Chapter 2

Lesson 2
Scientific Revolution

The Scientific Revolution was a series of events that marked the emergence of Modern Science.
The period when developments in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology and chemistry transformed
the views of the society about nature. It refers to historical changes in thoughts & beliefs, to changes in
social & institutional organization,
The Scientific Revolution took place in Europe towards the end of the Renaissance period (1280-
1400) and continued through the late 18th century, influencing the intellectual social movement known
as the Enlightenment.
Man‘s curiosity, creativity and critical thinking are the driving forces behind the scientific
revolution. Man‘s desire to know, to discover and to explore the world made him realized a different
conceptual, methodological and institutional approaches to the natural world.
The Scientific Revolution was one of the most important moment in the history of humanity. It
was a time of great inventions and great thinkers. Those notable people became the catalysts of change,
and their work Some of the greatest minds in all our history lived in that time-frame and their work then
still influences our lives today.

Copernican Revolution

“There may be babblers, wholly ignorant of mathematics,

who dare to condemn my hypothesis, upon the authority of
some part of the Bible twisted to suit their purpose. I value
them not, and scorn their unfounded judgment.”
NICOLAUS COPERNICUS (1473 – 1543)
The shift in the way people conceptualized the
natural world began when Nicolas Copernicus asserted a
heliocentric (sun-centered) cosmos. It positioned the Sun
near the center of the Universe, motionless, with Earth and the other planets orbiting around it in
circular paths modified by epicycles and at uniform speeds.
His name at birth was Mikolaj Kopernik from Warmia, Northern Poland. In 1491, at the age of 18,
Copernicus enrolled at the University of Krakow. At the university he started calling himself Nicolaus
Copernicus, the Latin form of his name, Latin was then the language of educated Europeans. He studied
astronomy, mathematics, philosophy, and the sciences. In his final year at university, Copernicus wrote
his own observations on mathematics and astronomy.
Copernicus in Italy
Copernicus was not able attain a degree in his four years in the university. His uncle sent him to
Bologna, Italy, to study canon law. His uncle, who had become Prince-Bishop of Warmia, hoped
Nicolaus would return to become a canon in Warmia. Copernicus was meant to spend three years in Italy
studying the laws and regulations of the Catholic Church.
Strong Interest in Astronomy
It was intended for him become a Doctor of Law, however, Nicolas preferred to spend his time
studying astronomy and mathematics, and learning Ancient Greek, since many of the astronomy works
were in Greek.
Copernicus did not concentrate on his law course so that he failed to graduate with a degree. Even
though he was in Italy he formally became a canon of the Catholic Church in Warmia.
In 1501, at the age of 28, he studied medicine and successfully gained the Doctor of Law. At the
age of 30, he returned to Warmia to stay permanently. From that year onwards, Copernicus acted as
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secretary and physician to his uncle working as a government official, economist and even assuming
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leadership in a time of war.

Copernicus the Astronomer
During his time in Italy, Copernicus became friends and an informal apprentice of Italian
astronomer Domenico Maria Novara. They carried out many observations at night working only with
their naked eyes. It became clear to Copernicus that there were errors in the geocentric doctrine of
Ptolemy as other Italian academicians also who casted doubts on Ptolemy‘s works.
In a hand-written document, he put forth his view of the universe, citing these points on his
heliocentric universe theory:
• The earth is not the center of the universe.
• The center of the universe is near the sun.
• The earth-sun distance is negligible compared to the distance to the stars.
• Earth‘s rotation on its own axis accounts for the apparent daily rotation of the stars.
• The apparent annual cycle of movements of the sun is seen because the earth is orbiting it.
• The apparent retrograde motion of the planets is caused by the fact we observe them from a moving
location, because the earth is orbiting the sun.
By 1532 Copernicus had identified Earth‘s place in the universe. He finished writing the first
manuscript of his groundbreaking book De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium – The Revolutions
of the Celestial Spheres. The book was not published right away because he was concerned on the
reception it would get. Finally, year before his death in 1543, the book became known to the public. It
became a major event in the history of science, triggering the Copernican Revolution and making an
important contribution to the Scientific Revolution.

Darwinian Revolution (1809-1882)

“Ignorance more frequently begets confidence than
do knowledge: it is those who know little, and not
those who know much, who so positively assert that
this or that problem will never be solved by science.”
Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882)

Charles Robert Darwin was born in the merchant town of Shrewsbury in

England. He came from a line of wealthy scientists. His father was a medical doctor and his grandfather,
a botanist. He was a naturalist and biologist known for his theory of evolution and the process of natural
selection.
When Darwin graduated in 1831 with a degree in arts he was recommended by his professor to a
naturalist position aboard the HMS Beagle. The ship was on a five-year journey around the world. Over
the course of the trip, Darwin collected a variety of natural specimens, including birds, plants and fossils.
Through hands-on research and experimentation, he had the unique opportunity to closely observe
principles of botany, geology and zoology. The Pacific Islands and Galapagos Archipelago were of
particular interest to Darwin, as was South America.
Prior to his journey, time fossilized bones of unknown and extinct animals were discovered. The
18th century geologist James Hutton suggested that past development of the earth could be explained by
some kind of changes that are still in progress (slow geological change) but had little impact. Later, many
studies followed but the time scale was not fully established.

