UNIT 2 DATA PRESENTATION USING TABLES & CHARTS

Objectives
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
 Define statistics
 Classify data
 Tabulate data
 Graph data
 Explain good and bad data presentation

Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Statistics for Projects
2.3 Classification of Data
2.4 Tabulation of Data
2.5 Graphical Presentation of Data
2.6 Good & Bad Data Presentation
2.7 Keywords
2.8 Summary

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The purpose of putting data into tables, charts and graphs is two-fold. First, it is a visual way to look
at the data and see what happened and make interpretations. Second, it is usually the best way to
show the data to others. Reading lots of numbers in the text puts people to sleep and does little to
convey information. From an educational standpoint, students at most levels are required to learn
various data presentation methods, and learning to graph data one has collected oneself is
considerably more engaging and motivating than learning to graph using data that is given by the
teacher.

It is likely that there will be occasions when you have numerical information that you want to include
in your work, for example figures and other statistics from secondary sources (such as books, journal
articles or newspaper reports); the results of experiments; or data that you have collected and
analysed as part of a project or dissertation. Such information can be used to illustrate an argument
or convey complex or detailed information in a concise manner.
There are three main methods of presenting such information:

 It can be incorporated into the main body of text;

 It can be presented separately as a table; or
 It can be used to construct a graph or chart.

Determining which of these methods is the most appropriate depends upon the amount of data you
are dealing with and their complexity. The choice about whether to use text, tables or graphs requires
careful consideration if you are to ensure that your reader or audience understands your argument
and is not left struggling to interpret data that are poorly presented or in an inappropriate format. It
is crucial to remember that when using a table or graph the associated text should describe what the
data reveal about the topic; you should not need to describe the information again in words.

2.2 STATISTICS FOR PROJECTS

“Statistics are the classified facts representing the conditions of people in a State…specially those facts
which can be stated in number or in table of numbers or in any tabular or classified arrangement.” –
Webster

Strictly speaking, statistics are data. The data need not be a result of analysis. Statistics are any
collection of data. We often hear, “What are the statistics on that event?” In other words, what are
the numbers that are meaningful for understanding? Perhaps the most useful definition of statistics
is that statistics is the “methods and techniques whereby collections of data are analyzed to obtain
understanding and knowledge.” Statistical methods are by and large methods of approximation and
estimation. As such, statistical methods fit very well with project management since the methods of
project management are often approximate and based only on estimates.

Informational data, of course, are quite useful to project managers and to members of the project
management team for estimating and forecasting, measuring progress, assessing value earned,
quantifying risk, and calculating other numerical phenomena of importance to the project. Statistical
methods provide some of the tools for reducing such data to meaningful information which the team
uses to make decisions.

Notably, statistics can be individual pieces of information (plural) or the study of data analysis
(singular). The term statistics can be singular or plural, depending on how it is used.
2.3 CLASSIFICATION OF DATA

The process of arranging data into homogenous group or classes according to some common
characteristics present in the data is called classification. For example, the process of sorting letters in
a post office, the letters are classified according to the cities and further arranged according to streets.

There are four important bases of classification:

Qualitative Base: When the data are classified according to some quality or attributes such as
sex, religion, literacy, intelligence etc.

Quantitative Base: When the data are classified by quantitative characteristics like heights,
weights, ages, income etc.

Geographical Base: When the data are classified by geographical regions or location, like
states, provinces, cities, countries etc.

Chronological or Temporal Base: When the data are classified or arranged by their time of
occurrence, such as years, months, weeks, days etc. For example, time series data.

There are two types of classification:

One-way Classification: If we classify observed data keeping in view single characteristic, this
type of classification is known as one-way classification. For example, the population of world
may be classified by religion as Muslim, Christians etc.

Two-way Classification: If we consider two characteristics at a time in order to classify the

observed data then we are doing two way classifications. For example, the population of world
may be classified by Religion and Sex.

2.4 TABULATION OF DATA

Tables and figures are used in most fields of study to provide a visual presentation of important
information to the reader. They are used to organize the statistical results of a study, to list important
tabulated information, and to allow the reader a visual method of comparing related items. Tables
offer a way to detail information that would be difficult to describe in the text.

