d is the average diameter of the grains, and σ0 and K are constants for
the metal. Figure 4-15 shows this relationship in steel. Later chapters will
describe how the grain size can be controlled through solidification, alloying, and
heat treatment.
Surface Defects Defects
Grain Boundary
Optical microscopy is used to reveal microstructural features such as grain
boundaries that require less than about 2000 magnification. The process of
preparing a sample and observing or recording its microstructure is called
metallography. A sample of the material is sanded and polished to a mirror-like
finish. The surface is then exposed to chemical attack, or etching, with grain
boundaries being attacked more aggressively than the remainder of the grain.
Light from an optical microscope is reflected or scattered from the sample
surface, depending on how the surface is etched. When more light is scattered
from deeply etched features such as the grain boundaries, these features appear
dark (Figure 4-16).
Surface Defects Defects
Grain Boundary
One manner by which grain size is specified is the ASTM grain size Number
(American Society for Testing & Materials). The number of grains per square inch
is determined from a photograph of the metal taken at magnification x 100.
The number of grains per square inch .Al' is entered into Equation 4-6 and the
ASTM grain size number n is calculated:
N = 2n-1