Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
[As per Choice Based Credit System (CBCS) scheme]
SEMESTER – V (EC/TC)

Subject Code: 21EC54 IA Marks: 50

Number of Lecture Hours/Week: 03 Exam Marks: 50
Total Number of Lecture Hours: 40 Exam Hours: 03
CREDITS – 03

Course objectives: This course will enable students to:

• Study the different coordinate systems, Physical significance of Divergence, Curl and
Gradient.
• Understand the applications of Coulomb‘s law and Gauss law to different charge distributions
and the applications of Laplace‘s and Poisson‘s Equations to solvereal time problems on
capacitance of different charge distributions.
• Understand the physical significance of Biot-Savart‘s, Amperes‘s Law and Stokes‘theorem for
different current distributions.
• Infer the effects of magnetic forces, materials and inductance.
• Know the physical interpretation of Maxwell‘equations and applications for Plane waves for
their behavior in different media.
• Acquire knowledge of Poynting theorem and its application of power flow.

Revised

Teaching Bloom’s
Modules
Hours Taxonomy

(RBT) Level

Module – 1

Coulomb’s Law, Electric Field Intensity and Flux density: Experimental law of
Coulomb, Electric field intensity, Field due to continuous volume charge distribution, 8 Hours L1, L2
Field of a line charge, Field due to Sheet of charge, Electric flux density, Numerical
Problems. (Text: Chapter 2.1 to 2.5, 3.1)
Module -2

Gauss’s law and Divergence: Gauss ‘law, Application of Gauss’ law to point charge,
line charge, Surface charge and volume charge, Point (differential) form of Gauss law,
Divergence. Maxwell‘s First equation (Electrostatics), Vector Operator ▼ and
divergence theorem, Numerical Problems (Text: Chapter 3.2 to 3.7)

Energy, Potential and Conductors: Energy expended or work done in moving a 8 Hours L1, L2
point charge in an electric field, The line integral, Definition of potential difference
and potential, The potential field of point charge, Potential gradient, Numerical
Problems (Text: Chapter 4.1 to 4.4 and 4.6). Current and Current density, Continuity
of current. (Text: Chapter 5.1, 5.2)

Module -3

Poisson’s and Laplace’s Equations: Derivation of Poisson‘s and Laplace‘s 8 Hours L1, L2
Equations, Uniqueness theorem, Examples of the solution of Laplace‘s equation,

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Numerical problems on Laplace equation (Text: Chapter 7.1 to 7.3)

Steady Magnetic Field: Biot-Savart Law, Ampere‘s circuital law, Curl, Stokes‘
theorem, Magnetic flux and magnetic flux density, Basic concepts Scalar and Vector
Magnetic Potentials, Numerical problems. (Text: Chapter 8.1 to 8.6)

Module -4

Magnetic Forces: Force on a moving charge, differential current elements, Force

between differential current elements, Numerical problems (Text: Chapter 9.1 to 9.3)

Magnetic Materials: Magnetization and permeability, Magnetic boundary conditions, 8 Hours L1, L2
The magnetic circuit, Potential energy and forces on magnetic materials, Inductance
and mutual reactance, Numerical problems (Text: Chapter 9.6 to 9.7). Faraday’ law
of Electromagnetic Induction –Integral form and Point form, Numerical problems
(Text: Chapter 10.1)
Module -5

Maxwell’s equations Continuity equation, Inconsistency of Ampere’s law with

continuity equation, displacement current, Conduction current, Derivation of
Maxwell‘s equations in point form, and integral form, Maxwell’s equations for
different media, Numerical problems (Text: Chapter 10.2 to 10.4)

Uniform Plane Wave: Plane wave, Uniform plane wave, Derivation of plane wave 8 Hours L1, L2, L3
equations from Maxwell’s equations, Solution of wave equation for perfect dielectric,
Relation between E and H, Wave propagation in free space, Solution of wave equation
for sinusoidal excitation, wave propagation in any conducting media (γ, α, β, η) and
good conductors, Skin effect or Depth of penetration, Poynting‘s theorem and wave
power, Numerical problems. (Text: Chapter 12.1 to 12.4)

Course outcomes:

After studying this course, students will be able to:

• Evaluate problems on electric field due to point, linear, volume charges by applying conventional methods
or by Gauss law.
• Determine potential and energy with respect to point charge and capacitance using Laplace equation.
• Calculate magnetic field, force, and potential energy with respect to magnetic materials.
• Apply Maxwell‘s equation for time varying fields, EM waves in free space and conductors.
• Evaluate power associated with EM waves using Poynting theorem.
Graduate Attributes (as per NBA)

✓ Engineering Knowledge
✓ Problem Analysis
✓ Design / development of solutions (partly)
Question paper pattern:
• Examination will be conducted for 100 marks with question paper containing 10 full questions, each of 20
marks.
• Each full question can have a maximum of 4 sub questions.
• There will be 2 full questions from each module covering all the topics of the module.
• Students will have to answer 5 full questions, selecting one full question from each module.
• The total marks will be proportionally reduced to 60 marks as SEE marks is 60.

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Text Book:

1. W.H. Hayt and J.A. Buck, “Engineering Electromagnetics”, 8th Edition, TataMcGraw-Hill.
Reference Books:

1. Elements of Electromagnetics – Matthew N.O., Sadiku, Oxford university press, 4th Edn.
2. Electromagnetic Waves and Radiating systems – E. C. Jordan and K.G. Balman, PHI,
2ndEdn.
3. Electromagnetics- Joseph Edminister, Schaum Outline Series, McGraw Hill.
4. N. Narayana Rao, ―Fundamentals of Electromagnetics for Engineering, Pearson.

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INDEX SHEET
Module PAGE
TOPIC
No. NO.

Coulomb’s Law, Electric Field Intensity and Flux density

1 Experimental law of Coulomb, Electric field intensity, Field 1-13

due to continuous volume charge distribution, Field of a line
charge, Electric flux density.

Gauss’s law and Divergence

Gauss’ law, Divergence, Maxwell’s First equation
(Electrostactics), Vector Operator ▼ and divergence
theorem.
Energy, Potential and Conductors
2 14-38

Energy expended in moving a point charge in an electric

field, The line integral, Definition of potential difference and
potential, The potential field of point charge, Current and
Current density, Continuity of current.
Poisson’s and Laplace’s Equations
Derivation of Poisson’s and Laplace’s Equations,
Uniqueness theorem, Examples of the solution of Laplace’s
equation.
3 Steady Magnetic Field 39-66

Biot-Savart Law, Ampere’s circuital law, Curl, Stokes

theorem, Magnetic flux and magnetic flux density, Scalar
and Vector Magnetic Potentials.

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Magnetic Forces
Force on a moving charge, differential current elements,
Force between differential current elements.
Magnetic Materials
4 67-101

Magnetization and permeability, Magnetic boundary

conditions, Magnetic circuit, Potential Energy and forces on
magnetic materials
Time-varying fields and Maxwell’s equations
Farday’s law, displacement current, Maxwell’s equations in
point form Maxwell’s equations in integral form.
5 Uniform Plane Wave 102-174

Wave propagation in free space and good

conductors.Poynting’s theorem and wave power, Skin Effect

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MODULE 1

Coulomb’s Law, Electric Field Intensity and Flux density

Coulomb’s Law

Coulomb’s law states that the electrostatic force F between two pointcharges q1and
q2 is directly proportional to the product of the magnitude of the charges, and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them., and it acts along
the line joining the two charges.

Then, as per the Coulomb’s Law,

F kq1q2

Or F=(kq1q2)/(r²) N

Where k is the constant of proportionality whose value varies with the system of units.

R^ is the unit vector along the line joining the two charges.

In SI unit, k= .

Where is called the permittivity of the free space.

It has an assigned value given as =8.834 F/m.

FORCE ON A POINT CHARGE

The forces of attraction/repulsion between two point charges and (charges

whose size is much smaller than the distance between them) are given by Coulomb’s
law:

where m/F in SI units, and R is the distance between the two charges.
Here, is the force exerted on , and is the force acting on . The unit vector
points from charge 2 toward charge 1. Accordingly, .

Force on Q1 is given by

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F1 =
Newtons

F1

q1 q2

F2
q1 q2
@
2

Force due to several charges

Let there be many point charges q1,q2,q3.........qn at distances r1,r2,r3.....rn from
charge q. The forceF1, F2, F3..........Fn at the charges q1,q2,q3...........qn respectively
are:

q{ r̂ + }

F=Fq1+Fq2+Fq3...............

Hence, F= q{ }N

Electric field intensity

Electric field intensity at any point in an electric field is the force experienced by
positive unit charge placed at that point.

Consider a charge Q located at a point A. At the point B in the electric fields set up by
Q, it is required

To find the electric field intensity E.

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Let the charge at B be and let the charge Q be fixed at A. Let r be the distance
between A and B. As per the Coulomb’s Law, the force between Q and q is given by:

F= r̂ N

If it is a unit positive charge, then by definition, F in the above equation gives the
magnitude of the electric field intensity E.

i.e. E=F when

Therefore, the magnitude of the electric field strength is:

E=Q/(4r

Let r be the unit vector along the line joining A and B. Thus, the vector relation
between E is written as:

E=Q/(4 or²) V/m

Electric Field intensity due to several charges

Let there be many point charges q1,q2,q3.........qn at distances r1,r2,r3.....rn be the
corresponding unit vectors. The field E1, E2, E3..........En at the charges
q1,q2,q3...........qn respectively are:

r̂ +

E=Eq1+Eq2+Eq3...............

Hence, E=

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Electric field intensity at a point due to a infinite sheet of charge

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Electric field at a point on the axis of charged circular ring

Let ρ be the charge density of the ring.

So, ρ=dq/dl

dq=ρdl

Electric field due to an infinitely small element=dE

dE=dq/4πεo r² r̂

where r̂ is the unit vector along AP.

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dE can resolved into two rectangular components, dEx and dEy. Now, dEx=dEcosθ.

Taking the magnitude of dE from above, the equation becomes,

dEx=

cosθ=

substituting for dq from above, we have;

dEx=

The component dEy is directed downwards.

If we consider an element of the ring at a point diametrically opposite to A, then its

dEy component points upwards and hence, cancels with that due to element A. The
dEx components add up.

∫dEy=0.

The total field at P is the sum of the fields due to all the elements of the ring.

Therefore, E=∫dE=∫dEx+∫dEy=∫dEx

E=∫dEx=

But, r=(R²+x²)½

Therefore, E= ax

where a x is the unit vector along the x axis.

Electric flux

The concept of electric flux is useful in association with Gauss' law. The electric flux
through a planar area is defined as the electric field times the component of the area
perpendicular to the field. If the area is not planar, then the evaluation of the flux
generally requires an area integral since the angle will be continually changing.

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When the area A is used in a vector operation like this, it is understood that the
magnitude of the vector is equal to the area and the direction of the vector is
perpendicular to the area.

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Module 2
Gauss’s law and Divergence, Energy, Potential and Conductors

Gauss law

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Application of Gauss law

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Divergence

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Maxwell’s First equation

From divergence theorem, we have

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Divergence theorem

From Gauss law, we have

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UNIT 2: Energy and potential & Conductors, dielectrics and

capacitance
Energy expended in moving a point charge in an electric field, Line integral,
Definition of potential difference and potential, Potential field of a point charge &
system of charges. Energy density in an electrostatic field. Potential gradient, Current
and current density, Continuity of current, metallic conductors, Conductor properties
and boundary conditions for dielectrics, Conductor properties and boundary
conditions for capacitance

Recommended readings:

1. Energy Electromagnetics, William H Hayt Jr . and John A Buck, Tata

McGraw-Hill, 7th edition,2006.