Be selective as to how many tables are included in the total document. Determine how much data the
reader needs to comprehend the material, and then decide if the information would be better
presented in the text or as a table. A table containing only a few numbers is unnecessary, whereas a
table containing too much information may not be understandable. Tables should be easy to read and
interpret. If at all possible, combine tables that repeat data, so that results are presented only once.

Keep a consistency to all of your tables throughout your document. All tables and figures in your
document should use a similar format, with the results organized in a comparable fashion. Use the
same name and scale in all tables, figures, and the text that use the same variable.

In a final manuscript such as a thesis or dissertation, adjust the column headings or spacing between
columns so the width of the table fits appropriately between the margins. Fit all of one table on one
page. Reduce the data, change the type size, or decrease line spacing to make it fit. A short table may
be on a page with text as long as it follows the first mention of it. Each long table is on a separate page
immediately after it is mentioned in the text. If the fit and appearance would be improved, turn the
table sideways (landscape orientation, with the top of table toward the spine) on the page.

Each table and figure must be discussed in the text. An informative table will supplement but will not
duplicate the text. In the text, discuss only the most important parts of the table. Make sure the table
can be understood by itself without the accompanying text; however, it is never independent of the
text. There must be a reference in the text to the table.
Table 1.1 an Example of a Table in APA Format for Displaying Simple Descriptive Data
Means and Standard Deviations on the Measure of Self-Direction in Learning as a Function of Age in
Adult Students
Self-directed learning inventory score
Age group N M SD
20–34 15 65 3.5

35–40 22 88 6.3

50–64 14 79 5.6

65–79 7 56 7.1

80+ --a -- --
Note. The maximum score is 100.
a
No participants were found for the over 80 group.

Table 1.1 is an example of an APA table for displaying simple descriptive data collected in a study. It
also appears in correct relation to the text of the document; that is, it is inserted below the place that
the table is first mentioned either on the same page, if it will fit, or the next page. The major parts of
a table are the number, the title, the headings, the body, and the notes as discussed below:

Table Numbering: Arabic numerals are used to number tables in the order in which they
appear in the text. Do NOT write in the text “the table on page 17” or “the table above or
below.” The correct method would be to refer to the table number like this: (see Table 1) or
“Table 1 shows…” Left-justify the table number (see Table 1.1). In an article, each table should
be numbered sequentially in the order of appearance. Do not use suffix letters or numbers
with the table numbers in articles. However, in a book, tables may be numbered within
chapters; for example, Table 7.1. If the table appears in an appendix, identify it with the letter
of the appendix capitalized, followed by the table number; for instance, Table 1.3 is the third
table in Appendix C.

Table Titles: Include the variables, the groups on whom the data were collected, the
subgroups, and the nature of the statistic reported. The table title and headings should
concisely describe what is contained in the table. Abbreviations that appear in the body of the
table can sometimes be explained in the title; however, it may be more appropriate to use a
general note (see also comments on Table Headings). The title must be italicized. Standard
APA format for journal submission requires double spacing throughout. However, tables in
student papers may be partially single spaced for better presentation.

Table Headings: Headings are used to explain the organization of the table. You may use
abbreviations in the headings; however, include a note as to their meaning if you use
mnemonics, variable names, and scale acronyms. Standard abbreviations and symbols for
nontechnical terms can be used without explanation (e.g., no. for number or % for percent).
Have precise title, column headings, and row labels that are accurate and brief. Each column
must have a heading, including the stub column, or leftmost column. Its heading is referred to
as the stubhead. The stub column usually lists the significant independent variables or the
levels of the variable, as in Table 1.1.

The column heads cover one column, and the column spanners cover two or more columns—
each with its own column head (see Table 1.1 and Fig. 1.1). Headings stacked in this manner
are called decked heads. This is a good way to eliminate repetition in column headings but try
to avoid using more than two levels of decked heads. Column heads, column spanners, and
stubheads should all be singular, unless referring to a group (e.g., children). Table spanners,
which cover the entire table, may be plural. Use sentence capitalization in all headings.

