Chapter 4

Radio Propagation and Propagation Path Loss Model

Asst. Prof. Bijaya Shrestha

Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
nec
Introduction to Radio Wave
Propagation
The mobile radio channel limits the performance of
wireless communication systems.
The transmission path between the transmitter and
the receiver can vary from simple line-of-sight to the
one obstructed by buildings, mountains, and foliage.
Radio channels are extremely random and do not offer
easy analysis.
The signal level can fade rapdily with the mobile speed
over small distance.
The mobile radio channel is modeled normally on the
basis of measurement results.
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Introduction to Radio Wave
Propagation
The radio waves may undergo reflection, diffraction,
and scattering.
The presence of high-rise buildings causes severe
diffraction loss.
Due to multiple reflections from various objects, the
electromagnetic waves travel along different paths of
varying lengths causing multipath fading at a specific
location.
The strengths of the waves decrease as the distance
between the transmitter and receiver increases.
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Introduction to Radio Wave
Propagation
Large-Scale Propagation Models:
Are the propagation models that predict the mean signal
strength for an arbitrary transmitter-receiver (T-R) separation
distance (several hundreds or thousands of meters).
Are useful in estimating the radio coverage area of a
transmitter.
Small-Scale (or fading) Propagation Models:
Are the propagation models that characterize the rapid
fluctuations of the received signal strength over very short
travel distances (a few wavelengths) or short time durations
(on the order of seconds).

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Introduction to Radio Wave
Propagation

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Large-Scale Path Loss

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Free Space Propagation Model
The free space propagation model is used to predict
received signal strength when the transmitter and
receiver have a clear, unobstructed line-of-sight path
between them.
Satellite communication systems and microwave line-
of-sight radio links typically undergo free space
propagation.
The free space model predicts that received power
decays as a function of the T-R separation distance
raised to some power.

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Free Space Propagation Model
The free space power received by a receiver antenna
which is separated from a radiating transmitter
antenna by a distance d, is given by the Friis free space
equation,

where Pt is the transmitted power, Pr(d) is the received

power, Gt is the transmitter antenn gain, Gr is the
received antenna gain, d is the T-R separation distance
in meters, L is the system loss factor not related to
propagation (L≥1), and λ is the wavelength in meters.

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Free Space Propagation Model
The gain of an antenna is related to its effective
aperture, Ae, by

The effective aperture is related to the physical size of

the antenna.
The miscellaneous losses L are usually due to
transmission line attenuation, filter losses, and
antenna losses in the communication system.
The Friis free space equation shows that the received
power falls off as the square of the T-R separation
distance.
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Free Space Propagation Model
An isotropic radiator is an ideal antenna which
radiates power with unit gain uniformly in all
directions, and is often used to reference antenna gains
in wireless systems.
The effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) is
defined as
EIRP=PtGt

and represents the maximum radiated power available

from a transmitter in the direction of maximum
antenna gain, as compared to an istropic radiator.
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Free Space Propagation Model
In practice, effective radiated power (ERP) is used
instead of EIRP to denote the maximum radiated
power as compared to a half-wave dipole antenna
(instead of an istropic antenna).
Antenna gains are given in units of dBi (dB gain with
respect to an isotropic antenna) or dBd (dB gain with
respect to a half-wave dipole).
The path loss, which represents signal attenuation, is
defined as the difference (in dB) between the effective
transmitted power and the received power.