2. Electromagnetics with Applications, John Krauss and Daniel A

FleischMcGraw-Hill, 5th edition, 1999

3. Electromagnetic Waves And Radiating Systems, Edward C. Jordan and KeithG

Balmain, Prentice – Hall of India / Pearson Education, 2nd edition, 1968.Reprint
2002

4. Field and Wave Electromagnetics, David K Cheng, Pearson Education Asia,

2nd edition, - 1989, Indian Reprint – 2001.

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Energy expended in moving a point charge in an electric field

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Definition of Potential &Potential difference

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Potential field of a point charge

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Problem

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MODULE 3
Poisson’s and Laplace’s equations, Steady Magnetic Fields

Derivation of Poisson’s equation, Uniqueness theorem, Examples of Laplace

Equations, Examples of Poisson’s Equations

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Uniqueness theorem

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Example of laplace’s equation

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Example 2:

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Example 3:

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Example 4:

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Static electric fields are characterized by E or D. Static magnetic fields, are characterized by
H or B. There are similarities and dissimilarities between electric and magnetic fields. As E
and D are related according to D = E for linear material space, H and B are related according
to B = H.

A definite link between electric and magnetic fields was established by Oersted in 1820. An
electrostatic field is produced by static or stationary charges. If the charges are moving with
constant velocity, a static magnetic (or magnetostatic) field is produced. A magnetostatic field
is produced by a constant current flow (or direct current). This current flow may be due to
magnetization currents as in permanent magnets, electron-beam currents as in vacuum tubes,
or conduction currents as in current-carrying wires.

The development of the motors, transformers, microphones, compasses, telephone bell

ringers, television focusing controls, advertising displays, magnetically levitated high speed
vehicles, memory stores, magnetic separators, and so on, involve magnetic phenomena and
play an important role in our everyday life.

There are two major laws governing magnetostatic fields:

(1) Biot-Savart's law, and

(2) Ampere's circuit law.

Like Coulomb's law, Biot-Savart's law is the general law of magnetostatics. Just as
Gauss's law is a special case of Coulomb's law, Ampere's law is a special case of Biot-
Savart's law and is easily applied in problems involving symmetrical current
distribution.

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BIOT SAVART's LAW

Biot-Savart's law states that the magnetic field intensity dH produced at a point P, as shown in
Figure 1.1, by the differential current element I dl is proportional to the product I dl and the
sine of the angle  between the element and the line joining P to the element and is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance R between P and the element.

That is,

I dl sin 
dH 
R2
(1.1)

or

KI dl sin
dH =
R2
(1.2)

where, k is the constant of proportionality. In SI units, k = 1/4. So, eq. (1.2) becomes

I dl sin
dH =
4R 2
(1.3)

From the definition of cross product equation A x B = AB SinAB an, it is easy to notice that
eq. (1.3) is better put in vector form as

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Idl  a R Idl  R
dH = =
4R 2
4R 3
(1.4)

where R in the denominator is |R| and aR = (vector R/|R|}. Thus, the direction of dH can be
determined by the right-hand rule with the right-hand thumb pointing in the direction of the
current, the right-hand fingers encircling the wire in the direction of dH as shown in Figure
1.2(a). Alternatively, one can use the right-handed screw rule to determine the direction of
dH: with the screw placed along the wire and pointed in the direction of current flow, the
direction of advance of the screw is the direction of dH as in Figure 1.2(b).

Figure 1.1: Magnetic field dH at P due to current element I dl.

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Figure 1.2:Determining the direction of dH using (a) the right-hand rule, or (b) the right-
handed screw rule.

It is customary to represent the direction of the magnetic field intensity H (or current I) by a
small circle with a dot or cross sign depending on whether H (or I) is out of, or into, the page
as illustrated in Figure 1.3.

As like different charge configurations, one can have different current distributions: line
current, surface current and volume current as shown in Figure 1.4. If we define K as the
surface current density (in amperes/meter) and J as the volume current density (in
amperes/meter square), the source elements are related as

I dlK dS J dv (1.5)

Thus, in terms of the distributed current sources, Biot-Savart law as in eq. (1.4)
becomes

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Idl  a R
H= L 4R 2
(Line current) (1.6)

KdS  a R
H= S 4R 2
(Surface current)

(1.7)

Jdv  a R
H= V 4R 2
(Volume current)

(1.8)

As an example, let us apply eq. (1.6) to determine the field due to a straight current carrying
filamentary conductor of finite length AB as in Figure 1.5. We assume that the conductor is
along the z-axis with its upper and lower ends respectively subtending angles

Figure 1.3: Conventional representation of H (or I) (a) out of the page and (b) into the page.

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Figure 1.4: Current distributions: (a) line current (b) surface current (c) volume current.

2and 1 at P, the point at which H is to be determined. Particular note should be taken of this
assumption, as the formula to be derived will have to be applied accordingly. If we consider
the contribution dH at P due to an element dl at (0, 0, z),

Idl  R
dH =
4R 3
(1.9)

But dl = dz az and R = a - zaz , so

dl x R =  dz a (1.10)

Hence,

I dz
H=  a

4  + z
2 2

3
2

(1.11)
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Figure 1.5: Field at point P due to a straight filamentary conductor.

Letting z =  cot , dz = - cosec2 d, equation (1.11) becomes

I 2  2 cos ec 2 d
H =−
4  1  3 cos ec 3
a

I 2
=−
4
a  1
sin  d

Or

H=
4
I
(cos  2 − cos 1 )a

(1.12)

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The equation (1.12) is generally applicable for any straight filamentary conductor of finite
length. Note from eq. (1.12) that H is always along the unit vector a(i.e., along concentric
circular paths) irrespective of the length of the wire or the point of interest P. As a special
case, when the conductor is semi-infinite (with respect to P), so that point A is now at O(0, 0,
0) while B is at (0, 0, ); 1 = 90, 2 = 0, and eq. (1.12) becomes

I
H= a
4
(1.13)

Another special case is when the conductor is infinite in length. For this case, point A is at (0,
0, - ) while B is at (0, 0, ); 1 = 180, 2 = 0. So, eq. (1.12) reduces to

I
H= a
2
(1.14)

To find unit vector ain equations (1.12) to (1.14) is not always easy. A simple approach is to
determine afrom

a = a  a 
(1.15)

where alis a unit vector along the line current and ais a unit vector along the perpendicular
line from the line current to the field point.

Illustration: The conducting triangular loop in Figure 1.6(a) carries a current of 10 A. Find H
at (0, 0, 5) due to side 1 of the loop.

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Solution:

This example illustrates how eq. (1.12) is applied to any straight, thin, current-carrying
conductor. The key point to be kept in mind in applying eq. (1.12) is figuring out 1, 2, 
and a.To find H at (0, 0, 5) due to side 1 of the loop in Figure 1.6(a), consider Figure

Figure 1.6: (a) conducting triangular loop (b) side 1 of the loop.

1.6(b), where side 1 is treated as a straight conductor. Notice that we join the Point of interest
(0, 0, 5) to the beginning and end of the line current. Observe that 1, 2 and are assigned in
the same manner as in Figure 1.5 on which eq. (1.12) is based.

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2
cos 1 = cos 90 = 0, cos 2 = , =5
29

To determine ais often the hardest part of applying eq. (1.12). According to eq. (1.15), al =
axand a = az, so

a = axx az = -ay

Hence,

10  2 
H1 =
1
(cos 2 − cos1 ) a =  − 0  (−a y )
4 4 (5)  29 

= -59.1 ay mA/m

AMPERE'S CIRCUIT LAW

Ampere's circuit law states that the line integral of the tangential components of H around a
closed path is the same as the net current Iencenclosed by the path

In other words, the circulation of H equals Ienc ; that is,

 H  dl = I enc
(1.16)

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Ampere's law is similar to Gauss's law and it is easily applied to determine H when the
current distribution is symmetrical. It should be noted that eq. (1.16) always holds whether
the current distribution is symmetrical or not but we can only use the equation to determine H
when symmetrical current distribution exists. Ampere's law is a special case of Biot-Savart's
law; the former may be derived from the latter.

By applying Stoke's theorem to the left-hand side of eq. (1.16), we obtain

L S
I enc = H  dl = (  H )  dS

(1.17)

But

S
I enc = J  dS

(1.18)

Comparing the surface integrals in eqs. (7.17) and (7.18) clearly reveals that

xH=J
(1.19)

This is the third Maxwell's equation to be derived; it is essentially Ampere's law in

differential (or point) form whereas eq. (1.16) is the integral form. From eq. (1.19),
we should observe that  X H = J  0; that is, magnetostatic field is not conservative.

APPLICATIONS OF AMPERE'S LAW

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Infinite Line Current

Consider an infinitely long filamentary current I along the z-axis as in Figure 1. 7. To

determine H at an observation point P, we allow a closed path pass through P. This path on,
which Ampere's law is to be applied, is known as an Amperian path (analogous to the term
Gaussian surface). We choose a concentric circle as the Amperian path in view of eq. (1.14),
which shows that H is constant provided p is constant. Since this path encloses the whole
current I, according to Ampere's law

 
I = H  a   d a = H   d = H   2

Figure 1.7: Ampere's law applied to an infinite filamentary, line current.

Or

1
H= a
2
(1.20)

As expected from eq. (1.14).

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MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY

The magnetic flux density B is similar to the electric flux density D. As D = 0E in free
space, the magnetic flux density B is related to the magnetic field intensity H according to

B = 0 H
(1.21)

where, 0 is a constant known as the permeability of free space. The constant is in

henrys/meter (H/m) and has the value of

0 = 4 x 10-7H/m (1.22)

The precise definition of the magnetic field B, in terms of the magnetic force, can be
discussed later.

Figure 1.8: Magnetic flux lines due to a straight wire with current coming out of the
page

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The magnetic flux through a surface S is given by

 =  B  dS
S

(1.23)

Where the magnetic flux  is in webers (Wb) and the magnetic flux density is a
webers/square meter (Wb/m2) or teslas.

An isolated magnetic charge does not exit.

Total flux through a closed surface in a magnetic field must be zero;

that is,

 B dS = 0
(1.24)

This equation is referred to as the law of conservation of magnetic flux or Gauss'’s law for

magnetostatic fields just as  D. dS = Q is Gauss's law for electrostatic fields. Although the

magnetostatic field is not conservative, magnetic flux is conserved.

By applying the divergence theorem to eq. (1.24), we obtain

S B  dS =    B dv = 0
v

Or
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.B=0
(1.25)

This equation is the fourth Maxwell's equation to be derived. Equation (1.24) or (1.25) shows
that magnetostatic fields have no sources or sinks. Equation (1.25) suggests that magnetic
field lines are always continuous.

TABLE 1.2: Maxwell's Equations for Static EM Fields

Differential (or Point) Integral Form Remarks

Form

 . D = v S D  dS =   v dv Gauss's law
v

.B=0 SB  dS = 0 Nonexistence of magnetic monopole

xE=0 LE  dl = 0 Conservativeness of electrostatic field

xH=J L H  dl =  J  dS Ampere's law

s

The Table 1.2 gives the information related to Maxwell's Equations for Static
Electromagnetic Fields.

MAGNETIC SCALAR AND VECTOR POTENTIALS

We recall that some electrostatic field problems were simplified by relating the electric
Potential V to the electric field intensity E (E = -V). Similarly, we can define a potential
associated with magnetostatic field B. In fact, the magnetic potential could be scalar Vm
vector A. To define Vm and A involves two important identities:

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 x (V) = 0
(1.26)

 . ( x A) = 0 (1.27)

which must always hold for any scalar field V and vector field A.