Notice that there are no vertical lines in an APA style table. The horizontal lines can be added
by using a “draw” feature or a “borders” feature for tables in the computer word processor,
or they could be drawn in by hand if typed. If translating from an SPSS table or box, the vertical
lines must be removed.

The Body of the Table: The body contains the actual data being displayed. Round numbers
improve the readability and clarity more than precise numbers with several decimal places. A
good guideline is to report two digits more than the raw data. A reader can compare numbers
down a column more easily than across a row. Column and row averages can provide a visual
focus that allows the reader to inspect the data easily without cluttering the table. If a cell
cannot be filled because the information is not applicable, then leave it blank. If it cannot be
 filled because the information could not be obtained, or was not reported, then insert a dash
and explain the dash with a note to the table.

Notes to a Table: Notes are often used with tables. There are three different forms of notes
used with tables: (a) to eliminate repetition in the body of the table, (b) to elaborate on the
information contained in a particular cell, or (c) to indicate statistical significance:

A general note provides information relating to the table as a whole, including explanations
of abbreviations used:

Note. This could be used to indicate if the table came from another source.

A specific note makes a reference to a specific row, column, or cell of the table and is given a
superscript lowercase letter, beginning with the letter “a”: an = 50

Specific notes are identified in the body with a superscript.

A probability note is to be included when one or more inferential statistics have been computed
and there isn’t a column showing the probability, p. Asterisk(s) indicate the statistical significance
of findings presented within the table. Try to be consistent across all tables in a paper. The
important thing is to use the fewest asterisks for the largest p value. It is common to use one
asterisk for .05 and two for .01. For example:

*p < .05. **p < .01.

Notes should be listed with general notes first, then specific notes, and concluded with
probability notes, without indentation. They may be single spaced for better
presentation. Explain all uses of dashes and parentheses. Abbreviations for technical
terms, group names, and those of a similar nature must be explained in a note to the
table.

Frequency Distribution: The frequency (f) of a particular observation is the number of times
the observation occurs in the data. The distribution of a variable is the pattern of frequencies
of the observation. Frequency distributions can be portrayed as frequency tables, histograms,
or polygons, or ogives. Sometimes, frequency distributions can show either the actual number
of observations falling in each range or the percentage of observations, and then such
frequency distribution is also called as relative frequency distribution. Frequency distribution
tables can be used for both quantitative and qualitative data. Quantitative data may use
discrete varibales that do not assume any fractional value or continuous variables that assume
fractional values. Notably, class intervals are to be used for continuous variables only.

The steps of constructing frequency distribution for continuous variables are explained below:
Determine range: Range is the difference between the largest and smallest items. It is
calculated by subtracting the smallest observations from the largest and provides an
indication of statistical dispersion. Roughly, for a population, the range is more than twice
the standard deviation.

Select number of classes: Usually, we want to construct a display that has between 5 and 15
intervals inclusive. For example, Class Interval be taken as 0-5, 5-10, 10-15, 15-20, 20-25,
… ; or 0-10, 10-20, 20-30, 30-40, … Note that in the class 0-5, you need to include all items
greater than or equal to ‘0’, but less than ‘5’. If you have decided the class intervals to be
between 5 and 15, you may still want to compute the width of class interval scientifically
upon proceeding to the next step.

Compute class intervals (width)

Fixing the number of classes, i.e. k
k = 1 + 3.322 log10n, where n = No. of observations or Sample Size
So, if you have 10 observations, the number of classes should be, i.e.k = 1 + 3.322 =
4.322 ≈ 4. Note that the formula of ‘k’ is suitable for classes between 4 and 20. So, for
number of classes between 4 and 20,
Class Interval i = Range / (1 + 3.322 log10N)
That is, say i = (5500 – 500) / (1 + 3.332 log10100)
i ≈ 650
Therefore, for 100 observations, where 5500 is the maximum observed item, and 500, is the
minimum observed item, then class interval happens to be 650.

Determine class boundaries (limits): It is about judgementally determining lower class

boundaries after having the knowledge of width of the class interval.