In his return to England, he wrote his findings in The Journal of Researches. The journey
had an immense effect on Darwin‘s view of natural history. He felt that only a theory of the progressive
development of life could explain the fossil evidence. He began to develop a revolutionary theory
contrary to the popular view. Other naturalists believed that all species came into being at the start of the
world or were created over the course of natural history. They believed that species remained the same
throughout time. But Darwin thought differently.
He came to a conclusion of natural selection. After series of consultation with friends and other
naturalists, The Origin of Species, a summary of his work over the period of twenty years was published
in 1859.
Darwin‘s theory of evolution declared that species survived through a process called "natural
selection," where those that successfully adapted, or evolved, to meet the changing requirements of their
natural habitat thrived, while those that failed to evolve and reproduce died off. Through his
observations and studies of birds, plants and fossils, Darwin noticed similarities among species all over
the globe, along with variations based on specific locations, leading him to believe that the species we
know today had gradually evolved from common ancestors. Darwin‘s theory of evolution and the process
of natural selection later became known simply as ―Darwinism.‖
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 Over time scientists in different generation and domains worked and tested his work. The
essentiality of his evolutionary theory with emphasis on natural selection and the rich accounts of
accumulated evidences have proven to be a monumental work in human history. It has offered a
powerful means of understanding on how living things are all netted together.

Freudian Revolution
“ From error to error, one discovers the entire truth”

Sigmund Freud( 1856-1939)

Sigmund Freud was born on May 6, 1856 in Moravia(Pribor), Czech Republic.
He took medicine in the University of Vienna. As a medical student and young
researcher, Freud‘s research focused on neurobiology, exploring the biology of
brains and nervous tissue of humans and animals. After graduating, he worked
at the Vienna General Hospital and collaborated with Josef Breuer in treating
hysteria by the recall of painful experiences under hypnosis. In 1885, Freud
went to Paris as a student of the neurologist Jean Charcot. On his return to
Vienna the following year, Freud set up in private practice, specializing in
nervous and brain disorders. He got married and had six children.
Freud has published a number of important works on psychoanalysis. Some of the most
influential include:
'Studies in Hysteria' (1895)
Freud and Breuer published their theories and findings in this book, which discussed their theories that
by confronting trauma from a patient‘s past, a psychoanalyst can help a patient rid him or herself of
neuroses.
'The Interpretation of Dreams' (1900)
In 1900, after a serious period of self-analysis, Freud published what has become his most
important and defining work, which posits that dream analysis can give insight into the workings of the
unconscious mind. The book was and remains controversial, producing such topics as the Oedipus
complex. Many psychologists say this work gave birth to modern scientific thinking about the mind and
the fields of psychology, psychiatry and psychoanalysis.
'The Psychopathology of Everyday Life' (1901)
This book gave birth to the so-called ―Freudian slip‖ — the psychological meaning behind the
misuse of words in everyday writing and speech and the forgetting of names and words. These slips, he
explained through a series of examples, revealed our inner desires, anxieties and fantasies.
'Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality' (1905)
In this work, Freud states that sexual tension promotes development from infancy through
adulthood. He explores sexual development and the relationship between sex and social behavior
without applying his controversial Oedipal complex.
Freud's psychoanalytic theory, inspired by his colleague Josef Breuer, posited that neuroses had
their origins in deeply traumatic experiences that had occurred in the patient's past. He believed that the
original occurrences had been forgotten and hidden from consciousness. His treatment was to empower
his patients to recall the experience and bring it to consciousness, and in doing so, confront it both
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intellectually and emotionally. He believed one could then discharge it and rid oneself of the neurotic
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symptoms.
 Freud‘s theories were no doubt influenced by other scientific
discoveries of his day. Charles Darwin's understanding of humankind as a
progressive element of the animal kingdom certainly informed Freud's
investigation of human behavior. Additionally, the formulation of a new
principle by scientist Hermann von Helmholtz, stating that energy in any
given physical system is always constant, informed Freud's scientific inquiries
into the human mind. Freud's work has been both rapturously praised and
hotly critiqued, but no one has influenced the science of psychology as
intensely as Sigmund Freud.

KEY CONCEPTS

1. The study of science is the history of its development.

2. Technology is the application of science.
3. Scientific progress and technological innovations shape the way of life of a society and, social forces also
influence the direction and emphasis of scientific and technological development.
4. STS is an interdisciplinary course which engages students to confront the realities brought about by
science and technology in society.
5. Science is a body of knowledge and a process in the context of personal and societal perspectives.
6. Man‘s curiosity, creativity and critical thinking are the driving forces behind the scientific revolution.
7. The Scientific Revolution marked the emergence of Modern Science and paved the way for historical
changes in thoughts and beliefs, to changes in social and institutional organizations.
8. Nicolas Copernicus heliocentric cosmos shifted the way people conceptualized the natural world.
9. Darwin‘s revolutionary theory offered a powerful means of understanding on how living things are all
netted together.
10. Sigmund Freud‘s investigation of human behavior and scientific inquiries on the human mind intensely
influenced the science of psychology.

CHAPTER III
Science, Technology and Nation Building
“The thrill of science is the process. It’s a process of discovery
debate, experimentation and verification. It’s the
greatest foundation of society.”