Just as E = -V, we define the magnetic scalar potential Vm(in amperes) as related to H
according to

H = - Vm if J = 0 (1.28)

The condition attached to this equation is important and will be explained. Combining eq.
(1.28) and eq. (1.19) gives

J =  x H = - x (- Vm) = 0 (1.29)

since Vm, must satisfy the condition in eq. (1.26). Thus the magnetic scalar potential V m is
only defined in a region where J = 0 as in eq. (1.28). We should also note that V m satisfies
Laplace's equation just as V does for electrostatic fields; hence,

2 Vm = 0, (J = 0) (1.30)

We know that for a magnetostatic field,  x B = 0 as stated in eq. (1.25). In order to satisfy
eqs. (1.25) and (1.27) simultaneously, we can define the vector magnetic potential A (in
Wb/m) such that

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B=xA
(1.31)

Just as we defined

dQ
V =  4 0 r
(1.32)

We can define

 0 I dl
A= L 4R
for line current (1.33)

 0 K dS
A= S 4R
for surface current (1.34)

 0 J dv
A= v 4R
for volume current (1.35)

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Illustration 1: Given the magnetic vector potential A = -2/4 azWb/m, calculate the total
magnetic flux crossing the surface  = /2, 1  2m, 0  z  5m.

Solution:

Az 
B =  A = − a = a , dS = d dz a
 2

1 5 2 1 2 15
 =  B  dS z =0  =1  d dz =  (5) =
2 4 4

 = 3.75 Wb

Illustration 2:

Identify the configuration in figure 1.9 that is not a correct representation of I and H.

Figure 1.9: Different I and H representations (related to Illustration 2)

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Solution:

Figure 1.9 (c) is not a correct representation. The direction of H field should have been
outwards for the given I direction.

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Module 4
MAGNETIC FORCES, MATERIALS
Force on a moving charge and differential current element, Force between differential
current elements, Force and Torque on a closed circuit, Magnetic materials and
inductance, Magnetization and permeability, Magnetic boundary conditions, Magnetic
circuits, Potential energy and forces on magnetic materials.

Force on a Charged Particle

According toearlierinformation, the electric force Fe, on a stationary or moving electric charge
Q in an electric field is given by Coulornb's experimental law and is related to the electric
field intensity E as

Fe = QE
(2.1)

This shows that if Q is Positive, Fe and E have the same direction.

A magnetic field can exert force only on a moving charge. From experiments, it is found that
the magnetic force Fm experienced by a charge Q moving with a velocity u in a magnetic field
B is

Fm = Qu x B (2.2)

This clearly shows that Fm is perpendicular to both u and B.

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From eqs. (2.1) and (2.2), a comparison between the electric force Fe and the magnetic force
Fm can be made. Fe is independent of the velocity of the charge and can perform work on the
charge and change its kinetic energy. Unlike Fe, Fm depends on the charge velocity and
is normal to it. Fm cannot perform work because it is at right angles to the direction of motion,
of the charge (Fm.dl = 0); it does not cause an increase in kinetic energy of the charge. The
magnitude of Fm is generally small compared to Fe except at high velocities.

For a moving charge Q in the Presence of both electric and magnetic fields, the total force on
the charge is given by

F = Fe + Fm

or

F = Q (E + u x B)
(2.3)

This is known as the Lorentz force equation. It relates mechanical force to electrical force. If
the mass of the charged Particle moving in E and B fields is m, by Newton's second law of
motion.

= Q (E + u  B )
du
F =m
dt
(2.4)

The solution to this equation is important in determining the motion of charged particles in E
and B fields. We should bear in mind that in such fields, energy transfer can be only by
means of the electric field. A summary on the force exerted on a charged particle is given in
table 2.1.

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TABLE 2.1:Force on a Charged Particle

Combined E and B
State of Particle E Field B Field
Fields

Stationary QE - QE

Moving QE Qu x B Q(E + u x B)

The magnetic field B is defined as the force per unit current element

Alternatively, B may be defined from eq. (2.2) as the vector which satisfies Fm / q = u x B just
as we defined electric field E as the force per unit charge, Fe / q.

Force between Two Current Elements

Let us now consider the force between two elements I1 dl1 and I2 dl2. According to Biot-
Savart's law, both current elements produce magnetic fields. So we may find the force d(dF1)
on element I1 dl1due to the field dB2 produced by element I2 dl2as shown in Figure 2.1.

As per equation

dF = I dl x B2

d(dF1) = I1 dl1 x dB2 (2.5)

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But from Biot-Savart's law,

 0 I 2 dl2  a R
dB2 = 21

4R 2
21

(2.6)

Hence,

 0 I 1 dl1  (I 2 dl2  a R )
d (dF1 ) = 21

4R212
(2.7)

Figure 2.1: Force between two current loops.

This equation is essentially the law of force between two current elements and is analogous to
Coulomb's law, which expresses the force between two stationary charges. From eq. (2.7),
we obtain the total force F1on current loop 1 due to current loop 2 shown Figure 2.1 as

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 0 I1 I 2 (
dl1  dl2  a R21 )
F1 =
4  
L1 L2 2
R21
(2.8)

Although this equation appears complicated, we should remember that it is based on eq.
(2.5). It is eq. (8. 10) that is of fundamental importance.

The force F2 on loop 2 due to the magnetic field B1from loop 1 is obtained from eq. (2.8) by
interchanging subscripts 1 and 2. It can be shown that F2 = - F1; thus F1 and F2 obey Newton's
third law that action and reaction are equal and opposite. It is worthwhile to mention that eq.
(2.8) was experimentally established by Qersted and Ampete; Biot and Savart (Ampere's
colleagues) actually based their law on it.

MAGNETIC TORQUE AND MOMENT

Now that we have considered the force on a current loop in a magnetic field, we can
determine the torque on it. The concept of a current loop experiencing a torque in a magnetic
field is of paramount importance in understanding the behavior of orbiting charged particles,
d.c. motors, and generators. If the loop is placed parallel to a magnetic field, it experiences a
force that tends to rotate it.

The torque T (or mechanical moment of force) on the loop is the, vector product of the force
F and the moment arm r.

That is,

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T=rxF
(2.9)

and its units are Newton-meters.

Let us apply this to a rectangular loop of length l and width w placed in a uniform magnetic
field B as shown in Figure 8.5(a). From this figure, we notice that dl is parallel to B along
sides 12 and 34 of the loop and no force is exerted on those sides. Thus

3 1
F = I  dl  B + I  dl  B
2 4

l 0
= I  dz a z  B + I  dz a z  B
2 l

Figure 2.2: Rectangular planar loop in a uniform magnetic field.

or

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F= F0 – F0 = 0 (2.10)

Where, |F0|= I Bl because B is uniform. Thus, no force is exerted on the loop as a whole.
However, F0 and –F0 act at different points on the loop, thereby creating a couple. If the
normal to the plane of the loop makes an angle  with B, as shown in the cross-sectional view
of Figure 2.2(b), the torque on the loop is

|T|= |F0|w sin 

or

T = B I l w sin 
(2.11)

But lw = S, the area of the loop. Hence,

T = BIS sin  (2.12)

We define the quantity

m = ISan
(2.13)

as the magnetic dipole moment (in A/M2) of the loop. In eq. (2.13), an is a unit normal vector
to the plane of the loop and its direction is determined by the right-hand rule: fingers in the
direction of current Hand thumb along an.

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The magnetic dipole moment is the product of current and area of the loop; its reaction is
normal to the loop.

Introducing eq. (2.13) in eq. (2.12), we obtain

T=mxB (2.14)

3.0 STOKE'S THEOREM

Stoke's Theorem relates a line integral to the surface integral and vice-versa, that is

C
H  dL =  (  H )  dS
S

(3.1)

FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGE DUE TO ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

If there is a charge or a moving charge, Q in an electric field, E, there exists a force on the
charge. This force is given by

FE = QE
(3.2)

If a charge, Q moving with a velocity, V is placed in a magnetic field, B (=H), then there
exists a force on the charge (Fig. 3.1). This force is given by

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FH = Q(V x B) (3.3)

B = magnetic flux density, (wb/m2)

V = velocity of the charge, m/s

Fig. 3.1: Direction of field, velocity and force

If the charge, Q is placed in both electric and magnetic fields, then the force on the charge is

F =Q (E + V x B)
(3.4)

This equation is known as Lorentz force equation.

Problem 1: A charge of 12 C has velocity of 5ax + 2ay - 3az m/s. Determine F on the charge
in the field of (a) E=18ax,+5ay +10az V/m

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(b) B = 4ax + 4ay + 3az wb/m2.

Solution:

(a) The force, F on the charge, Q due to E is

F = QE = 12 (18ax + 5ay + 10az)

= 216ax + 60ay + 120az

F=Q |E|= 12 18 + 5 + 10
2 2 2
or,

F = 254.27 N

(b) The force F on the charge due to B is

F = Q[V x B)

Here V = 5ax + 2ay - 3az m/s

B = 4 ax + 4 ay + 3 az wb / m2

F = 12 [18ax - 27ay + 12az]

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or, F= 12 (324 + 729 + 144)

F = 415.17 N

FORCE ON A CURRENT ELEMENT IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

The force on a current element when placed in a magnetic field, B is

F = IL x B
(3.5)

or,

F = I L B Sin Newton (3.6)

where  is the angle between the direction of the current element and the direction of
magnetic flux density

B = magnetic flux density, wb/m2

IL = current element, Amp-m

Proof: Consider a differential charge, dQ to be moving with a velocity, V in a magnetic field,

H = (B/). Then the differential force on the charge is given by

dF = dQ (V x B)
(3.7)

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But

dQ =  d

dF =  d (V x B)

= ( V x B) d

But  V = J

dF = J d x B

Jdis nothing but IdL,

dF =IdL x B

or, F = IL x B, Newton (3.8)

Problem 2: A current element 4 cm long is along y-axis with a current of 10 mA flowing in

y-direction. Determine the force on the current element due to the magnetic field if the
magnetic field H = (5ax/) A/m.

Solution:

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The force on a current element under the influence of magnetic field is

F = IL x B

Here, IL = 10 x 10-3 x 0.04ay

= 4 x l0-4 ay

H = (5ax/) A/m

B = 5ax wb/m2

F = 4 x l0-4ay x 5ax

or F = (0.4ay x 5ax) x 10-3

F = -2.0az mN

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS ON H AND B

1. The tangential component of magnetic field, H is continuous across any boundary

except at the surface of a perfect conductor, that is,

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Htanl - Htan2 = Js (3.9)

At non-conducting boundaries, Js = 0.

2. The normal component of magnetic flux density, B is continuous across any

discontinuity, that is,

Bnl = Bn2
(3.10)

Proof: Consider Fig. 3.2 in which a differential rectangular loop across a boundary separating
medium 1 and medium 2 are shown.

Fig. 3.2: A rectangular loop across a boundary

From Ampere's circuit law, we have

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 H  dL =  50
+ + + + +
01 12 23 34 45

y y
= H y4 + H y3 + H x1 x − H y1
2 2

y y
+ H y2 − H x 2 x = I
2 2

As y → 0, we get

 H  dL = H x1 x − H x 2 x = I

or,

I
H x1 − H x 2 = = Js
x
(3.11)

Here, Hxl and Hx2 are tangential components in medium 1 and 2, respectively.

So, Htan1 – Htan2 = Js (3.12)

Now consider a cylinder shown in Fig. 3.3.

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Fig. 3.3: A differential cylinder across the boundary

Gauss's law for magnetic fields is

 B  dS = 0
s

(3.13)

In this case, for y → 0

 B  dS =  B
s s
n1 a y  dS a y +  B n 2 a y  dS (−a y )
s

(3.14)

that is, Bn1S - Bn2S = 0

Therefore, Bnl = Bn2

(3.15)

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Problem 3:

Two homogeneous, linear and isotropic media have an interface at x = 0. x <0 describes
medium 1 and x >0 describes medium 2. r1 = 2 and r2 = 5. The magnetic field in medium
1 is 150ax - 400ay + 250az A/m.

Determine:

(a) Magnetic field in medium 2

(b) Magnetic flux density in medium 1

(c) Magnetic flux density in medium 2.