 Compute class midpoints

 Count observations and assign to classes

Further, there can be two types of classes: Inclusive type and Exclusive type. For most of our
statistical calculations for mean, median, and mode, we require exclusive type classes.
 Following formula can be used to convert inclusive type into exclusive type.
Upper Class Boundary = Upper Class Limit + ½d
Lower Class Boundary = Lower Class Limit – ½d
Correction Factor = ½d

Class interval presented as inclusive type (Discrete class) as 30 – 39, 40 – 49, 50 – 59, and so
on may mean as shown below due to correction factor, ½d = ½(40 – 39) = 0.5.
30 – 39 i.e. 29.5 ≤ X < 39.5
40 – 49 i.e. 39.5 ≤ X < 49.5
50 – 59 i.e. 49.5 ≤ X < 59.5

Exclusive type (Continuous class) has been explained below:

15 – 20 i.e. 15 ≤ X < 20
20 – 25 i.e. 20 ≤ X < 25
25 – 30 i.e. 25 ≤ X < 30

Note that you can apply all formulas for Measures of Central Tendency and/or Measures of
Dispersion provided the continuous data has been classified and tabulated as Exclusive type
only.

2.5 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF DATA

Graphs are a good means of describing, exploring or summarising numerical data because the use of
a visual image can simplify complex information and help to highlight patterns and trends in the data.
They are a particularly effective way of presenting a large amount of data but can also be used instead
of a table to present smaller datasets. There are many different graph types to choose from and a
critical issue is to ensure that the graph type selected is the most appropriate for the data. Having
done this, it is then essential to ensure that the design and presentation of the graph help the reader
or audience interpret the data.

A summary of the types of data that can be presented in the most common types of graphs is provided
below and this is followed by some general guidelines for designing readily understandable graphs.
The graphs we will be considering in this course are all two-dimensional representations of data that
could also be shown using a frequency distribution. We will learn to create histograms, bar graphs,
frequency polygons, and ogive.

The horizontal axis or x-axis represents the variable being presented. This axis is referred to as the
abscissa of the graph and sometimes as the category axis.

Fig. 2.1

The vertical axis or y-axis is to be referred as the ordinate or the value axis. In the graphs, we will be
considering the ordinate and will show the frequency with which each category of the variable occurs.
This axis should be labeled as frequency and also have a scale, the values of the scale being
represented by tick marks. By convention, the length of the ordinate is three-fourths the length of the
abscissa. This is referred to as the three-fourths rule in graph construction. Each graph should also
have a title that indicates the contents of the graph.

Histogram
Histogram is drawn as a series of vertical rectangles on the x-axis (horizontal) with class interval
depicted as the width of the rectangle, and height indicating the frequency of the class interval. It
can be drawn based on equal or unequal class intervals. If class intervals are the same or equal,
then equal-based rectangles can be drawn, whereas if class intervals are different, the width of
rectangle can be proportionately drawn. Note that histograms can be preferred to be drawn only
for continuous frequency distribution. However, if the classes are not continuous, then class-
intervals need to be changed to class boundaries so that the rectangles can be drawn on the
continuous classes so obtained.
 Marks Inclusive Series Conversion in Exclusive No. of students
Series (frequency)
10-19 9.5-19.5 10
20-29 19.5-29.5 12
30-39 29.5-39.5 18
40-49 39.5-49.5 30
50-59 49.5-59.5 16
60-69 59.5-69.5 6
70-79 69.5-79.5 8

Following steps need to be followed to graph equal-width histogram:

Step 1: Organize your data into a frequency table. Ensure that class intervals are in Exclusive
series.
Step 2: Create a graph. Mark the data range intervals on the x-axis (horizontal axis) with no
space between the categories. Mark frequency on the y-axis (vertical axis), also in equal
intervals.
Step 3: Plot your data. For each data range category, draw a horizontal line at the appropriate
frequency marker. Then, create a vertical bar for that category reaching up to the marked
frequency or percent. Repeat this for each data range category.