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Free Space Propagation Model
The path loss for the free space model is given by

The Friis free space model is only a valid predictor of Pr

for values of d which are in the far-field of the
transmitting antenna.
The far-field, or Fraunhofer region, of a transmitting
antenna is defined as the region beyond the far-field
distance df.
The Fraunhofer distance is given by

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Free Space Propagation Model
where D is the largest physical linear dimension of the
antenna.
To be in the far-field region, df must satisfy
df >> D and df >> λ
Large-scale propagation models use a close-in
distance, d0, as a known received power reference
point.
The received power in free space at a distance greater
than d0 is given by

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Numerical
If a transmitter produces 50 W of power, express the
transmit power in units of (a) dBm, and (b) dBW. If 50 W is
applied to a unity gain antenna with a 900 MHz carrier
frequency, find the received power in dBm at a free space
distance of 100 m from the antenna. What is Pr(10 km)?
Assume unity gain for the receiver antenna.
Solution:
Pt(dBm)=10log[Pt(mW)]=10log(50×103)=47 dBm
Pt(dBW)=10log[Pt(W)]=10log(50)=17 dBW

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The Three Basic Propagation
Mechanisms
1. Reflection
2. Diffraction
3. Scattering

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Reflection
Reflection occurs when a propagating electromagnetic
wave impinges upon an object which has very large
dimensions when compared to the wavelength of the
propagating wave.
Reflections occur from the surface of the earth and
from buildings and walls.
When a radio wave propagating in one medium
impinges upon another medium having different
electrical properties, the wave is partially reflected and
partially transmitted.

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Reflection
If the plane wave is incident on a perfect dielectric, part of
the energy is transmitted into the second medium and part
of the energy is reflected back into the first medium, and
there is no loss of energy in absorption.
If the second medium is a perfect conductor, then all
incident energy is reflected back into the first medium
without loss of energy.
The electric field intensity of the reflected and transmitted
waves may be related to the incident wave in the medium
of origin through the Fresnel reflection coefficient Г.

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Reflection from Dielectrics
When an electromagnetic wave is incident at an angle θi with the
plane of boundary between two dielectric media, part of the energy
is reflected back to the first medium at an angle θr, and part of the
energy is transmitted (refracted) into the second medium at an
angle θr.

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Reflection from Dielectrics
The plane of incidence is defined as the plane
containing the incident, reflected, and transmitted
rays.
In Figure (a), the E-field polarization is parallel with
the plane of incidence and in Figure (b) the E-field
polarization perpendicular to the plane of incidence.
For a lossless diectric material, ε=ε0εr and for a lossy
dielectric, some power is absorbed and its diectric
constant is given by
ε=ε0εr -jε’= ε=ε0εr –jσ/(2πf)
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Reflection from Dielectrics
The reflection coefficients for the two cases of parallel
and perpendicular E-field polarization at the
boundary of two electrics are given by

where η is the intrinsic impedance given by

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Reflection from Dielectrics
According to Snell’s law,

Also, note the following:

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Reflection from Perfect Conductors
Since electromagnetic energy cannot pass through a
perfect conductor a plane wave incident on a
conductor has all of its energy reflected.
The reflected wave must be equal in magnitude to the
incident wave.

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Ground Reflection (Two-Ray)
Model
The received signal
is the sum of two signals
one from LOS path
and one from reflected
path.
The received power can be derived to be

And, the path loss will be

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Diffraction
Diffraction occurs when the radio path between the
transmitter and receiver is obstructed by a surface that
has sharp irregularities (edges).
The secondary waves resulting from the obstructing
surface are present throughout the space and even
behind the obstacle.
At high frequencies, diffraction, like reflection,
depends on the geometry of the object, as well as the
amplitude, phase, and polarization of the incident
wave at the point of scattering.

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Diffraction
Diffraction allows radio signals to propagate around the
curved surface of the earth, beyond the horizon, and to
propagate behind obstructions.
Although the received field strength decreases rapidly as a
receiver moves deeper into the obstructed (shadowed)
region, the diffraction field still exists and often has
sufficient strength to produce a useful signal.
The phenomenon of diffraction can be explained by
Huygen’s principle, which states that all points on a
wavefront can be considered as point sources for the
production of secondary wavelets, and that these wavelets
combine to produce a new wavefront in the direction of
propagation.

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Diffraction
Diffraction is caused by the propagation of secondary
wavelets into a shadowed region.
The field strength of a diffracted wave in the shadowed
region is the vector sum of the electric field
components of all the secondary wavelets in the space
around the obstacle.