Objectives:
At the end of the chapter, the students should be able to:
 Discuss the role of science and technology in nation building
 Evaluate government policies pertaining to science and technology in terms of contributions to nation
building
 Identify actual science and technology policies of the government and appraise their impact on the
development of the Filipino nation
Introduction
Fundamentally, the development of science and technology is what makes people change the way
they live and communicate. Science and technology have profound effects on economic development,
improvements in the health system, education, infrastructures and the quality of life. They influence the
way people in a society think about themselves , about others and the world they live in. They affect
every aspect and level of society, from individual to global concerns. Clearly, the state of science and
technology is directly correlated to national progress.
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 Lesson 1
Historical Background
of Science and Technology in the Philippines

The inhabitants of the Philippine archipelago came from four distinct kinds of peoples: tribal groups,
such as :
1) the Aetas, Hanunoo, Ilongots and the Mangyan who depended on hunter-gathering and were
concentrated in forests; warrior societies;
2) the Isneg and Kalingas who practiced social ranking and ritualized warfare and roamed the plains;
3) the Ifugao-Cordillera Highlanders, who occupied the mountain ranges of Luzon;
4) and the harbor principalities of the estuarine civilizations that grew along rivers and seashores
while participating in trans-island maritime trade.

Clearly, early Filipinos were of different groups coming from different parts of Asia. Each group had
their own system of knowledge and religious beliefs. They formed their own kind of community
according to their lifestyle and source of living. Those situated along the seashores gather fish, shells and
pearls. People in land areas cultivate the land planting rice, bananas and other crops. While others used
boats and crafts as means of transportation to bring goods for trade from place to place.

The Ifugaos of Cordillera The Mangyans of Mindoro

Spanish Colonial Period (1521-1898)

When Spain colonized the Philippines formal education and scientific institutions were
established. This period saw a minimal growth of science and technology.
 Reading, writing, arithmetic and music were taught in parish school
 Sanitation and more advanced methods of agriculture were introduced to the natives.
 Colleges and universities were established including the University of Sto. Tomas.
 The study of medicine in the Philippines was given priority in the Spanish era, especially in the later
years and Biology was given focus.
 The Spanish also contributed to the field of engineering in the islands by constructing government
buildings, churches, roads, bridges and forts.
 Contributors to science in the archipelago during the 19th century were botanists, Fr. Ignacio Mercado.,
Dr. Trinidad Pardo de Tavera and Dr. Leon Ma Guerrero, chemist Anacleto del Rosario, and medicine
scholars Dr. Manuel Guerrero, Dr, Jose Montes and Dr. Elrodario Mercado.
 However, due to the Galleon Trade, commerce, the exchanging, buying and selling of goods were given
more priority by the colonizers. Agriculture and industrial development were left behind and not given
much focus.
 The opening of the Suez Canal enabled some illustrious Filipinos to study in Europe where they were
influenced by the rapid development of scientific know how.
After 300 years of Spanish rule, the country largely exported raw materials and imported those it
cannot produce. Local markets were flooded by foreign manufactured goods. Valuable resources of
interest to the colonizers were readily obtained due to the socio-political system that divide the country‘s
land, resources and people.

American Period (1898-1946)

The science of agriculture, food processing, forestry, medicine and pharmacy were given
emphasis during the American occupation. This is due to the free trade policy of the country with the
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United States to develop the economy geared on agriculture and trade. Industrialization of the colony
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was not much focused on.

 The Bureau of Government Laboratories was established in July,
1901. It dealt with the study of tropical diseases and laboratory projects.
 The Bureau of Science replaced the Bureau of Government Laboratories
in 1933. It became the primary research center of the Philippines.
 The Institute of Science replaced the Bureau of Science in 1946.
 Transportation and Communication were improved
 Roads, streets, boulevards, bridges and recreational centers were built
 Filipinos were taught of the value of proper hygiene and healthy
practices
 Hospitals, clinics and health centers were established

Camp John Hay, 1991

 The country‘s economy improved due to the increase in
agricultural production and some development in industries.

The Americans have more influence and contributions in

scientific and technological innovations, however, the country had
low technological inputs. The value of locally made products is far much less than imported finished
products. The country do not have a system of manufacturing goods and services that could compete in
the world market.

Post-Colonial Period
When the nation gained independence, the government focused on using its limited resources in
improving its science and technological capacities. The importance given to science grew. Programs were
introduced and policies were amended, funds were channeled for the promotion of S & T towards
national development.
 The National Science Development Board was established in 1958. It was reorganized as the National
Science and Technology Authority in 1981 and elevated to the Department of Science and Technology in
1987.
 In 1967, science courses were revitalized in public high schools by provided science teaching equipment
 The government recognized that technology was a leading factor in economic development
 35 hectares of land in Taguig, Rizal was allotted for the Philippine Science Community
 1969- President Marcos gave a big part of the war damage fund to private universities to create courses
in S & T and for research.
 The government conducted seminars and training workshops for public and private high school and
college science teachers
 Scholarships for undergraduate and graduates students in the field of sciences were provided.
 Sent scientists abroad to study nuclear science and technology
 Creation of different institutions:
a) Philippine Coconut Authority to modernize the coconut industry.
b) Philippine Textile Research Institute for the development of high quality textiles
c) Philippine Nuclear Research Institute mandated to undertake research and development activities in the
peaceful uses of nuclear energy .
d) National Grains Authority to provide for the development of rice and corn industry
e) Philippine Council for Agricultural Research to support the progressive development of agriculture,
forestry, and fisheries
f) Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) under the
Department of National Defense to provide environmental protection and to utilize scientific knowledge
to ensure the safety of the people
g) Philippine National Oil Company to promote industrial and economic development through effective
and efficient use of energy sources
h) Philippine National Oil Company to promote industrial and economic development through effective
and efficient use of energy sources
i) National Academy of Science and Technology, which is composed of scientists with "innovative
achievement in the basic and applied sciences," to serve as a reservoir of scientific and technological
expertise for the country
j) Philippine Council for Agricultural Research and Resources to help national research and development
efforts in agriculture, forestry and natural resources
k) Institute of Plant Breeding the national biotechnology research center and repository for all crops other
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than rice
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l) International Rice Research Institute attempts to eradicate extreme poverty by helping farmers grow
more rice in an environmentally sustainable way
m) Bureau of Plant Industry responsible for serving and supporting the Philippine plant industry sector
n) National Committee on Geological Sciences to advise government and private entities on matters
concerning development in geological sciences
 Establishments of science high schools in different parts of the country
There were noticeable improvements in S & T in each term of government of the republic. All the
government agencies established strived to promote S & T in their own way, recognizing its importance
in building national capability and economy. However though many projects have had breakthroughs,
the market machinery did not adapt and invest in most technologies due to the high-risk front-end costs.