Following steps need to be followed for finding mode graphically using histogram:
 Fig. 2.2

Step1: Identify the highest rectangle. This corresponds to the modal class of the series.
Step2: Join the top corners of the modal rectangle with the immediately next corners of the
adjacent rectangles. The two lines must be cutting each other. This might be difficult to
visualise so look at the graph given above. Let the point where the joining lines cut each
other be ‘A’. Draw a perpendicular line from point A onto the x-axis. The point ‘P’ where
the perpendicular will meet the x-axis will give the mode.
In this case the value of point P turns out to be 44.12.
Following steps need to be followed to graph unequal-width histogram:
Weight (kg) 32-34 34-40 40-44 44-48 48-52 52-60 60-70
Frequency 1 9 10 12 17 12 9

Now let us see how to draw the unequal-width histogram.

Remember:
Frequency (area) = Width x Height
Therefore,
Frequency
Frequency Density ( Height ) 
Width
So, we have

Weight (kg) 32-34 34-40 40-44 44-48 48-52 52-60 60-70

Frequency 1 9 10 12 17 12 9
 Width of bar 2 6 4 4 4 8 10
Height of bar 0.5 1.5 2.5 3 4.25 1.5 0.9

The histogram obtained is shown below:

4
Frequency Density

Mode
Mean
25% Median 75%
0
32 34 40 44 48 52 60 70
Weight

Fig. 2.3

If the columns in a histogram are all the same width, you can compare the frequencies of the
classes by comparing the heights of the columns. The tallest column once again indicates the
modal class.
If the columns are of different widths, you must compare the areas of the frequencies. You do not
always need to work out the actual areas. For example, if two columns are about the same height
and one is twice the width, you can see that the wider column has about twice the area. In other
words, if the columns are about the same height and the class interval is doubled, then the
frequency will be about doubled. The column with the largest area indicates the modal class.
Bar Chart
Bar charts are often used to present data in a pictorial form to illustrate the information collected
and highlight important points. They are especially useful to depict monthly car production,
monthly sales, quarterly profit, average annual rainfall etc. A bar chart provides useful comparison
of data over time. The height of each bar shows the total amount of the item of interest for each
month (or year).
 Bar charts are drawn with parallel bars placed vertically (or horizontally). The width of each bar
and the spacing between the bars are kept the same to avoid giving a misleading representation.
The height of the bar is drawn to scale to represent the amount of the item.
The yearly production of cars by a particular company is recorded as follows:

To draw a bar chart to display this information, we consider

Thus, bars of equal width whose heights are in the ratio of 4:5:8 will represent the company's
yearly production.

Fig. 2.4

Frequency Polygon
Frequency polygon is another graphical presentation of the frequency data. In case of discrete
frequency distribution, the frequency polygon is drawn by plotting the variable values on the
horizontal x-axis and the frequencies on the vertical y-axis, and joining the points so obtained by
straight lines connecting these points. In case of grouped or continuous frequency distribution,
 frequency polygon can be drawn by connecting the mid points of class intervals by a straight line
either after drawing the histogram or without the help of histogram, simply by joining the points
obtained as mid-point of class interval versus the corresponding frequency. Hence, it can be seen
that a histogram is a two-dimensional representation of data of frequency polygon; a frequency
polygon is only a line diagram. Polygon can be effectively used for comparison of two statistic or
two distributions, whereas in case of histograms, either two histograms have to be drawn
separately or the rectangles have to be drawn in two different columns on the same class-interval,
which is not easy to comprehend.

To create a frequency polygon, start just as for histograms, by choosing a class interval. Then draw
an X-axis representing the values of the scores in your data. Mark the middle of each class interval
with a tick mark, and label it with the middle value represented by the class. Draw the Y-axis to
indicate the frequency of each class. Place a point in the middle of each class interval at the height
corresponding to its frequency. Finally, connect the points. You should include one class interval
below the lowest value in your data and one above the highest value. The graph will then touch
the X-axis on both sides.

Fig. 2.5

Ogive
Frequency curves are the modified form of the Frequency Polygon. If we join the vertices of the
Frequency Polygon through a free hand smooth curve, it becomes a frequency curve. The basic
purpose of drawing the frequency curve is to eliminate any random fluctuation in the data. Most
commonly, cumulative frequency curves are called as ogives.