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Knife-Edge Diffraction Model
When shadowing is caused by a single object such as a
hill or mountain, the attenuation caused by diffraction
can be estimated by treating the obstruction as a
diffracting knife edge.

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Knife-Edge Diffraction Model
From the figure, it is apparent that the wave
propagating from the transmitter to the receiver via
the knife edge travels a longer distance than if a direct
LOS path existed.
Assumptions: h << d1, h << d2, h >> λ, α and β are
small, h and h’ are virtually identical, α = β + γ.
The difference between the direct path and the
diffracted path, called the excess path length (∆), can
be obtained from the geometry as

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Knife-Edge Diffraction Model
The corresponding phase difference is given by

Also,

Fresnel-Kirchoff diffraction parameter v is given by

Also,

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Knife-Edge Diffraction Model
Therfore, the phase difference between a direct LOS
path and diffracted path is a function of height and
position of the obstruction , as well as the transmitter
and receiver location.
The field strength at point R is a vector sum of the
fields due to all of the secondary Huygens’s sources in
the plane above the knife edge.
The diffraction gain Gd(dB) due to the presence of a
knife edge, as compared to the free space E-field, is the
function of v and calculated as

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Knife-Edge Diffraction Model

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Scattering
Scattering occurs when the medium through which the
wave travels consists of objects with dimensions that are
small compared to the wavelength, and where the number
of obstacles per unit volume is large.
Scattered waves are produced by rough surfaces, small
objects, or by other irregularities in the channel.
In practice, foliage, street signs, and lamp posts induce
scattering in a mobile communications system.
When a radio wave impinges on a rough surface, the
reflected energy is spread out (diffused) in all directions
due to scattering, thereby providing additional radio
energy at a receiver.

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Link Budget Design
Most of the radio propagation models are based on the
combination of analytical and empirical (actual field
measurements) methods.
To use the empirical model desgined for a particular
frequency and/or environment at another frequency
and/or environment, we need additional measured
data.
By using path loss models to estimate the received
signal level as a function of distance, it becomes
possible to predict the SNR for a mobile
communication system.

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Link Budget Design
Log-Distance Path Loss Model
Both theoretical and measurement-based propagation
models indicate that average received signal power
decreases logarithmically with distance.
The average large-scale path loss for an arbitrary T-R
separation is expressed as a function of distance by using
a path loss exponent n ,given as

where n is the path loss exponent which indicates the

rate at which the path loss increases with distance.

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Link Budget Design
Log-Distance Path Loss Model (cont…)
The value of n depends on the specific propagation
environment.

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Link Budget Design
Log-Normal Shadowing
The log-distance path loss model does not consider the
fact that the surrounding environmental clutter may be
vastly different at two different locations having the
same T-R separation.
Measurements have shown that at any value of d, the
path loss at a particular location is random and
distributed log-normally about the mean distance-
dependent value. That is,

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Link Budget Design
Log-Normal Shadowing (contd…)
And,

where Xσ is a zero-mean Gaussian distributed random

variable (in dB) with standard deviation σ (in dB).
The log-normal distribution describes the random shadowing
effects which occur over a large number of measurement
locations which have the same T-R separation, but have
different levels of clutter on the propagation path.
This phenomenon is referred to as log-normal shadowing.

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Link Budget Design
Log-Normal Shadowing (contd…)
Since PL(d) is a random variable with a normal
distribution in dB about the distance-dependent mean,
so is Pr(d), and the Q-function or error function (erf )
may be used to determine the probability that the
received signal level will exceed (or fall below) a
particular level.
The Q-function is defined as

Also,

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Link Budget Design
Log-Normal Shadowing (contd…)
The probability that the received signal level will exceed
a certain value γ can be calculated from the cumulative
density function as