Lesson 2
The Current State of the Nation’s S&T
In the 2015 report on the current status of S&T in ASEAN countries, Singapore was listed as
having the most productive industrial structure among ASEAN nations and is active in intermediate
trade and commerce, tourism and banking. Thailand and Malaysia have started industrialization by
introducing foreign capital. The industrial advancement through foreign capital of the Philippines,
Indonesia, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and Myanmar is rather slow compared to the afore stated nations.
The same condition is perceived by local scientists and economists. Observations cite the following
reasons:
 Minimal budget allotted to R&D, only at 340 million as compared to first in rank Singapore‘s 6.8
billion(Current Status of S&T in ASEAN Countries, 2015)
 Small number of professionals working on research and development
 Minimal patents granted in the Philippines
 Lack of adequate research laboratories and facilities, hence. Low output of scientific research
publications
 Lack of funding and lack of government support for science education.
 The present R&D of the country is not focused in developing basic industries and processes.
 R&D in the country is limited to quality control, process alteration and marketing strategy.
 No significant manufacturing of products and, most products are imported
 Low quality of science and mathematics education in the country; unqualified teachers, inadequate
books, shabby laboratories and high cost of education.
 As practitioners, S&T Professionals receive low salaries and deprived of opportunities to improve their
skills and hone their technological knowledge. Engineers may become technicians or supervisors in
industries while scientists and researchers teach in universities. Some scientist tend to work abroad.
 Efforts of scientists to improve the S&T sector failed due to lack of budget and genuine support of the
government
 While if there are R&D done in the private sector, a lot of them are foreign-owned so the innovations are
kept within the company
 The country has roughly 70 PhD in Physics (TIMSS, 1996)).
 No concrete and comprehensive S&T plan
 The S&T in the country does note efficiently address the basic needs of the Filipino (irrigation,
seed technology and storage technology for farming, etc.)
 Scientists agree that one of the major problems of the country‘s S&T is its technological
dependency on other countries—particularly from the US and
The country has yet to establish its own basic industries. There is a need to develop infrastructures,
energy generation, transportation and communication, information technology and basic services. The
current situation of exporting raw materials and importing high-input finished products clearly bespeak
of the minor science and technological innovations the country has made. This situation of poor science
education, slow progress in S&T, complemented with trade imbalance and economic sluggishness will
make the country hold to its position as a third world nation.
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 KEY CONCEPTS
1. The development of science and technology is what makes people change the way they live and
communicate.
2. Early Filipino inhabitants come from different parts of Asia, each have their own system of knowledge
and religious beliefs.
3. There was minimal growth in science and technology during the SpanisH colonial period.
4. The science of agriculture, food processing, forestry, medicine and pharmacy were given emphasis
during the American occupation.
5. Economy was geared towards agriculture and trade but industrialization was not given much focus
during the American occupation.
6. During the post colonial period, government agencies established and strived to promote S & T in their
own way, recognizing its importance in building national capability and economy.
7. The state of science and technology is directly correlated to national progress.
8. When the nation gained independence, programs were introduced and policies were amended, funds
were channeled for the promotion of S & T towards national development.
9. The Philippines ranked six among ASEAN nations in terms of research and development in science and
technology.
10. Minimal budget allotted to R&D, lack of professionals, low quality in science and mathematics education
are among the reasons for the current status of the nation‘s S&T.

Lesson 3
Science Education in the Philippines
Science education transforms and makes people view the world in a different light. The products
of science and technology are part of everyday lives. Programs, policies, decisions are mostly based on
scientific evidence. The scientific method shows how to think, learn, solve problems and make informed
decisions. This skill is of utmost importance to a student growing up in an increasingly scientifically and
technological advanced environment.
Science education was first introduced during the American occupation under the subject
matter ―Nature Study.‖ Since then it has become a part of the basic education curriculum and assumed
a central role in producing scientifically and technological literate people.
Science education in basic education teaches an understanding of the natural phenomena. It
helps the students understand the world around them and their role in the society. Through science
education, they develop skills of planning, conducting investigations, gathering information, evaluating
findings and the importance of teamwork.
In college, science education helps student more to understand and appreciate scientific ideas and
the proper use of technology for the benefit of the people, the society and the environment. Science
education prepares them into professionals of their chosen science-related careers.
To improve the state of S&T education in the country, the following secondary educational
institutions were established by the government.
 Manila Science High School in 1963, patterned after the Bronx Science High School in New York
 Philippine Science High School in 1964, the country‘s premier science high school and is considered as
one of the top science high schools in ASEAN. It has 12 other regional campuses.
 Other science high schools were established in the regional, provincial and city levels. The Department
of Education through the local government units fund these science high schools,