There are two type of ogives – ‘less than ogive’, and ‘more than ogive’. Less than ogive is obtained
by plotting the cumulative frequencies of ‘less than’ type against the upper boundary of the class
interval, which is going to be an increasing curve from left to right and would take the shape of an
elongated ‘S’. More than ogive is obtained by plotting ‘more than’ frequencies against the lower
boundaries of the class interval, which shall be a gradually decreasing curve slopping downwards
from right to left and would be elongated ‘S’ shape upside down. (See figures below.) Importantly,
‘more than ogive’ and ‘less than ogive’ intersect at the median of the distribution, which is how
graphically the value of median can be obtained.

Ogives can be used to find the median of a grouped data. The median of grouped data can be
obtained graphically by plotting the Ogives of the less than type and more than type and locate
the point of intersection of both the Ogives. The x-coordinate of the point of intersection of two
Ogives gives the median of the grouped data.

This table represents the cumulative frequency distribution of the ‘more than’ type.
This table represents the cumulative frequency distribution of the ‘less than’ type.

Fig. 2.6

An ogive representing a cumulative frequency distribution of the ‘more than’ type is called a ‘more
than’ ogive.

Fig. 2.7

An ogive representing a cumulative frequency distribution of the ‘less than’ type, is called as ‘less
than’ ogive.
 Fig. 2.8

Pie Chart
Pie charts are useful to compare different parts of a whole amount. They are often used to present
financial information. For example, a company’s expenditure can be shown to be the sum of its
parts including different expense categories such as salaries, borrowing interest, taxation, and
general running costs (i.e. rent, electricity, heating etc).
A pie chart is a circular chart in which the circle is divided into sectors. Each sector visually
represents an item in a data set to match the amount of the item as a percentage or fraction of
the total data set.

Consider a family's weekly expenditure on its house mortgage, food, and fuel is as follows:
 Let us draw a pie chart to display the information.

To draw a pie chart, divide the circle into 100 percentage parts. Then allocate the number of
percentage parts required for each item.

Fig. 2.9

Line Graph
A line graph is often used to represent a set of data values in which a quantity varies with time.
These graphs are useful for finding trends, i.e. finding a general pattern in data sets including
temperature, sales, employment, company profit, or cost over a period of time.

Now consider that a cylinder of liquid was heated. Its temperature was recorded at ten-minute
intervals as shown in the following table:
 Time in Minutes Temperature (in 0C)
0 5
10 26
20 45
30 61
40 74
50 80
60 85

Let us (a) draw a line graph to represent this information and (b) make an estimate the
temperature of the cylinder after 25 minutes of heating.

Fig. 2.10

b. The estimated temperature after 25 minutes of heating is 52°C.

To choose an appropriate statistical graph, consider the set of data values. In general, use the
following guidelines:
 Use a bar chart if you are not looking for trends (or patterns) over time and if the
items (or categories) are not parts of a whole.
  Use a pie chart if you need to compare different parts of a whole, if there is no time
involved, and if there are not too many items (or categories).
 Use a line graph if you need to see how a quantity has changed over time. Line graphs
enable us to find trends (or patterns) over time.

2.6 GOOD & BAD DATA PRESENTATION

An example of poor practice in the presentation of data in tables:

This is a poor example because:

 The table lacks a title
 The source of the information is not provided
 Row titles straddle two lines
 Each cell is bounded as if in a spreadsheet
 The alphabetical listing of regions results in a non-numerical ordering of data down the
columns
An example of better practice in the presentation of data in tables:
Now let us discuss some general guidelines to help you design your graph in a way that will help
the reader or audience interpret the data you are presenting. Let us first understand the
components of a graph.
The different components of a graph are identified in the diagram and this is followed by a
description that highlights some of the specific design and presentation issues related to each
component.

Fig. 2.11

Chart area: The chart area defines the boundary of all the elements related to the graph
including the plot itself and any headings and explanatory text. It emphasises that these
elements need to be considered together and that they are separate from the surrounding
text. The boundary of the chart area can be imaginary rather than defined by a frame.
Plot area: The plot area is the region containing the data. It is bounded by the x- and y-axes
to the bottom and left side. The frame can be completed by drawing around the top and right
sides too, but this is not essential.