Solution:

The magnetic field in medium 1 is

H1 = 150ax - 400ay +250az A/m

Consider Fig. 3.4.

Fig. 3.4: Illustrative figure

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(a) H1 = Htan1 + Hn1

Htanl = -400ay + 250az A/m

Hn1 = 150ax

The boundary condition is

Htanl = Htan2

Htan2 = - 400ay + 50az A/m

The boundary condition on B is Bn1 = Bn2

that is, 1 Hn1 = 1 Hn2

1
H n2 = H n1
2

2
=  150a x
5

= 60ax

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H2 = Htan2 + Hn2

(b) B1= 1H1

= 0rH1

=4 x 10-7 x 2(150ax - 400ay + 250az)

= (376.5ax - 1004ay + 627.5az) wb/m2

(c)B2 = 2H2

= 4 x 10-7 x 5 (60ax - 400ay + 250az)

= (376.98ax - 2513.2ay +1570.75az)wb/m2

SCALAR MAGNETIC POTENTIAL

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Like scalar electrostatic potential, it is possible to have scalar magnetic potential. It is defined
in such a way that its negative gradient gives the magnetic field, that is,

H =  Vm
(3.16)

Vm= scalar magnetic potential (Amp)

Taking curl on both sides, we get

 x H = - x Vm
(3.17)

But curl of the gradient of any scalar is always zero.

So,  x H =0
(3.18)

But, by Ampere's circuit law XH=J

or, J=0

In other words, scalar magnetic potential exists in a region where J = 0.

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H = -Vm (J=0)
(3.19)

The scalar potential satisfies Laplace's equation, that is, we have

.B = 0.H = 0 = m (-Vm) = 0

or,

2 Vm = 0 (J = 0)
(3.20)

Characteristics of Scalar Magnetic Potential (Vm)

1. The negative gradient of Vm gives H, or H = -Vm

2. It exists where J = 0

3. It satisfies Laplac’s equation.

4. It is directly defined as

B
Vm = − H  dL
A

5. It has the unit of Ampere.

VECTOR MAGNETIC POTENTIAL

Vector magnetic potential exists in regions where J is present. It is defined in such a way
that its curl gives the magnetic flux density, that is,
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B  x A
(3.21)

where A = vector magnetic potential (wb/m).

It is also defined as

 0 IdL  Henry − Amp 

A  
4R  m 
(3.22)

 0 Kds
or, A , (K = current sheet) (3.23)
s
4R

 0 Jdv
or, A ,
v
4R
(3.24)

Characteristics of Vector Magnetic Potential

1. It exists even when J is present.

2. It is defined in two ways

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B x A and

 0 Jd

v
4R

3. 2A = 0 j

4. 2A = 0 if J = 0

5. Vector magnetic potential, A has applications to obtain radiation characteristics of

antennas, apertures and also to obtain radiation leakage from transmission lines,
waveguides and microwave ovens.

6. A is used to find near and far-fields of antennas.

Problem 4:

The vector magnetic potential, A due to a direct current in a conductor in free space is given
by A = (X2+ Y2) azwb /m2. Determine the magnetic field produced by the current element at
(1, 2, 3).

Solution:

A = (x2 +y2) azwb/m2

We have B =  x A

ax ay az
  
= 10 −6
x y z
0 0 (
x + y2
2
)

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 2   
= ( ) ( )
x + y 2 a x +  −  x 2 + y 2 a y   10 −6
 x  x  

( ) ( ) 
= x 2 + 2 y a x − 2 x + y 2 a y  10 −6

 
B / at (1,2,3) = (1 + 4 )ax − (2 + 4 )a y  10− 6

= (5a x − 6a y ) 10 −6

H=
1
(5a − 6a y ) 10 −6
0
x

=
1
(5a x − 6a y ) 10−6
4  10 −7

H = (3.978ax – 4.774ay), A/m

FORCE AND TORQUE ON A LOOP OR COIL

Consider Fig. 3.5 in which a rectangular loop is placed under a uniform magnetic flux density,
B.

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Fig. 3.5: Rectangular conductor loop in x-z plane

From Fig. 3.5, the force on QR due to B is

F1 =IL x B =-ILaz x Bax (3.25)

F1 = -ILBay
(3.26)

that is, the force, F1 on QR moves it downwards. Now the force on PS is

F2 = IL x B = -ILaz x Bax
(3.27)

F2 = - ILBay
(3.28)

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Force, F2 on PS moves it upwards. It may be noted that the sides PQ and

SR will not experience force as they are parallel to the field, B.

The forces on QR and PS exert a torque. This torque tends to rotate the coil about its axis.

The torque, T is nothing but a mechanical moment of force. The torque on the loop is defined
as the vector product of moment arm and force,

that is,

T  r x F, N-m (3.29)

where r = moment arm

F = force

Applying this definition to the loop considered above, the expression for

torque is given by

T = r1 x F1 + r2 x F2 (3.30)

w  w 
= a x  (− ILBa y ) +  − a x   ( ILBa y )
2  2 
(3.31)

= -BILwaz

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or, T = -BISaz
(3.32)

where S = wL = area of the loop

The torque in terms of magnetic dipole moment, m is

T = m x B, N-m
(3.34)

where m = I l w ay

= I S ay

Problem 5:

A rectangular coil is placed in a field of B = (2ax + ay)wb/m2. The coil is in y-z plane and has
dimensions of 2 m x 2 m. It carries a current of 1 A. Find the torque about the z-axis.

Solution:

m=IS an = 1 x 4ax

T = m x B = 4ax x (2ax + ay)

T = 4az, N-m
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MATERIALS IN MAGNETIC FIELDS

A material, is said to be magnetic if m 0, r = 1

A material is said to be non-magnetic if m = 0, r = 1.

The term 'Magnetism' is commonly discussed in terms of magnets with basic examples like
north pole, compass needle, horse shoe magnets and so on.

Magnetic properties are described in terms of magnetic susceptibility and relative

permeability of the materials.

Magnetic materials are classified into

1. Diamagnetic materials

2. Paramagnetic materials

3. Ferromagnetic materials

Diamagnetic Materials

A material is said to diamagnetic if its susceptibility, m < 0 and r 1.0.

Examples are copper, lead, silicon, diamond and bismuth.

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Characteristics of diamagnetic materials

➢ Magnetic fields due to the motion of orbiting electrons and spinning electrons cancel
each other.
➢ Permanent magnetic moment of each atom is zero.
➢ These materials are widely affected by magnetic field.
➢ Magnetic susceptibility m is (-)ve.
➢ r = 1
➢ B=0
➢ Most of the materials exhibit diamagnetism.
➢ They are linear magnetic materials.
➢ Diamagnetism is not temperature dependent.
➢ These materials acquire magnetisation opposite to H and hence they are called
diamagnetic materials.

Paramagnetic Materials

A material for which m> 0 and r 1 is said to be paramagnetic.

Examples are air, tungsten, potassium and platinum.

Characteristics of paramagnetic materials

 They have non-zero permanent magnetic moment.

 Magnetic fields due to orbiting and spinning electrons do not cancel each other.
 Paramagnetism is temperature dependent.
 m lies between 10-5 and 10-3.

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 These are used in MASERS.

 m> 0
 r 1
 They are linear magnetic materials.

These materials acquire magnetisation parallel to H and hence they are called paramagnetic
materials.

Ferromagnetic Materials

A material for which m>> 0, r>> 1 is said to be ferromagnetic.

Examples are iron, nickel, cobalt and their alloys.

Characteristics of ferromagnetic materials

• They exhibit large permanent dipole moment.

• m>> 0
• r>> l
• They are strongly magnetised by magnetic field.
• They retain magnetism even if the magnetic field is removed.
• They lose their ferromagnetic properties when the temperature is raised.
• If a permanent magnet made of iron is heated above its curie temperature, 770C, it
loses its magnetisation completely.
• They are non-linear magnetic materials.
• B = H does not hold good as  depends on B.
• In these materials, magnetisation is not determined by the field present. It depends on
the magnetic history of the object.

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INDUCTANCE

Inductor is a coil of wire wound according to various designs with or without a core of
magnetic material to concentrate the magnetic field.

Inductance, L In a conductor, device or circuit, an inductance is the inertial property caused

by an induced reverse voltage that opposes the flow of current when a voltage is applied. It
also opposes a sudden change in current that has been established.

Definition of Inductance, L (Henry):

The inductance, L of a conductor system is defined as the ratio of magnetic flux linkage to
the current producing the flux, that is,

N
L (Henry)
I
(3.35)

Here N = number of turns

 = flux produced

I = current in the coil

1 Henry  l wb/Amp

L is also defined as (2WH/I2), or

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2W H
L
I2
(3.36)

where, WH = energy in H produced by I.

In fact, a straight conductor carrying current has the property of inductance. Aircore
coils are wound to provide a few pico henries to a few micro henries. These are used at IF and
RF frequencies in tuning coils, interstage coupling coils and so on.

The requirements of such coils are:

• Stability of inductance under all operating conditions

• High ratio inductive reactance to effective loss resistance at the operating frequency

• Low self capacitance

• Small size and low cost
• Low temperature coefficient

STANDARD INDUCTANCE CONFIGURATIONS

Toroid

It consists of a coil wound on annular core. One side of each turn of the coil is threaded
through the ring to form a Toroid (Fig. 3.6).

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Fig. 3.6: Toroid

0 N 2S
Inductance of Toroid, L = (3.37)
2r

Here N = number of turns

r = average radius

S = cross-sectional area

NI
Magnetic field in a Toroid, H = (3.38)
2r

I is the current in the coil.

Solenoid

It is a coil of wire which has a long axial length relative to its diameter. The coil is tubular in
form. It is used to produce a known magnetic flux density along its axis.

A solenoid is also used to demonstrate electromagnetic induction. A bar of iron, which is free
to move along the axis of the coil, is usually provided for this purpose. A typical solenoid is
shown in Fig. 3.7.

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Fig. 3.7: Solenoid

The inductance, L of a solenoid is

0 N 2S
L=
l
(3.39)

l = length of solenoid

S = cross-sectional area

N = Number of turns

The magnetic field in a solenoid is

NI
H=
l
(3.40)

I is the current

----------- oo0oo -----------

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Recommended Questions:

1. Derive for force on a moving charge.

2. Derive for Lorentz force equation.

3. Derive for force between differential current elements.

4. Derive for force & torque on a closed circuit.

5. Discuss briefly about magnetic materials.

6. Discuss briefly about magnetic boundary conditions.

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MODULE 5
TIME VARYING MAGNETIC FIELDS AND MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS,
UNIFORM PLANE WAVES

Introduction

Electrostatic fields are usually produced by static electric charges whereas magnetostatic
fields are due to motion of electric charges with uniform velocity (direct current) or static
magnetic charges (magnetic poles); time-varying fields or waves are usually due to
accelerated charges or time-varying current.

➢ Stationary charges → Electrostatic fields

➢ Steady current → Magnetostatic fields

➢ Time-varying current → Electromagnetic fields (or waves)

Faraday discovered that the induced emf, Vemf (in volts), in any closed circuit is equal to the
time rate of change of the magnetic flux linkage by the circuit

This is called Faraday’s Law, and it can be expressed as

d d
Vemf = − = −N
dt dt
1.1

where N is the number of turns in the circuit and  is the flux through each turn. The negative
sign shows that the induced voltage acts in such a way as to oppose the flux producing it. This

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is known as Lenz’s Law, and it emphasizes the fact that the direction of current flow in the
circuit is such that the induced magnetic filed produced by the induced current will oppose the
original magnetic field.