And, the probability that the received signal level will be

below γ is given by

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Outdoor Propagation Models
The terrain profile, the presence of trees, buildings,
and other obstacles must be taken into account while
estimating the path loss.
There are different propagation models to predict the
signal strength at a particular receiving point.
The models vary in their approach, complexity, and
accuracy
The commonly used outdoor propagation models are:
Longely-Rice Model
Okumura Model
Hata Model
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Longley-Rice Model
The Longley-Rice model is applicable to point-to-
point communication systems in the frequency range
from 40 MHz to 100 GHz, over different kinds of
terrain.
The median transmission loss is predicted using the
path geometry of the terrain profile and the
refractivity of the troposphere.
Two-ray ground reflection model is used to predict
signal strengths within the radio horizon.
Diffraction losses over isolated obstacles are estimated
using the Fresnel-Kirchoff knife-edge models.
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Longley-Rice Model
The shortcomings of Longley-Rice model are
It does not provide a way of determining corrections due
to environmental factors in the immediate vicinity of
the mobile receiver, or consider correction factors to
account for the effects of buildings and foliage.
Multipath is not considered.

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Okumura Model
Okumura model is one of the most widely used models for signal
prediction in urban areas.
This model is applicable for frequencies in the range 150 MHz to 1920
MHz (extended upto 3000 MHz) and distances of 1 km to 100 km.
It can be used for base station antenna heights ranging from 30 m to
1000 m.
The model can be expressed as

where L50 is the 50th percentila (i.e., median) value of propagation path
loss, LF is the free spacce propagation loss, Amu is the median
attenuation relative to free space, G(hte) is the base station antenna
height gain factor, G(hre) is the mobile antenna height gain factor, and
GAREA is the gain due to the type of environment.

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Okumura Model

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Okumura Model

This model is wholly based on measured data and does not

provide any analytical explanation.
Okumura’s model is considered to be among the simplest and
best in terms of accuracy in path loss prediction for mobile radio
systems in cluttered environments.
The major disadvantage with the model is its slow response to
rapid changes in terrain, therefore the model is fairly good in
urban and suburban area, but not as good in rural areas.
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Example
Calculate the mean path loss using Okumura’s model for d = 50
km, hte = 100 m, hre = 10 m in a suburban environment. If the
base station transmitter radiates an EIRP of 1 kW at a carrier
frequency of 900 MHz, find EIRP (dBm) and the power at the
receiver where gain at receiving antenna is 10 dB.
Solution

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Hata Model
This model incorporates the graphical information
from Okumura model and develops it further to
realize the effects of diffraction, reflection, and
scattering caused by city structures.
It is valid from 150 MHz to 1500 MHz.
The standard formula for median path loss in urban
areas is given by

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Hata Model
where fc is the frequency (in MHz) from 150 MHz to 1500
MHz, hte is the effective transmitter (base station)
antenna height (in meters) ranging from 30 m to 200 m,
hre is the effective receiver (mobile) antenna height (in
meters) ranging from 1 m to 10 m, d is the T-R
separation distance (in km), and a(hre) is the correction
factor for effective mobile antenna height which is a
function of the size of the coverage area.
For a small to medium sized city, the mobile antenna
correction factor is given by

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Hata Model
And for a large city, it is given by

For suburban areas,

For open rural areas,

The predictions of the Hata model compare very

closely with the original Okumura model, as long as d
exceeds 1 km.

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Indoor Propagation Models
The radio wave propagation inside buildings is
strongly influenced by the layout of the building, the
construction materials, and the building type.
Indoor radio propagation is dominated by the same
mechanisms as outdoor: reflection, diffraction, and
scattering. However, conditions are much more
variable.
In general, indoor channels may be classified either as
line-of-sight or obstructed, with varying degrees of
clutter.

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Indoor Propagation models
Indoor propagation models include
Log-distance path loss model
Ericsson multiple breakpoint model
Attenuation factor model

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Partition Losses
Buildings have a wide variety of partitions and
obstacles.
Partitions may be of wood frame, plaster board, or
nonreinforced concrete between floors.
Partitions vary widely in their physical and electrical
characteristics, making it difficult to apply general
models to specific indoor installations.