The x-axis: The x-axis is the horizontal line that defines the base of the plot area. Depending
upon which type of graph is being considered different locations on the x -axis represent either
different categories (such as years) or different positions along a numerical scale (such as
temperature or income). Details are placed just below the x-axis and an axis label is usually
provided to clarify the units of measurement. However, if the category details are mentioned
somewhere else such as in the title of the graph, or are very obvious (such as years) then it is
not necessary to include an axis label.

The y-axis: The y-axis is the vertical line that usually defines the left side of the plot area, but
if more than one variable is being plotted on the graph then the vertical lines on both the left
and right sides of the plot area may be used as y-axes. The y-axis always has a numerical scale
and is used to show values such as counts, frequencies or percentages. Intervals on the scale
are marked by numbers and tick marks, indicating the major divisions, to the left of the y-axis.
Like the x-axis, the y-axis usually has a label that provides details of the units of measurement.
The label is often written vertically to follow the line of the y-axis but can instead be placed
just above the top of the y-axis.

Gridlines: Gridlines are the vertical and horizontal lines placed within the plot area to help
read values from the graph. The gridlines should be subtle and not detract from the data. In
the case of simple graphs it is not always necessary to include them. Gridlines are usually
drawn at regular intervals based on the major divisions of the y-axis scale.

Title: All graphs should include a title that summarises what the graph shows. The title should
identify what is being described (e.g. speeding offences detected by automatic cameras) and
the units of measurements (e.g. percentages, total number, frequency). The title may be
placed within the chart area, as in the example above, or above or below the chart.

Reference to source of information: If the graph you are presenting is based on data from
another publication then you should acknowledge the source of the original data somewhere
within the chart area or title. If however, the graph is based on data that you have collected
yourself then there is usually no need to provide details of the information source since this
is usually clear from the accompanying text.
 Use of colour and shading: In bar charts, histograms, and pie charts, shading and colour are
often used to distinguish the areas representing different categories. The choice of which
colour combinations and shading patterns to use is ultimately a personal matter but there are
some general points that will help ensure your chart is easy to interpret.

3D effects: Many PC-based graphing packages offer the possibility of producing graphs and
charts with a 3D effect. However, in general the use of 3D makes it much more difficult to
interpret the data presented in chart or graph because the false depth and perspective that
are added to the chart make reading and comparing values extremely difficult.
Obviously, diagrams and graphs are very useful tools for visual display of information, but they
have certain limitations, as enumerated below.
 Graphs and diagrams should not be treated as substitute for other forms of presentation.
These may not be the ideal choice under all circumstances.
 These depict only general idea of data and only limited and approximate information. They
are more appealing to the layman, but may not be so for analysis.
 These are subjective in nature, and hence interpretations are different.
 For large number of observations, it is not an easy and clear presentation.

2.7 KEY WORDS

 Statistics – A branch of mathematics that transforms numbers into useful information for
decision makers for understanding the numbers by reducing them to meaningful patterns.
 Discrete / Ungrouped Data – Used when variables would not assume any fractional values for
limited number of observations where values are largely repeated.
 Continuous / Grouped Data – Used when variables would assume any fractional values for
very large number of observations where values are largely repeated.
 Frequency Table – Contains counts of observations in specified categories
 Histogram – Useful for plotting continuous frequency distributions
 Bar Chart – Useful for comparing data over time
 Frequency Polygon – Useful for comparison of two statistic or two distributions
 Ogive – Useful to find the value of median graphically
 Pie Chart – Useful to compare different parts of a whole amount in finance
 Line Graph – Useful for finding trends
2.8 SUMMARY

In this chapter, we have understood data through its classification, tabulation and graphical
presentations, which can be helpful in making statistical meaning out of voluminous and
unorganized raw data. This chapter has also dealt with the good and bad presentation of data for
the benefit of students of project management. The manner in which project data is analyzed and
presented can affect how the information is perceived by the decision makers. The examples
presented in this section illustrate how basic data presentation techniques can be used to convey
important information for project control, say, what were quarterly expenditures on the project
for past 2 years.