Fig. 1 A circuit showing emf-producing field Ef and electrostatic field Ee

TRANSFORMER AND MOTIONAL EMFS

Having considered the connection between emf and electric field, we may examine how
Faraday's law links electric and magnetic fields. For a circuit with a single (N = 1), eq. (1.1)
becomes

d
Vemf = − N
dt
1.2

In terms of E and B, eq. (1.2) can be written as

d
Vemf =  E  dl = −
dt S
B  dS
L

1.3

where,  has been replaced by  B  dS

S
and S is the surface area of the circuit bounded by the

closed path L. It is clear from eq. (1.3) that in a time-varying situation, both electric and

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magnetic fields are present and are interrelated. Note that dl and dS in eq. (1.3) are in
accordance with the right-hand rule as well as Stokes's theorem. This should be observed in
Figure 2. The variation of flux with time as in eq. (1.1) or eq. (1.3) may be caused in three
ways:

1. By having a stationary loop in a time-varying B field

2. By having a time-varying loop area in a static B field

3. By having a time-varying loop area in a time-varying B field.

A. STATIONARY LOOP IN TIME-VARYING B FIELD (TRANSFORMER EMF)

This is the case portrayed in Figure 2 where a stationary conducting loop is in a time varying
magnetic B field. Equation (1.3) becomes

B
Vemf =  E  dl = −   dS
L S
t
1.4

Fig. 2: Induced emf due to a stationary loop in a time varying B field.

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This emf induced by the time-varying current (producing the time-varying B field) in a
stationary loop is often referred to as transformer emf in power analysis since it is due to
transformer action. By applying Stokes's theorem to the middle term in eq. (1.4), we obtain

B
 (  E )  dS = −  t  dS
S S

1.5

For the two integrals to be equal, their integrands must be equal; that is,

B
 E = −
t
1.6

This is one of the Maxwell's equations for time-varying fields. It shows that the time varying
E field is not conservative ( x E  0). This does not imply that the principles of energy
conservation are violated. The work done in taking a charge about a closed path in a time-
varying electric field, for example, is due to the energy from the time-varying magnetic field.

B. MOVING LOOP IN STATIC B FIELD (MOTIONAL EMF)

When a conducting loop is moving in a static B field, an emf is induced in the loop. We
recall from eq. (1.7) that the force on a charge moving with uniform velocity u in a magnetic
field B is

Fm= Qu x B 1.7

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We define the motional electric field Em as

Fm
Em = = uB
Q
1.8

If we consider a conducting loop, moving with uniform velocity u as consisting of a large

number of free electrons, the emf induced in the loop is

Vemf =  E m  dl =  (u  B )  dl 1.9
L L

This type of emf is called motional emf or flux-cutting emf because it is due to motional
action. It is the kind of emf found in electrical machines such as motors, generators, and
alternators.

C. MOVING LOOP IN TIME-VARYING FIELD

This is the general case in which a moving conducting loop is in a time-varying magnetic
field. Both transformer emf and motional emf are present. Combining equation 1.4 and 1.9
gives the total emf as

B
Vemf =  E  dl = −  dS +  (u  B )  dl
L S
t L

1.10

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  Em =   (u  B) 1.11

or from equations 1.6 and 1.11.

B
 E = − +   (u  B )
t
1.12

DISPLACEMENT CURRENT

For static EM fields, we recall that

xH=J 1.13

But the divergence of the curl of any vector field is identically zero.

Hence,

 . ( x H) = 0 =  . J 1.14

The continuity of current requires that

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 v
J = − 0 1.15
t

Thus eqs. 1.14 and 1.15 are obviously incompatible for time-varying conditions. We must
modify eq. 1.13 to agree with eq. 1.15. To do this, we add a term to eq. 1.13, so that it
becomes

 x H = J + Jd 1.16

where Jd is to be determined and defined. Again, the divergence of the curl of any vector is
zero. Hence:

 . ( x H) = 0 =  . J +  . Jd 1.17

In order for eq. 1.17 to agree with eq. 1.15,

 v  D
  J d = −  J = = (  D ) =  
t t t
1.18

or

D
Jd =
t
1.19

Substituting eq. 1.19 into eq. 1.15 results in

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D
 H = J +
t
1.20

This is Maxwell's equation (based on Ampere's circuit law) for a time-varying field. The term
Jd = D/t is known as displacement current density and J is the conduction current density (J
= E)3.

Fig. 3 Two surfaces of integration showing the need for Jd in Ampere’s circuit law

The insertion of Jd into eq. 1.13 was one of the major contribution of Maxwell. Without the
term Jd, electromagnetic wave propagation (radio or TV waves, for example) would be
impossible. At low frequencies, Jd is usually neglected compared with J. however, at radio
frequencies, the two terms are comparable. At the time of Maxwell, high-frequency sources
were not available and eq. 1.20 could not be verified experimentally.

Based on displacement current density, we define the displacement current as

D
I d =  J d  dS =   dS
t

1.21

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We must bear in mind that displacement current is a result of time-varying electric field. A
typical example of such current is that through a capacitor when an alternating voltage source
is applied to its plates.

PROBLEM: A parallel-plate capacitor with plate area of 5 cm2 and plate separation of 3 mm
has a voltage 50 sin 103 t V applied to its plates. Calculate the displacement current assuming
 = 2 0.

Solution:

V
D = E = 
d

D  dV
Jd = =
t d dt

Hence,

S dV dV
Id = Jd  S = =C
d dt dt

which is the same as the conduction current, given by

dQ d dD dE S dV dV
Ic = =S s =S = S = =C
dt dt dt dt d dt dt

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10 −9 5  10 −4
Id = 2    103  50 cos103 t
36 3  10 −3

= 147.4 cos 103t nA

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EQUATION OF CONTINUITY FOR TIME VARYING FIELDS

Equation of continuity in point form is

 . J = -v

where,

J = conduction current density (A/M2)

 v
P = volume charge density (C/M3),  v =
t

 = vector differential operator (1/m)

  
 = ax + ay + az
x y z

Proof: Consider a closed surface enclosing a charge Q. There exists an outward flow of
current given by

I =  J  dS
S

This is equation of continuity in integral form.

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From the principle of conservation of charge, we have

− dQ
I =  J  dS =
S
dt

From the divergence theorem, we have

I =  J  dS =  (  J )d
S v

− dQ
Thus,  (  J )d = dt

By definition, Q =   d


where , = volume charge density (C/m3)

 
 (  J )d = 
.
So, d =  −   d
 t

.  
where  =
t

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The volume integrals are equal only if their integrands are equal.

.
Thus,  . J = - 

MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS FOR STATIC EM FIELDS

Differential (or
Integral Form Remarks
Point) Form

 . D = v S D  dS =   v dv Gauss's law
v

Nonexistence of magnetic
.B=0 SB  dS = 0 monopole

B 
 x E =-
t
 E  dl = − t  B  dS
L
s
Faraday’s Law

xH=J+
D
t
L H  dl =  J  dS Ampere's circuit law
s

MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS FOR TIME VARYING FIELDS

These are basically four in number.

Maxwell's equations in differential formare given by

D
xH= +J
t

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B
xE=-
t

.D =

.B = 0

Here,

H = magnetic field strength (A/m)

D = electric flux density, (C/m2)

(D/t) = displacement electric current density (A/m2)

J = conduction current density (A/m 2)

E = electric field (V/m)

B = magnetic flux density wb/m2 or Tesla

(B/t) = time-derivative of magnetic flux density (wb/m2 -sec)

B is called magnetic current density (V/m2) or Tesla/sec

P = volume charge density (C/m3)

Maxwell's equations for time varying fields in integral form are given by

 . 
L H  dL = S  D+ J   dS

 E  dL = − B  dS
L S

 D  dS =   d
S

 B  dS = 0
S

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DEFINATIONS OF MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS

1. The first Maxwell's equation states that the magnetomotive force around a closed path
is equal to the sum of electric displacement and, conduction currents through any
surface bounded by the path.

2. The second law states that the electromotive force around a closed path is equal to the
inflow of magnetic current through any surface bounded by the path.

3. The third law states that the total electric displacement flux passing through a closed
surface (Gaussian surface) is equal to the total charge inside the surface.

4. The fourth law states that the total magnetic flux passing through any closed surface
is zero.

MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS FOR STATIC FIELDS

Maxwell’s Equations for static fields are:

  H = J   H  dL =  J  dS
L S

  E = 0   E  dL = 0
L

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  D =    D  dS =   d
S 

  B = 0   B  dS = 0
S

D
As the fields are static, all the field terms which have time derivatives are zero, that is, =
t
B
0, = 0.
t

PROOF OF MAXWELLS EQUATIONS

1. From Ampere's circuital law, we have

xH=J

Take dot product on both sides

.xH=.J

As the divergence of curl of a vector is zero,

RHS =  . J = 0

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But the equation of continuity in point form is

− 
J = = − 
t

This means that if  x H = J is true, it is resulting in  . J = 0.

As the equation of continuity is more fundamental, Ampere's circuital law

should be modified. Hence we can write

xH=J+F

Take dot product on both sides

.xH=.J+.F

that is, .xH=0=.J+.F

Substituting the value of .J from the equation of continuity in the above

expression, we get

 . F + (-) = 0

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or,  . F = -

The point form of Gauss's law is

 . D = 

or,  . D = 

From the above expressions, we get

.F=.D

The divergence of two vectors are equal only if the vectors are identical,

that is, F = D

So, xH=D+J

Hence proved.

2. According to Faraday's law,

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− d
emf =
dt

 = magnetic flux, (wb)

and by definition,

emf =  E  dL
L

− d
 E  dL =
L
dt

But  =  B  dS
S

B
 E  dL = − t  dS
L S

B
= −  B  dS , B=
S
t

Applying Stoke's theorem to LHS, we get

 E  dL = − (  E )  dS
L S

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 (  E )  dS =  − B  dS
S S

Two surface integrals are equal only if their integrands are equal,

that is,  x E = - B

Hence proved.

3. From Gauss's law in electric field, we have

 D  dS = Q =  d
S

Applying divergence theorem to LHS, we get

 D  dS = (  D)d =   d
S

Two volume integrals are equal if their integrands are equal,

that is,  . D = 

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Hence proved.

4. We have Gauss's law for magnetic fields as

 B  dS = 0
S

RHS is zero as there are no isolated magnetic charges and the magnetic flux lines are closed
loops.

Applying divergence theorem to LHS, we get

   B d = 0


or,

.B=0 Hence proved.

PROBLEM 1:

Given E = 10 sin (t - y) ay V/m, in free space, determine D, B and H.

Solution:

E = 10 sin (t - y) ay, V/m

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D = 0 E, 0 = 8.854 x 10-12 F/m

D = 100 sin (t - y) ay, C/m2

Second Maxwell’s equation is

 x E = -B

ax ay az
  
That is,   E =
x y z
0 Ey 0

    
or,   E = a x − E y  + 0 + a z  E y 
 z   x 

As Ey = 10 sin (t - z) V/m

E y
=0
x

Now,  x E becomes

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E y
 E = − ax
z

= 10  cos (t - z) ax

B
=−
t

B = −  10 cos(t − z )dt a x

10
or B= sin(t − z )a z , wb / m 2


10
sin(t − z )a z , A / m
B
and H= =
0  0

PROBLEM 2: If the electric field strength, E of an electromagnetic wave in free space is

 z 
given by E = 2 cos   t − a y V/m, find the magnetic field, H.
  0 

Solution: We have

B/t = - x E

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ax ay az
  
=
x y z
0 Ey 0

     
= − a x − E y  + a y (0) + a z  E y  
  z   x  

E y
= ax
z

2  z 
= sin   t − a x
0  0 

2  z 
B=
0  sin   t −  dt a x
0 

− 2  z 
or, B= cos  t − a x
 0  0 

B −2  z  0
or, H= = cos  t − a x 0 = = 120
0 0 0  0  0

−2  z   1 
Thus, H= cos  t − a x  0 = 
0  0    0 0 

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Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

−1  z 
H= cos  t − a x A / m
60  0 

PROBLEM 3: If the electric field strength of a radio broadcast signal at a TV receiver is

given by

E = 5.0 cos (t - y) az, V/m,

determine the displacement current density. If the same field exists in a medium whose
conductivity is given by 2.0 x 103 (mho)/cm, find the conduction current density.