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Log-Distance Path Loss Model
According to this model,
the path loss is given by

where the value of n

depends on the
surroundings and
building type, and Xσ
represents a normal
random variable in dB
having a standard deviation of σ dB.

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Ericsson Multiple Breakpoint
Model
This model is obtained by measurements in a multiple
floor office building.
The model has four break points and it is based on
measurements conducted at 900 MHz.
The model considers both an upper and lower bound
on the path loss.
As we move away from the transmitter, the path loss
exponent increases.

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Ericsson Multiple Breakpoint
Model

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Attenuation Factor Model
The attenuation factor model is given by

where nSF represents the exponent value for the “same

floor” measurement, FAF represents a floor attenuation
factor for a specified number of building floors, and PAF
represents the partition attenuation factor .
Alternately, the model can be expressed as

where nMF denotes a path loss exponent based on

measurements through multiple floors.

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Attenuation Factor Model
Devasirvatham found that in-building path loss obeys
free space plus an additional loss factor which
increases exponentially with distance such that

where α is the attenuation constant for the channel

with units of dB per meter.

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Small-Scale Fading and
Multipath

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Small-Scale Fading and Multipath

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Small-Scale Fading
Small-scale fading, or simply fading, is used to describe the
rapid fluctuations of the amplitudes, phases, or multipath
delays of a radio signal over a short period of time or travel
distance.
Fading is caused by interference between two or more
versions of the transmitted signal which arrive at the
receiver at slightly different times.
These waves, called multipath waves, combine at the
receiver antenna to give a resultant signal which can vary
widely in amplitude and phase, depending on the
distribution of the intensity and relative propagation time
of the waves and the bandwidth of the transmitted signal.

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Small-Scale Multipath Propagation
Multipath in the radio channel creates small-scale fading
effects.
The three most important effects are:
Rapid changes in signal strength over a small travel distance
or time interval.
Random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler shifts
on different multipath signals.
Time dispersion (echoes) caused by multipath propagation
delays.
In urban areas, fading occurs because the height of the
mobile antennas is well below the height of the
surrounding structures, so there is no single LOS path to
the base station.

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Small-Scale Multipath Propagation
Even when a LOS exists, multipath still occurs due to
reflections from the ground and surrounding structures.
The incoming radio waves arrive from different directions
with different propagation delays.
The signal received by the mobile at any point in space may
consist of a large number of plane waves having randomly
distributed amplitudes, phases, and angles of arrival.
These multipath components combine vectorially at the
receiver antenna, and can cause the signal received by the
mobile to distort or fade.

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Small-Scale Multipath Propagation
Even when a mobile receiver is stationary, the received
signal may fade due to movement of surrounding objects in
the radio channel.
Due to the constructive and destructive effects of
multipath waves summing at various points in space, a
receiver moving at high speed can pass through several
fades in a small period of time.
Due to the relative motion between the mobile and the
base station, each multipath wave experiences an apparent
shift in frequency (called the Doppler shift) and is directly
proportional to the velocity and direction of motion of the
mobile with respect to the direction of the arrival of the
received multipath wave.

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Factors Influencing Small-Scale
Fading
Multipath Propagation:
The presence of reflecting objects and scatterers in the
channel creates a constantly changing environment that
dissipates the signal energy in amplitude, phase, and time.
These effects result in multiple versions of the transmitted
signal that arrive at the receiving antenna, displaced with
respect to one another in time and spatial orientation.
The random phase and amplitudes of the different multipath
components cause fluctuations in signal strength, thereby
inducing small-scale fading, signal distortion, or both.
Multipath propagation often lengthens the time required for
the baseband portion of the signal to reach the receiver which
can cause signal smearing due to intersymbol interference.
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Factors Influencing Small-Scale
Fading
Speed of the Mobile
The relative motion between the base station and the mobile
results in random frequency modulation due to different
Doppler shifts on each of the multipath components.
Doppler shift will be positive or negative depending on
whether the mobile receiver is moving toward or away from
the base station.
Speed of Surrounding Objects
If objects in the radio channel are in motion, they induce a
time varying Doppler shift on multipath components.