Manila Science High School

1963
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 Philippine Science High School
1964

Lesson 4
Indigenous Science and Technology
The concept of Indigenous Science(IS) is still unfamiliar to many. It is a science of natural
systems that gives a holistic view of the environment and the role of human beings in the environment.
It relies upon direct observation in generating predictions. It encompasses intellectual, physical,
affective and spiritual domains of learning. Indigenous learnings included ways of transmitting
knowledge through language and other symbolic means while respective cultures and perspectives.
Application of knowledge from indigenous science is connected with spiritual practices leading to
decision-making in the best interest of the people and the environment.
The Philippines is a culturally diverse country with an estimated 14- 17 million
Indigenous Peoples (IPs) belonging to 110 ethno-linguistic groups. Several indigenous people have kept
their culture, practices and continuously lived in self-sufficiency with their own economic activities and
technological know-how to sustain livelihood. This indigenous knowledge is passed down from
generation to generation through oral communication and actual experience.

The Ifugaos
The Ifugaos are the inhabitants of the Central Cordillera in northern Luzon. The principal
livelihood of the Ifugaos are farming, handicraft making and wood carving. The Ifugaos textiles are
renowned for their sheer beauty, colorful blankets and clothing woven on looms. Houses were well-built,
characterized by wooden floors, windowless walls, and pyramidal thatch roofs. It is technology in action
as their houses are elevated from the ground by four sturdy tree trunks, removable staircases that were
hoisted up at night to prevent entry by enemies or wild animals.
Their rice terraces have greatly altered the environment but is recognized worldwide as one of the
most productive, stable and sustainable system farming practices. The rice culture and carvings are
associated with indigenous knowledge system in harmony with the ecosystem.
Treatment of illness among Ifugaos revolve around different rituals but they also rely on some
medicinal plants for healing.

The Badjaos
This tribal group is known as the Sea Gypsies and can be found in coastal settlements living in silt
houses along the shores of the Sulu Archipelago. They are boat dwelling people and the sea is where
most of their activities are undertaken. They are expert fishermen, deep sea divers and navigators. Their
fishing method is environmentally friendly. In Linggih, an interlinked net is used to trap the fish. Big
fish like tuna or mackerel are caught by pag-ambit using a fishnet with bamboo slats.
Their silt houses are made of bamboo and nipa. The huts are connected by bamboo with
structures for drying fish. Built. The houses are built three meters above the water level protect them
from high tides and also for safety against hostile strangers.

The Mangyans
The Mangyans are the indigenous groups found on the island of Mindoro, southwest of Luzon,
each with its own tribal name, language and customs. They were once coastal dwellers but moved into
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the hinterlands to avoid the influx and influence of foreign settlers, the Tagalogs. They have peaceful
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 societies. They are mainly subsistence agriculturist planting sweet potato, upland rice and taro. Using
their indigenous method, they trap small animals and wild pigs.
Their indigenous technological know-how is manifested in their exceptional weaving, pottery and
system of writing. Their clothing differs between genders. The male generally wears loincloths as
covering for the lower body whereas the female would wear a skirt and a shirt for the top. The terms and
materials would differ from tribe to tribe. Their textiles are dyed in indigo blue and has an embroidery
design called pakudos at the back and can also be found on their woven bags.

The Majestic Ifugao

Rice Terraces

Badjao
Expert Sea Navigator

Mangyans
Indigenous Hunters

KEY CONCEPTS
1. Science Education was first introduced during the American occupation.
2. Science education transforms and makes people view the world in a different light.
3. In basic education, science education helps the students understand the world around them and their
role in society.
4. In college, science education helps the students understand more and appreciate scientific ideas and the
proper use of technology for the benefit of the people, society and the environment.
5. Through science education, skills in planning, conducting investigations, gathering information,
evaluation of findings are developed. It also emphasizes the importance of teamwork.
6. The educational institutions established to improve the state of science and technology in the country
are:
 Manila Science High School in 1963
 Philippine Science High School in 1964
 Regional, provincial and city level science high schools
7. The Philippines is culturally diverse country with several indigenous people with their own economic
activities and technological knowhow.
8. The Ifugaos‘ rice terraces are recognized worldwide as one of the most productive, stable and sustainable
farming practices.
9. The Badjaos are expert fishermen, deep sea divers and navigators.
10. The Mangyans have peaceful societies and are subsistence agriculturists practicing indigenous method
of trapping wild animals.
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 CHAPTER 4
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY AND THE HUMAN CONDITION
Objectives:
At the end of the chapter, the students should be able to:
 identify various conceptions about human flourishing and how it changes over time;
 identify some theories in demarcating science;
 analyze human flourishing in relation to the progress of science and technology;
 determine what is meant by a good life; and
 discuss the effects of the interaction between technology and humanity amidst the ethical dillemmas
they are facing.