Solution:

E at a TV receiver in free space

= 5.0 cos (t - y) az, V/m

Electric flux density

D = 0 E = 5 0 cos (t - y) az, V/m

The displacement current density

D
Jd = D =
t

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
= − 5 0 cos(t − y )a z 
t

Jd = -50 sin (t - y) az, V/m2

The conduction current density,

Jc =  E

 = 2.0 x 103 (mho) /cm

= 2 x 105 mho /m

Jc = 2 x 105 x 5 cos (t - y) az

Jc = 106 cos (t - y) az V/m2

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Uniform plane Waves

In practice, most generators produce voltage and currents and hence electric and
magnetic fields which vary sinusoidally with time. Further, any periodic variation can
be represented as a weight sum of fundamental and harmonic frequencies.

Therefore we consider fields having sinusoidal time variations, for example,

E = Em cos t

E = Em sin t

Here, w = 2f, f = frequency of the variation.

Therefore every field or field component varies sinusoidally, mathematically by an

additional term. Representing sinusoidal variation. For example, the electric field E
can be represented as

E ( x, y, z , t ) as
ie., E ( r , t ) ; r ( x, y, z )

Where E is the time varying field.

The time varying electric field can be equivalently represented, in terms of

corresponding phasor quantity E (r) as

E ( r , t ) = Re  E ( r ) e jt  ________ (11)

The symbol ‘tilda’ placed above the E vector represents that E is time – varying
quantity.

The phasor notation:

We consider only one component at a time, say Ex.

The phasor Ex is defined by

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Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

Ex ( r , t ) = Re  Ex ( r ) e j t  ________ (12)

| Ex |

| Ex |

t

Ex

E x ( r ) denotes Ex as a function of space (x,y,z). In general E x ( r ) is complex and

hence can be represented as a point in a complex and hence can be represented as a

point in a complex plane. (see fig) Multiplication by e jwt results in a rotation through
an angle wt measured from the angle . At t increases, the point Ex e jwt traces out a
circle with center at the origin. Its projection on the real axis varies sinusoidally with
time & we get the time-harmonically varying electric field Ex (varying sinusoidally
with time). We note that the phase of the sinusoid is determined by , the argument of
the complex number Ex.

Therefore the time varying quantity may be expressed as

Ex = Re  Ex e j e jt  ________ (13)

= Ex cos( t +  ) ________ (14)

Maxwell’s eqn. in phasor notation:

In time – harmonic form, the Maxwell’s first curl eqn. is:

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Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

D
 H = J + _______ (15)
t

using phasor notation, this eqn. becomes,


(
  Re He jt = ) t
Re  De j t  + Re  Je j t  ________ (16)

The diff. Operator  & Re part operator may be interchanged to get,

 j t 
(
Re   He j t = Re 
 t
)
De j t + Re 
 Je( 

)
 j D
= Re  e j t   j t 
 + Re  Je 

(
Re    H − j D − J e j t 
 =0 )
This relation is valid for all t. Thus we get

  H = J + j D ________ (17)

This phasor form can be obtained from time-varying form by replacing each time
derivative by

  
jw  ie., is to be replaced by   
 t 

For the sinusoidal time variations, the Maxwell’s equation may be expressed in phasor
form as:

(17)   H = J + j D  L
H dL = (J +
S
)
j D ds

(18)   E = − j B  L
E dl =  − j B ds
S

(19)  D=  S
D ds = 
V
V dV

(20)  B=0  S
B ds = 0

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Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

The continuity eqn., contained within these is,

 J = − j  S
J ds = −  j dv _______ (21)
vol

The constitutive eqn. retain their forms:

D = E
B = H ____ (22)
J =E

For sinusoidal time variations, the wave equations become

 2
E = − 2   E ( for electric field ) 


_________ (23)
2
H = − 2   H ( for electric field )

Vector Helmholtz eqn.

In a conducting medium, these become

 2 E + ( 2   − j )E = 0
 2 H + ( 2   − j ) H = 0
________ (24)

Wave propagation in a loss less medium:

In phasor form, the wave eqn. for VPW is

2 E 
= − 2   E   E y
2

x 2
; = −  2 E y _______ (25)
 x 2

= − 2 E 
 E y = C1 e − j  x + C2 e j  x _______ (26)

C1& C2 are arbitrary constants.

The corresponding time varying field is

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Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

E y ( x, t ) = Re  E y ( x ) e j t 

= Re C1 e j ( t −  z ) + C2 e j ( t +  z )  ______ (27)

= C1 cos ( t −  z ) + C2 cos ( t +  z ) ______ (28)

When C1 and C2 are real.

Therefore we note that, in a homogeneous, lossless medium, the assumption of

sinusoidal time variations results in a space variation which is also sinusoidal.

Eqn. (27) and (28) represent sum of two waves traveling in opposite directions.

If C1 = C2 , the two traveling waves combine to form a simple standing wave which
does not progress.

If we rewrite eqn. (28) with Ey as a fn of (x-t),


we get  =


Let us identify some point in the waveform and observe its velocity; this point is
( t −  x ) = a constant

 ' a ' − t 
 
dx  x   

Then = = = =
dt  t  

This velocity is called phase velocity, the velocity of a phase point in the wave.

 is called the phase shift constant of the wave.

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Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

Wavelength: These distance over which the sinusoidal waveform passes through a
full cycle of 2 radians

ie.,

 = 2
2 2
 = or  =
 
But
 2 
 =  = =
  f
or
 = f ; f in H Z
 1
: = = 0
 

Wave propagation in a conducting medium

We have,
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Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

2 E −  2 E = 0
Where  2
= − 2   + j
= j ( + j )

 is called the propagation constant is, in general, complex.

Therefore,  =  + j

 = Attenuation constant

 = phase shift constant.

The eqn. for UPW of electric field strength is

2 E
=  2E
x 2

One possible solution is

E ( x ) = E0e− x

Therefore in time varying form, we get

E ( x, t ) = Re  E e − x e j t 
= e− x Re  E0e jwt 

This eqn. shown that a up wave traveling in the +x direction and attenuated by a
factor e− x .

The phase shift factor

2
=


and velocity = f  =


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Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

 = Real part of  = RP j ( + jt )

  2 
  1 + 2 2 −1 
2    

=
  2 
 =  1 + 2 2 + 1
2    


Conductors and dielectrics:

We have the phasor form of the 1st Maxwell’s curl eqn.

 H =  E + j  E = J c + J disp

where J c =  E = conduction current density ( A/m2 )

J disp = j  E = displacement current density ( A/m2 )

J cond 
 =
J disp  

We can choose a demarcation between dielectrics and conductors;


=1



*  1 is conductor. Cu: 3.5*108 @ 30 GHz



*  1 is dielectric. Mica: 0.0002 @ audio and RF


* For good conductors, & are independent of freq.

* For most dialectics, & are function of freq.


* is relatively constant over frequency range of interest


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Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

Therefore dielectric “ constant “


* dissipation factor D


if D is small, dissipation factor is practically as the power factor of the dielectric.

PF = sin

 = tan-1D

PF & D difference by <1% when their values are less than 0.15.

Example 11.1

a) Express

E y = 100 cos ( 2 108 t − 0.5 z + 300 ) v / m as a phasor

E y = Re 100 e j 2 10 t − 0.5 z + 300 

6

 

Drop Re and suppress ejwt term to get phasor

Therefore phasor form of Eys = 100e−0.5 z +30

0

Whereas Ey is real, Eys is in general complex.

Note: 0.5z is in radians; 300 in degrees.

Example 11.2

Given

Es = 100 300 ax
ˆ + 20  − 500 ay
ˆ + 40 2100 az
ˆ ,V / m

find its time varying form representation

Let us rewrite Es as

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Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

ˆ + 20e − j 50 ay
Es = 100e j 30 ax ˆ + 40e j 210 az
0 0 0
ˆ .V / m
 E = Re  Es e j t 
j ( t + 300 ) j ( t − 500 ) j ( t + 2100 ) 
= Re 100e + 20e + 40e V /m
 
E = 100 cos ( t + 300 ) 20 cos ( t − 500 ) + 40 cos ( t + 2100 ) V / m

None of the amplitudes or phase angles in this are expressed as a function of x,y
or z.

Even if so, the procedure is still effective.

b) Consider
− ( 0.1+ j 20 ) z
H s = 20e ˆ A/ m
ax
−( 0.1+ j 20 ) z
H ( t ) = Re  20e ˆ
ax e j t 
 
= 20e −0.1z cos ( t − 20 z ) ax ˆ A/ m
E x = E x ( x, y , z )
Ex 
Note : consider = Re  Ex ( x, y, z ) e j t 
t t
= Re  j Ex e j t 

Therefore taking the partial derivative of any field quantity wrt time is equivalent to
multiplying the corresponding phasor by j .

Example

Given

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Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

E0 s = ( 500 − 400 ay ˆ ) e − j 0.4 x V / m

ˆ + ( 200 − j 600 ) az
Find ( a ) 
( b ) E at ( 2, 3,1) at t = 0
( c ) E at ( 2, 3,1) at t = 10 ns.
( d ) E at ( 3, 4, 2 ) at t = 20 ns.

a) From given data,

 = 0.4 =   0 0
0.4  3  108
 = = 120  106
−9
10
4  10−7 
36 −9
f = 19.1 106 Hz

b) Given

Es = ( 500 − 400 ay ˆ ) e − j 0.4 x

ˆ + ( 200 − j 600 ) az

= 500e − j 40 e − j 0.4 x ay
ˆ + 632.456e − j 71.565 e − j 0.4 x az
0
ˆ
(
− j 0.4 x + 400 )ˆ (
− j 0.4 x + 71.5650 )ˆ
= 500e ay + 632.456e az
( ) ˆ − j ( 0.4 x + 71.565 )
E ( t ) = 500 Re e + j t e ˆ 
− j 0.4 x + 400 0

ay + 632.456 e jt e az
 
= 500 cos ( t − 0.4 x − 400 ) ay
ˆ + 632.456 cos ( t − 0.4 x − 71.565 ) az
ˆ
E at ( 2,3,1) t = 0 = 500 cos ( −0.4 x − 400 ) ay
ˆ + 632.456 ( −0.4 x − 71.565 ) az
ˆ
= 36.297 ay
ˆ − 291.076 az
ˆ V /m

c)

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Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

E at ( t = 10 ns ) at ( 2, 3,1)
= 500 cos (120  106  10  10 −9 − 0.4  2 − 400 ) ay
ˆ
+ 632.456 cos (120  106  10  10 −9 − 0.4  2 − 71.5650 ) az
ˆ
= 477.823 ay
ˆ + 417.473 az
ˆ V /m

d)

at t = 20 ns,

E at ( 2,3,1)
= 438.736 ay
ˆ + 631.644 az
ˆ V /m

D 11.2:

Given H s = ( 2 − 400 ax ˆ ) e − j 0.07 z

ˆ − 320 ay A/ m for a UPW traveling in free

space. Find

(a)  (b) Hx at p(1,2,3) at t = 31 ns. (c) H at t=0 at the

origin.

(a) we have p = 0.07 (e− j  z term)

   = 0.07
0.07
= = 0.07  3  108 = 21.0  106 rad / sec

= 21.0  106 rad / sec

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Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

(b)


H ( t ) = Re  2 e − j 40 e − j 0.07 z ax
0
ˆ  e j t
ˆ − 3 e j 20 e − j 0.07 z ay
0

 
= 2 cos ( t − 0.07 z − 400 ) ax
ˆ − 3 cos ( t − 0.07 z + 20 0 ) ay
ˆ
H x (t ) = 2 cos ( t − 0.07 z − 400 )
H x (t ) at p (1, 2, 3)
= 2 cos ( 2.1106 t − 0.21 − 400 )
At t = 31n sec; = 2 cos ( 2.1106  3110 −9 − 0.21 − 400 )
= 2 cos ( 65110 −3 − 0.21 − 400 )
= 1.9333 A/ m

(c)

H ( t ) at t = 0 = 2 cos ( −0.07 z − 0.7 ) ax

ˆ − 3cos ( −0.7 z + 0.35 ) ay
ˆ
H ( t ) = 2 cos ( 0.7 ) ax
ˆ − 3cos ( 0.3) ay
ˆ
= 1.53ax
ˆ − 2.82ay
ˆ
= 3.20666 A/ m

In free space,

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Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

E ( z , t ) = 120 sin ( t −  z ) ay
ˆ V /m
find H ( z, t )
Ey
we have = − = −120
Hx
Ey 120
Hx = − = − sin ( t −  z ) ay
ˆ
120 120
1
= − sin ( t −  z )

1
H ( z, t ) = − sin ( t −  z ) ax
ˆ


Problem 3. J&B
Non uniform plans waves also can exist under special conditions. Show that the
function


F = e − z sin ( x − t )

1 2 F
satisfies the wave equation  2 F =
c 2 t 2

provided the wave velocity is given by

  2c 2 
 = e 1 +
  2 

Ans:

From the given eqn. for F, we note that F is a function of x and z,

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Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

2 F 2 F
 F = 2
+
x 2 y 2
F  
= e − z cos ( x −  t )
x  
 F − z         2 e − z
2
= −e     sin ( x − t ) = − F
x 2 
      2

F 
= −e − z sin ( x − t )
z 
2 F 
= +  2 − z
e sin ( x − t ) =  2 F
z 2


 2 
 F =  − 2 +  2  F
2

  
dF   
= e − z   ( − ) cos ( x −  t )
dt   
d 2F − z    
= − e   ( − )( − ) sin ( x −  t )
dt 2  
= − 2 F

The given wave equation is

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Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

1 2 F
2 F =
c 2 t 2
 2 
  2 − 2 F = 2
 
1
( − ) F2

 c
2 2
 2 − = −
2 c2
2 2
 + 2 = 2
2

c 
 2
2 =
2
2 + 2
c
 2c 2 c2
 2
= =
 2c 2 +  2  2c 2
1+
2
c
or  =
 2c 2
1+
2

Example

The electric field intensity of a uniform plane wave in air has a magnitude of 754
V/m and is in the z direction. If the wave has a wave length  = 2m and
propagating in the y direction.

Find

(i) Frequency and  when the field has the form A cos ( t −  z ) .

(ii) Find an expression for H .

In air or free space,

 = c = 3108 m / sec

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Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

(i)

e 3  108
f = = m / sec = 1.5  108 Hz = 150 MHz
 2m
2 2
 = = = 3.14 rad / m
 2m
 Ez = 754 cos ( 2  150  106 t −  y )

(ii)

For a wave propagating in the +y direction,

Ez E
= = − x
Hz Hz

For the given wave,

Ez = 754 V / m; Ex = 0
754 754
 H x = 754   = = A/ m
120 377
 H = 2 cos ( 2 150 106 t −  y ) ax
ˆ A/ m

Example

find  for copper having  = 5.8*107 (/m) at 50Hz, 3MHz, 30GHz.

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Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

2 1
 = =
  f 
1 1 1 1
=   
 4  10 −7
5.8 10 7
f
1 1 1 66  10 −3
=  = =
4  5.8 f
2
23.2 2 f f
66  10 −3
(i ) = = 9.3459 10 −3 m
50
66  10 −3
(ii ) = = 3.8105  10 −5 m
3  10 6

66  10 −3
(iii ) = = 3.8105 10 −7 m
3  106

Wave Propagation in a loss less medium:

Definition of uniform plane wave in Phasor form:

In phasor form, the uniform plane wave is defined as one for which the equiphase
surface is also an equiamplitude surface, it is a uniform plane wave.

For a uniform plane wave having no variations in x and y directions, the wave
equation in phasor form may be expressed as

2 E 2 E
= − 2   E 0r = −  2 E ________ (i )
Z 2
Z 2

where  =    . Let us consider eqn.(i) for, the Ey component, we get

2 Ey
= − 2 Ey
Z 2

E y has a solution of the form,

E y = C1e − j  z + C2 e + j  z ________ (2)

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Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

Where C1 and C2 are arbitrary complex constants. The corresponding time varying
form of E y is

E y ( z , t ) = Re E y ( z ) e j t 

= Re ( C1 e − j  z + C2 e j  z )  e jt  _______ (3)

If C1 and C2 are real, the result of real part extraction operation is,

 E y ( z , t ) = C1 cos ( t −  z ) + C2 cos ( t +  z ) _______ (4)

From (3) we note that, in a homogeneous lossless medium, sinusoidal time

variation results in space variations which is also sinusoidal.

Equations (3) and (4) represent sum of two waves traveling in opposite directions.

If C1 = C2, the two wave combine to form a standing wave which does not
progress.

Phase velocity and wavelength:

The wave velocity can easily obtained when we rewrite Ey as a function and
( z   t ) , as in eqn. (4). This shows that


= ________(5)


In phasor form, identifying a some reference point on the waveform and observing
its velocity may obtain the same result. For a wave traveling in the +Z direction,
this point is given by t −  z = a constant.

dz 
 = = , as in eqn. (5)
dt 

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Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

This velocity of some point on the sinusoidal waveform is called the phase
velocity.  is called the phase-shift constant and is a measure of phase shift in
radians per unit length.

Wavelength: Wavelength is defined as that distance over which the sinusoidal

waveform passes through a full cycle of 2 radius.

ie.,

 = 2
2 2 2  1
 = = = = ; = ________(7)
    2 f   f 
 = f  , f in Hz ________(8)

For the value of  given in eqn. (1), the phase velocity is,

  1
= = = = 0 _______(9)
   
0 = C ; C = 3 108 m / sec

Wave propagation in conducting medium:

The wave eqn. written in the form of Helmholtz eqn. is

 2 E −  2 E = 0 _______(10)
where  2 = ( − 2   − j ) = j ( + j ) _______(11)
.

, the propagation constant is complex =  + j _________(12)

We have, for the uniform plane wave traveling in the z direction, the electric field
E must satisfy

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Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

2 E
=  2 E _______(13)
Z 2

This equation has a possible solution

E ( Z ) = E0e− Z _______(14)

In time varying form this is becomes

E ( z, t ) = Re E0 e − Z e jt  _______(15)

= e
− z

Re E0 e
j ( t −  z )
 ________(16)
This is the equation of a wave traveling in the +Z direction and attenuated by a
factor e− Z . The phase shift factor and the wavelength phase, velocity, as in the
lossless case, are given by

2 
=  = f =
 

The propagation constant

We have,  = j ( + j ) ________(11)

 2 = ( + j  ) =  2 + 2 j −  2 = j −  2   ________(17)

2

 2 −  2 = − 2   ;  2 =  2 +  2   ________(18)
 = 

 = ________(19)
2

Therefore (19) in (18) gives:

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Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

2
  
 = 2
 +  
2

 4 
4  4 − 4  2 2   − 2  2 2 = 0
 2  2 2
 −    −
4 2 2
=0
4
 2     4  2 2 +  2  2 2
 = 2

2
  2 2 
       1 +
2 2

 2 
=
2
 2    2 2 
= 1  1 + 2 2 
2    

  2 
 =  1 + 2 
+ 1 _________(20)
2   2
 
and

  2 
 = 1 + 2 2  − 1 ___________(21)
2    

We choose some reference point on the wave, the cosine function,(say a rest). The
value of the wave ie., the cosine is an integer multiple of 2 at erest.

 k0 z = 2m at mth erest.

Now let us fix our position on the wave as this mth erest and observe time
variation at this position, nothing that the entire cosine argument is the same
multiple of 2 for all time in order to keep track of the point.

ie.,  t − k0  0 z = 2m =  ( t − z / c )

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Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

Thus at t increases, position z must also increase to satisfy eqn. ( ). Thus the
wave erest (and the entire wave moves in a +ve direction) with a speed given by
the above eqn.

Similarly, eqn. ( ) having a cosine argument ( t +  0 z ) describes a wave that

moves in the negative direction (as + increases z must decrease to keep the
argument constant). These two waves are called the traveling waves.

Let us further consider only +ve z traveling wave:

We have

iˆ ˆj kˆ
  
=0 =0
x y z
Ex Ey 0

  Es = − j H s
 E y  Ex
i− + j + kˆ0 = − j ( iH 0 x + j + by )
 z  z
Exs
 = − j H 0 y
z
0
 H oy = −
1
j
(E z0 )
e − jk0 z = Ex 0
0
e − j 0 z

0
 H y ( z , t ) = Ex 0 cos ( t −  0 z )
0
Ex 
= = ;  = 0 = 377 = 120
Hy 

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Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

Ey and Hx are in phase in time and space. The UPW is called so because  is
uniform thought any plane Z = constant.

Energy flow is in +Z direction.

E and H are perpendicular to the direction of propagation; both lie in a plane that
is transverse to the direction of propagation. Therefore also called a TEM wave.

11.1. The electric field amplitude of a UPW in the âz direction is 250 V/m. If E
ˆ and  = 1m rad/sec, find (i) f
= Ex ax (ii)  (iii) period (iv) amplitude of H

 2 f 106
f = = = = 159.155 KHz
2 2 2
C
= = 1.88495 km
f
1
period = = 6.283  s
f
E
amplitude of H y = x =  = 120
Hy
Ex 250
Hy = = = 0.6631 A / m
120 120

11.2. Given H s = ( 2 − 400 ax ˆ ) e − j 0.07 z A / m

ˆ − 3200 ay for a certain UPW

traveling in free space.

Find (i), (ii)Hx at p(1,2,3) at t = 31ns and (iii) H at t = 0 at the orign.

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Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

Wave propagation in dielectrics:

For an isotopic and homogeneous medium, the wave equation becomes

 2 Es = −k 2 s
k =   = k0  r r =  0  r r

For Ex component

We have

d 2 Exs
2
= −k 2 Exs for Ex comp. Of electric field wave traveling in Z –
dz
direction.

k can be complex one of the solutions of this eqn. is,

jk =  + j 
Exs = Ex 0 e − z e − j  z

Therefore its time varying part becomes,

E xs = E x 0 e − z cos ( t −  z )

This is UPW that propagates in the +Z direction with phase constant  but losing its
amplitude with increasing Z ( e − z ) . Thus the general effect of a complex valued k

is to yield a traveling wave that changes its amplitude with distance.

If  is +ve  = attenuation coefficient if  is +ve wave decays

If  is -ve  = gain coefficient wave grows

In passive media,  is +ve  is measured in repers per meter

In amplifiers (lasers)  is –ve.

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Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

Wave propagation in a conducting medium for medium for time-harmonic

fields:

(Fields with sinusoidal time variations)

For sinusoidal time variations, the electric field for lossless medium ( = 0)
becomes

 2 E = − 2   E

In a conducting medium, the wave eqn. becomes for sinusoidal time variations:

 2 E + ( 2   − j ) E = 0

Problem:

Using Maxwell’s eqn. (1) show that

.D = 0 in a conductor

if ohm’s law and sinusoidal time variations are assumed. When ohm’s law and
sinusoidal time variations are assumed, the first Maxwell’s curl equation is

 H =  E + j  E

Taking divergence on both sides, we get,

( )
   H =   E + j   E = 0
 E ( + j ) = 0
 
or  D  + j  = 0
 
 , &  are

constants and of finite values and  0

 D=0

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Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT Page 155

Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

Wave Propagation in a loss less medium:

Definition of uniform plane wave in Phasor form:

In phasor form, the uniform plane wave is defined as one for which the equiphase
surface is also an equiamplitude surface, it is a uniform plane wave.