Lesson 1: The Human Person Flourishing in Terms of

Science and Technology
“Human Flourishing Is the Exercise of Practical Reason
to Actualize Human Potential”

Different Concepts of Human Flourishing

The highest or most general good to which all individuals should aim is to live most fully a life
that is proper to man. The proper function of every person is to live happily, successfully, and well. This
is done through the active exercise of a man's distinctive capacity, rationality, as he engages in activities
to the degree appropriate to the person in the context of his own particular
identity as a human being.
According to Aristotle, there is an end of all of the actions that
we perform which we desire for itself. This is what is known as
―eudaimonia,‖ flourishing, or happiness, which is desired for its own sake
with all other things being desired on its account. Eudaimonia is a property
of one's life when considered as a whole. Flourishing is the highest good of
human endeavors and that toward which all actions aim. One's own life is
the only life that a person has to live. It follows that, for Aristotle, the
"good" is what is objectively good for a particular man.
Human flourishing is real and highly personal (i.e., agent relative)
by nature, consists in the fulfillment of both a man's human nature and his
unique potentialities, and is concerned with choices and actions that
necessarily deal with the particular and the contingent. One man's self-
realization is not the same as another's. What is called for in terms of
concrete actions such as choice of career, education, friends, home, and others, varies from person to
person. Human flourishing becomes an actuality when one uses his practical reason to consider his
unique needs, circumstances, capacities, and so on, to determine which concrete instantiations of human
values and virtues will comprise his well-being. The idea of human flourishing is inclusive and can
encompass a wide variety of constitutive ends such as knowledge, the development of character traits,
productive work, religious pursuits, community building, love, charitable activities, allegiance to persons
and causes, self-efficacy, material well-being, pleasurable sensations, etc.
Over time, factors that constitute human flourishing changed. People strived to live more
comfortably, accomplish more goals that increases life satisfaction, explore new places, develop more
products, and find more means to earn money, seemingly a cyclical process that is repeated over and
over again in social history. During the prehistoric period, stone was widely used to make implements
with an edge or a point, to making hunting and gathering food much easier. Later on, these tools were
improved and become more sophisticated to make work easier and faster. This progress inspired them to
further develop new machines to sustain their endeavor which eventually preceded space explorations,
advancement in medicine and other technological innovations. The concept of human flourishing today
is evidently different from what Aristotle have described and perceived it. Today, man is expected to be
―man of the world,‖ educated and experienced in magnificent ways. Man is in a position where he is
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working interdependently with other institutions and government to reach a common goal. Coordination
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is a new trend and competition as a means of survival is a thing of the pass.

 Human flourishing though appears to be viewed differently between the eastern and western
society. In eastern civilization, human flourishing is regarded as community-centric, community takes
the highest regard that the individual should sacrifice himself for the sake of the society. In Tu Wei
Ming‘s work (for instance his chapter on Confucianism in the book Our Religions published in 1993)
human flourishing, or learning to be human, is central to Confucian humanism and its ―creative
transformation‖ of the self through ―an ever-expanding network of relationships encompassing the
family, community, nation, world and beyond.‖ It is thus inseparable from self-awareness and self-
cultivation, and this ―self,‖ ―far from being an isolated individual, is experientially and practically a
center of relationships,‖ a view that the whole is greater than their components. On the other hand,
western civilization tends to be more focused on the individual, human flourishing is considered as an
end. The Greek Aristotelean view, aims for eudaimonia as the ultimate good, a situation achieved
through virtue, knowledge and excellence. If an individual has achieved ―human flourishing‖ perhaps he
would want to serve his community (if he considers his values rather than belief). Thus, he should
recognize his community as higher and worthy of service. But few are able to maintain their philosophies
so much as to achieve the greater ―good‖ or just to flourish.
Development of Science and Technology and its Role in Human Flourishing
Today, humanity is increasingly dependent on science and technology to meet its material needs. We
use machines that simplify the tasks of daily living. We now live in a dynamic age of satellite-relayed
television, electromechanical “brains”, guided missiles, and miracle drugs. Each of these far-reaching
developments will affect our daily lives. A study of the products of science and a fuller understanding of the
role they play in modern society is important. Every discovery, innovation, and success contributes to our pool
of knowledge. One of the most common themes is man’s need of finding proof of where he came from or
tracing his evolution, leads to further progress in science. Development of theories, e.g. the Theory on the
Origin of the Universe and the Theory of Evolution, answers the questions of our existence and provides us
something to look forward to. Humans as the highest form of animals being unique above stimulates our idea
of self-importance. Thus, we can say that human flourishing is intertwined with goal setting which is very
much related to science and technology. That is we can achieve our goals to flourish with the help of science
and technology. As what Heidegger said “Technology is … no mere means. Technology is a way of revealing.
If we give heed to this, then another whole realm for the essence of technology will open itself up for us. It is
the realm of revealing, i.e., of truth.” Consequently, the end goals of both science and technology and human
flourishing are related, in that the good is essentially related to the truth.
The Scientific Method
How does science bravely undertake its claim on truth? Science may very well have begun as a direct
result of one of our divine endowments--curiosity. Science was seen to embody the most successful form of
reasoning to the most certain knowledge claims on the basis of systematically collected evidence. It is a
systematic and logical approach to discovering how things in the universe work. It is also the body of
knowledge accumulated through the discoveries about all the things in the universe. Science is always base on
objectivity. It follows a systematic or organized set of procedures to free it from partiality and biases. Science
became the base of all knowledge and gained a lot of supporters who would always defend it against criticism.
True to this definition, science aims for measurable results through testing and analysis.
In school, particularly in science subjects, the scientific method is usually introduced during the early
part of the discussion. This routine is basic methodology when introducing the students to experimentation
and empiricism.
There are common methods in science, but there is no fixed, step-by-step scientific method that
all scientists follow. If you asked 10 scientists to describe their method, you would likely get 10 different
descriptions. The term ―scientific method‖ refers to the types of processes that are used to create, refine,
extend, and apply knowledge. Even though the number of steps varies, it presents the general idea of
how to do science:
1. Make an observation or observations.
2. Determine the problem, ask questions about the observations and
gather information.
3. Form a hypothesis — a tentative description of what's been observed,
and make predictions based on that hypothesis.
4. Test the hypothesis and predictions in an experiment that can be
reproduced.
5. Analyze the data and draw conclusions; accept or reject the
hypothesis or modify the hypothesis if necessary.
6. Reproduce the experiment until there are no discrepancies between
observations and theory.
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 Criticism on the Validity of Science and What
Distinguishes Science from Pseudo-science
In the second half of the 20th century the
epistemic privilege of science faced several
challenges and many philosophers of science
abandoned the reconstruction of the logic of
scientific method. Views changed significantly
regarding which functions of science ought to be
captured and why.
Falsification Theory
Karl Popper (1902-1994) was one of the most influential philosophers of science of the 20th
century. He made significant contributions to debates concerning general scientific methodology and
theory choice, the demarcation of science from non-science, the nature of probability and quantum
mechanics, and the methodology of the social sciences. His work is notable for its wide influence both
within the philosophy of science, within science itself, and within a broader social context. Popper was
motivated by his doubts about the scientific status of theories like the Marxist theory of history or
psycho-analysis, and so wanted to draw a line of demarcation between science and pseudo-science.
According to Popper the true way to test a theory is not to try and show that it is true but to try
and show that it is false. Once a hypothesis has been developed, predictions must be deduced from it so
that it can be subjected to experimental testing. If it is falsified then it is abandoned, but if it is not
falsified this just means it ought to be subjected to ever more stringent tests and ingenious attempts to
falsify it.
For Popper, everything in science is provisional and subject to correction or replacement:
We must not look upon science as a ‘body of knowledge’, but rather as a system of
hypotheses which in principle cannot be justified, but with which we work as long as they
stand up to tests, and of which we are never justified in saying that we know they are ‘true’
or ‘more or less certain’ or even ‘probable’.
(Popper 1959: 317)
Falsification theory asserts that as long as an ideology is not proven to be false and can best
explain a phenomenon over alternative theories, we should accept the said ideology. It does not promote
ultimate adoption of one theory but instead encourages research in order to determine which among the
theories can stand the test of falsification. The strongest one is that which is able to remain upheld
amidst various tests, while being able to make particularly risky predictions about the world.

Verification Theory
While Popper‘s account of scientific methodology has continued to be influential, it has also faced
a number of serious objections. These objections, together with the emergence of alternative accounts of
scientific reasoning, have led many philosophers of science to reject Popper‘s falsificationist
methodology.
Verification theory is the earliest criterion that distinguishes philosophy and science. It proposes
that a discipline is science if it can be confirmed or interpreted in an event of an alternative hypothesis
being accepted. In that regard, said theory gives premium to empiricism and only takes into account
those results which are measurable and experiments which are repeatable. This was supported by the
Vienna Circle, a group of scholars who believed that only those which cannot be directly accessed as
meaningless. However, this theory proved to be rather too risky, in that many developing theories that
lack empirical results might be shot down prematurely, causing slower innovation and punishing
ingenuity of newer, novel thoughts. Some discoveries in physics, for instance, are initially theorized
without proper acknowledgement of their being. For example Einstein‘s theory on the existence of
gravitational waves would, following this thought, be dismissed due to lack of evidence almost a year
ago. Verification theory completely fails to weed out bogus arguments that explain things coincidentally.
Theoretically, Falsification Theory is more accepted than Verification Theory but scientists are
not yet convinced that it should be regarded as what makes a discipline scientific. The advantage of the
Falsification Theory, is that, its generous acceptance to evidences, leads to acceptance of theories that
are rejected by Verification Theory. Although, both theories do not have generally recognized rule as to
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the number of cases that a certain theory is rejected or falsified in order for it to be discarded or set
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aside. The same thing that observable events or evidences are not guaranteed to be clearly the
manifestation of a certain concept or ―theories.‖
Social Dimension of Science
Because the methodologies presented above does not lead to definite conclusion on the criterion
of demarcating science, new school of thought emerged. Several philosophers presented alternative
demarcation that examines the social dimension of science, and in effect, technology. Society is the
necessary medium to conform those specific components of science. Science is a social endeavor like all
other human activity. It is not a mere individual activity in an isolated medium but rather the active
venture due to individuals and groups working on some topics – basic research or applied research–
either in a visible setting (a laboratory, an astronomical observatory …) or in ―invisible communities‖ all
around the world. Science as a social endeavor means the application of science in figuring out how the
world works, exists, or originated. Another dimension of science as a social endeavor is to solve various
problems, satisfy various needs and sustainable development of society with the help of scientific
knowledge. The study of science as a social endeavor has a prominent place in any curriculum that has
‗science literacy‘ as one of its aims. Development of scientific literacy is considered to be the major aim
of studying science as a social endeavor.
Science and Results
Science does not monopolize the claim for definite results. Not all people understand science, but
when it is able to explain something that is beyond their understanding they are won over or become a
believer. The fact that science has results counts in its favor only if these results were achieved by science
alone, and without any outside help. A look at history shows that science hardly ever gets its results in
this way. When Copernicus introduced a new view of the universe, he did not consult scientific
predecessors, he consulted a crazy Pythagorean such as Philolaos. Mechanics and optics owe a lot to
artisans, medicine to midwives and witches. Science is not the sole discipline that produces desirable
results – religion, luck, and human randomness also do as well. In some areas, where science is not
known they turn to divination and superstition, which likewise produce desirable results. Science has
done many things, but so have other ideologies. Science often proceeds systematically, but so do other
ideologies and, besides, there is no "scientific methodology" that can be used to separate science from
the rest. Science is just one of the many ideologies that propel society and it should be treated as such.
The Role of Science in Education
Daily we read and hear stories about global warming, cloning, genetically modified foods, space
exploration, the collection of DNA evidence and new drugs that will improve the quality of life and make
us look years younger. As a consumer, and as a citizen, we need to critically evaluate the claims made in
the name of science and make informed decisions and choices about these and other science based
issues. In short, we need to be scientifically literate and more importantly we need to develop
scientifically literate students. A scientifically literate student is able to apply their knowledge of
scientific concepts and processes to the evaluation of issues and problems that may arise and to the
decisions that they make in their daily life, about the natural world and the changes made to it through
human activity.
Consider the role science now plays in education. Scientific "facts‖ are taught at a very early age
that is why many schools are focusing on science-oriented curricula. There are noticeable portions in