For a uniform plane wave having no variations in x and y directions, the wave
equation in phasor form may be expressed as

2 E 2 E
= − 2   E 0r = −  2 E ________ (i )
Z 2
Z 2

where  =    . Let us consider eqn.(i) for, the Ey component, we get

2 Ey
= − 2 Ey
Z 2

E y has a solution of the form,

E y = C1e − j  z + C2 e + j  z ________ (2)

Where C1 and C2 are arbitrary complex constants. The corresponding time varying
form of E y is

E y ( z , t ) = Re E y ( z ) e j t 

= Re ( C1 e − j  z + C2 e j  z )  e jt  _______ (3)

If C1 and C2 are real, the result of real part extraction operation is,

 E y ( z , t ) = C1 cos ( t −  z ) + C2 cos ( t +  z ) _______ (4)

From (3) we note that, in a homogeneous lossless medium, sinusoidal time

variation results in space variations which is also sinusoidal.

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Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

Equations (3) and (4) represent sum of two waves traveling in opposite directions.

If C1 = C2, the two wave combine to form a standing wave which does not
progress.

Phase velocity and wavelength:

The wave velocity can easily obtained when we rewrite Ey as a function and
( z   t ) , as in eqn. (4). This shows that


= ________(5)


In phasor form, identifying a some reference point on the waveform and observing
its velocity may obtain the same result. For a wave traveling in the +Z direction,
this point is given by t −  z = a constant.

dz 
 = = , as in eqn. (5)
dt 

This velocity of some point on the sinusoidal waveform is called the phase
velocity.  is called the phase-shift constant and is a measure of phase shift in
radians per unit length.

Wavelength: Wavelength is defined as that distance over which the sinusoidal

waveform passes through a full cycle of 2 radius.

ie.,

 = 2
2 2 2  1
 = = = = ; = ________(7)
    2 f   f 
 = f  , f in Hz ________(8)

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Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

For the value of  given in eqn. (1), the phase velocity is,

  1
= = = = 0 _______(9)
   
0 = C ; C = 3 108 m / sec

Wave propagation in conducting medium:

The wave eqn. written in the form of Helmholtz eqn. is

 2 E −  2 E = 0 _______(10)
where  2 = ( − 2   − j ) = j ( + j ) _______(11)
.

, the propagation constant is complex =  + j _________(12)

We have, for the uniform plane wave traveling in the z direction, the electric field
E must satisfy

2 E
=  2 E _______(13)
Z 2

This equation has a possible solution

E ( Z ) = E0e− Z _______(14)

In time varying form this is becomes

E ( z, t ) = Re E0 e − Z e jt  _______(15)

= e
− z

Re E0 e
j ( t −  z )
 ________(16)

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Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

This is the equation of a wave traveling in the +Z direction and attenuated by a

factor e− Z . The phase shift factor and the wavelength phase, velocity, as in the
lossless case, are given by

2 
=  = f =
 

The propagation constant

We have,  = j ( + j ) ________(11)

 2 = ( + j  ) =  2 + 2 j −  2 = j −  2   ________(17)

2

 2 −  2 = − 2   ;  2 =  2 +  2   ________(18)
 = 

 = ________(19)
2

Therefore (19) in (18) gives:

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Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

2
  
 =
2
 +  
2

 4 
4  4 − 4  2 2   − 2  2 2 = 0
 2  2 2
 4 −  2 2   − =0
4
 2     4  2 2 +  2  2 2
2 =
2
  2 2 
 2    2    1 + 
 2 
=
2
  
2
 2 2 
= 1  1 + 2 2 
2    

  2 
 =  + + 1 _________(20)
 2 2 
1
2 
and

  2 
 =  1 + 2 2  − 1 ___________(21)
2    

We choose some reference point on the wave, the cosine function,(say a rest). The
value of the wave ie., the cosine is an integer multiple of 2 at erest.

 k0 z = 2m at mth erest.

Now let us fix our position on the wave as this mth erest and observe time
variation at this position, nothing that the entire cosine argument is the same
multiple of 2 for all time in order to keep track of the point.

ie.,  t − k0  0 z = 2m =  ( t − z / c )

Thus at t increases, position z must also increase to satisfy eqn. ( ). Thus the
wave erest (and the entire wave moves in a +ve direction) with a speed given by
the above eqn.

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Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

Similarly, eqn. ( ) having a cosine argument ( t +  0 z ) describes a wave that

moves in the negative direction (as + increases z must decrease to keep the
argument constant). These two waves are called the traveling waves.

Let us further consider only +ve z traveling wave:

We have

iˆ ˆj kˆ
  
=0 =0
x y z
Ex Ey 0

  Es = − j H s
 E y  Ex
i− + j + kˆ0 = − j ( iH 0 x + j + by )
 z  z
Exs
 = − j H 0 y
z
0
 H oy = −
1
j
(E z0 )
e − jk0 z = Ex 0
0
e − j 0 z

0
 H y ( z , t ) = Ex 0 cos ( t −  0 z )
0
Ex 
= = ;  = 0 = 377 = 120
Hy 

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Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

Ey and Hx are in phase in time and space. The UPW is called so because  is
uniform thought any plane Z = constant.

Energy flow is in +Z direction.

E and H are perpendicular to the direction of propagation; both lie in a plane that
is transverse to the direction of propagation. Therefore also called a TEM wave.

11.1. The electric field amplitude of a UPW in the âz direction is 250 V/m. If E
ˆ and  = 1m rad/sec, find (i) f
= Ex ax (ii)  (iii) period (iv) amplitude of H

 2 f 106
f = = = = 159.155 KHz
2 2 2
C
= = 1.88495 km
f
1
period = = 6.283  s
f
E
amplitude of H y = x =  = 120
Hy
Ex 250
Hy = = = 0.6631 A / m
120 120

11.3. Given H s = ( 2 − 400 ax ˆ ) e − j 0.07 z A / m

ˆ − 3200 ay for a certain UPW

traveling in free space.

Find (i), (ii)Hx at p(1,2,3) at t = 31ns and (iii) H at t = 0 at the orign.

Wave propagation in dielectrics:

For an isotopic and homogeneous medium, the wave equation becomes

Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT Page 162
Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

 2 Es = −k 2 s
k =   = k0  r r =  0  r r

For Ex component

We have

d 2 Exs
2
= −k 2 Exs for Ex comp. Of electric field wave traveling in Z –
dz
direction.

k can be complex one of the solutions of this eqn. is,

jk =  + j 
Exs = Ex 0 e − z e − j  z

Therefore its time varying part becomes,

E xs = E x 0 e − z cos ( t −  z )

This is UPW that propagates in the +Z direction with phase constant  but losing its
amplitude with increasing Z ( e − z ) . Thus the general effect of a complex valued k

is to yield a traveling wave that changes its amplitude with distance.

If  is +ve  = attenuation coefficient if  is +ve wave decays

If  is -ve  = gain coefficient wave grows

In passive media,  is +ve  is measured in repers per meter

In amplifiers (lasers)  is –ve.

Wave propagation in a conducting medium for medium for time-harmonic

fields:

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Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

(Fields with sinusoidal time variations)

For sinusoidal time variations, the electric field for lossless medium ( = 0)
becomes

 2 E = − 2   E

In a conducting medium, the wave eqn. becomes for sinusoidal time variations:

 2 E + ( 2   − j ) E = 0

Problem:

Using Maxwell’s eqn. (1) show that

.D = 0 in a conductor

if ohm’s law and sinusoidal time variations are assumed. When ohm’s law and
sinusoidal time variations are assumed, the first Maxwell’s curl equation is

 H =  E + j  E

Taking divergence on both sides, we get,

( )
   H =   E + j   E = 0
 E ( + j ) = 0
 
or  D  + j  = 0
 
 , &  are

constants and of finite values and  0

 D=0

POLARISATION:

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Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

It shows the time varying behavior of the electric field strength vector at some point in
space.

Consider of a UPW traveling along Z direction with E and H vectors lying in the x-
y plane.

• If Ey = 0 and only Ex is present, the wave is said to be polarized in the x-

direction.
• If Ex = 0 and only Ey is present, the wave is said to be polarized in the y-
direction.
Therefore the direction of E is the direction of polarization

• If both Ex and Ey are present and are in phase, then the resultant electric

field E has a direction that depends on the relative magnitudes of Ex and Ey .

Ey
The angle which this resultant direction makes with the x axis is tan-1 ; and this
Ex
angle will be constant with time.

(a) Linear polarization:

In all the above three cases, the direction of the resultant vector is constant with time
and the wave is said to be linearly polarized.

If Ex and Ey are not in phase ie., they reach their maxima at different instances of
time, then the direction of the resultant electric vector will vary with time. In this case

it can be shown that the locus of the end point of the resultant E will be an ellipse and
the wave is said to be elliptically polarized.

In the particular case where Ex and Ey have equal magnitudes and a 900 phase

difference, the locus of the resultant E is a circle and the wave is circularly polarized.

Linear Polarisation:

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Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

Consider the phasor form of the electric field of a UPW traveling in the Z-direction:
E  (Z ) = E0 e − j  z

Its time varying or instanious time form is

E ( Z , t ) = Re E0 e − j  z e j t 

The wave is traveling in Z-direction.

Therefore Ez lies in the x-y plane. In general, E0 is a complex vector ie., a vector

whose components are complex numbers.

Therefore we can write E0 as,

E0 = Er + jE0 i

Where E0 and E0i are real vectors having, in general, different directions.

At some point in space, (say z = 0) the resultant time varying electric field is

E ( 0, t ) = Re ( E 0r )
+ j E0 i e j t 
= E0 r cos  t − E0 i sin  t

Therefore E not only changes its magnitude but also changes its direction as time
varies.

Circular Polarisation:

Here the x and y components of the electric field vector are equal in magnitude.
If Ey leads Ex by 900 and Ex and Ey have the same amplitudes,

Ie., Ex = E y , we have, E = ( ax ˆ ) E0
ˆ + j ay

The corresponding time varying version is,

Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT Page 166
Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

E ( 0, t ) =  ax ˆ sin  t  E0
ˆ cos  t − ay
 Ex = E0 cos  t
and E y = E0 sin  t
 Ex2 + E y2 = E02

Which shows that the end point of E0 ( 0, t ) traces a circle of radius E0 as time

progresses.

Therefore the wave is said to the circularly polarized. Further we see that the sense or
direction of rotation is that of a left handed screw advancing in the Z-direction ( ie., in
the direction of propagation). Then this wave is said to be left circularly polarized.

Similar remarks hold for a right-circularly polarized wave represented by the complex
vector,

E = ( ax ˆ ) E0
ˆ + j ay

It is apparent that a reversal of the sense of rotation may be obtained by a 180 0 phase
shift applied either to the x component of the electric field.

Elliptical Polarisation:

Here x and y components of the electric field differ in amplitudes ( Ex  E y ) .

Assume that Ey leads Ex by 900.

Then,

ˆ A + j ay
E0ax ˆ B

Where A and B are +ve real constants.

Its time varying form is

Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT Page 167

Electromagnetic Waves 21EC54

E ( 0, t ) = axA
ˆ cos  t − ayB
ˆ sin  t
 Ex = A cos  t
E y = − B sin  t
Ex2 E y2
 + =1
A2 B2

Thus the end point of the E ( 0, t ) vector traces out an ellipse and the wave is

elliptically polarized; the sense of polarization is left-handed.

Elliptical polarization is a more general form of polarization. The polarization is

completely specified by the orientation and axial ratio of the polarization ellipse and y
the sense in which the end point of the electric field moves around the ellipse.

Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT Page 168