entrance exams in the secondary and tertiary levels that are devoted to science and mathematics. In the
Philippines, there are a lot of science high schools found all over the country, establishing competition
for aspiring students to obtain a slot and undergo rigorous science and mathematics training based on
specialized curricula. Although these schools also take great consideration in providing holistic
education by ensuring that non-science courses are covered, still proficiency in science and mathematics
are the primary condition to be admitted.
If one is really in pursuit of human flourishing, it would make sense for them to pursue it
holistically. Simple mastering science and technology would be inadequate if we are to say, socialize with
people or ruminate on our inner self. Aristotle‘s eudaimonic person recognizes that flourishing requires
one to excel in various dimensions, such as linguistic, kinetic, artistic, and socio-civic and not focus on
one aspect alone.
What is the cost of human flourishing?
Going back to the idea of human flourishing, living a comfortable life and the role of science in
our society, how much do we really need to live long and happy lives? How far does technology go to
achieve progress? We should look at societies where people live long and happy lives at relatively low
levels of income and consumption not as basket cases that need to be developed towards western
models, but as examples of efficient living. We need to reorient ourselves toward a positive future, a
truer form of progress. One that is geared toward quality instead of quantity. One that is more
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sophisticated than just accumulating ever increasing amounts of stuff, which doesn‘t make anyone
happier anyway. What does this mean for our theory of development? Economist Peter Edward argues
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that instead of pushing poorer countries to ―catch up‖ with rich ones, we should be thinking of ways to
 get rich countries to ―catch down‖ to more appropriate levels of development, because the hard truth is
that this global crisis is due almost entirely to overconsumption in rich countries. Current levels of
average global consumption are overshooting our planet‘s bio-capacity by more than 50% each year.
Right now, our planet only has enough resources for each of us to consume 1.8 ―global hectares‖
annually – a standardized unit that measures resource use and waste. Technological advancement is at a
rapid pace of growth and it allows no room for nature to recuperate, resulting in exploitation and
irreversible damages to nature. Either we slow down voluntarily or climate change will do it for us. We
can‘t go on ignoring the laws of nature. But rethinking our theory of progress is not only an ecological
imperative, it is also a development one. If we do not act soon, all our hard-won gains against poverty
will evaporate, as food systems collapse and mass famine re-emerges to an extent not seen since the 19th
century.
Summary
Human flourishing is said to be the best translation for the Greek word Eudaimonia, which, for
Aristotle, means not only good fortune and material prosperity but a situation achieved through virtue,
knowledge and excellence. Humans generally have a notion on what it means to flourish, even though in
the advent of science and technology, they chose to hinge their ends alongside the latter‘s results.
Human flourishing conveys the idea of a process, of both a personal project and a goal for humanity. It is
a demanding quest, rather than a comfortable station in life. Science and technology are at the forefront
of our society today. Much that we do deals with progress, research, and development in the ever-
growing technological sectors. But technological advance is not without complication, and even
passionate proponents of technology recognize that our present age of innovation is loaded with concern
for unintended consequences. And as technology provides ever increasing knowledge, we quite
reasonably wonder whether such knowledge is being used to bring about a wiser, more just world.

Key Concepts

1. According to Aristotle, ―eudaimonia,‖ flourishing, or happiness is an end of all of the actions that we
perform which all of us desire.
2. The idea of human flourishing is inclusive and can encompass a wide variety of constitutive ends such as
knowledge, the development of character traits, productive work, religious pursuits, community
building, love, charitable activities, allegiance to persons and causes, self-efficacy, material well-being,
pleasurable sensations, etc.
3. Over time, there are various conceptions about human flourishing.
4. The development of science and technology plays an important role in human flourishing.
5. The scientific method is a systematic or organized set of procedures used in science to free it from partiality
and biases.
6. Falsification theory asserts that as long as an ideology is not proven to be false and can best explain a
phenomenon over alternative theories, we should accept the said ideology.
7. Verification theory proposes that a discipline is science if it can be confirmed or interpreted in an event
of an alternative hypothesis being accepted.
8. As a social endeavor, science aims to solve various problems, satisfy various needs and sustainable
development of society with the help of scientific knowledge.
9. Several educational institution gears towards providing a science based-curriculum.
10. Technological advancement is at a rapid pace of growth and it allows no room for nature to recuperate,
resulting in exploitation and irreversible damages to nature.
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