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Factors Influencing Small-Scale
Fading
The Transmission Bandwidth of the Signal
If the transmitted radio signal bandwidth is greater than
the bandwidth of the multipath channel, the received
signal will be distorted, but the received signal strength
will not fade much over a local area.

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Doppler Shift
∆l = dcos(θ) = v∆tcos(θ)
where ∆l is the difference in path
lengths, v is the velocity of
mobile, d is the distance covered
by the mobile, ∆t is the time
required for the mobile to travel
from X to Y, θ is the angle of arrival of wave from the source
S.
The phase change in the received signal due to the
difference in path lengths is

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Doppler Shift
And hence the apparent change in frequency, or
Doppler shift, is given by

Multipath components arriving from different

directions contribute to Doppler spreading of the
received signal, thus increasing the signal bandwidth.

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Time and Frequency Dispersion
The mobile channel introduces delay spread into the
received signal. That is, the received signal has a longer
duration than that of transmitted signal due to the
different delays of different propagation paths. This
phenomenon is referred to as time dispersion.
Also, the mobile channel introduces Doppler spread
into the received signal. That is, the received signal has
a larger bandwidth than that of the transmitted signal
due to the different Doppler shifts introduced by the
multipath components. This phenomenon is referred
to as frequency dispersion.

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Time and Frequency Dispersion

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Coherence Time and Coherence
Bandwidth
Coherence Time, Tcoh
Coherence time is the time duration over which the channel
impulse response is essentially invariant, and quantifies the
similarity of the channel response at different times.
In practice, “50 % coherence time” is the most used definition,
which means that two states of the channel, measured less than Tcoh
seconds apart, have correlation equal to 0.5 or more.
Coherence Bandwidth, Bcoh
Coherence bandwidth is the maximum transmission bandwidth
over which the channel can be assumed to be approximately
constant in frequency. That is, a signal having frequencies within a
bandwidth Bcoh will be affected approximately similarly by the
channel.
In practice, “50 % coherence bandwidth” is defined accordingly.

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Time-Flat vs. Time-Selective
Channels
Time-Flat (Slow Fading) Channels
Time-flat channels are time invariant, which means that the
duration of a transmitted symbol T is far less than the
coherence time Tcoh, i.e., T << Tcoh.
An example is a transmitter and receiver that are both
physically stationary, with the propagation environment
unchanging.
Time-Selective (Fast Fading) Channels
Time-selective channels are time variant, which means that
the duration of a transmitted symbol is more than the
coherence time, i.e., T > Tcoh .
An example is a wireless terminal moving through the
environment and undergoing channel variations.

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Frequency-Flat vs. Frequency-
Selective Channels
Frequency-Flat Channels:
Frequency-flat channels have coherence bandwidth Bcoh
much greater than bandwidth W of the transmitted signal,
i.e., Bcoh >> W.
That means the frequency response of a channel is
approximately flat over a bandwidth greater than bandwidth
of the transmitted signal.
Frequency-Selective Channels:
Frequency-selective channels have a coherence bandwidth
less than bandwidth of the transmitted signal, i.e., Bcoh < W.
An example is a multipath channel with significant delay
spread relative to the symbol period of the transmitted
symbol.

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Determining Tcoh
The “50 % coherence time” is determined as

where BD is the Doppler spread or maximum Doppler

shift given as

By Asst. Prof. Bijaya Shrestha, nec, 2015 74

Determining Bcoh
To determine coherence bandwidth , we need to know
the power-delay profile of the channel.

From the power delay profile, we get the average delay

(mean excess delay) as

By Asst. Prof. Bijaya Shrestha, nec, 2015 75

Determining Bcoh
The rms delay spread is defined by

where

From a rule of thumb, the “50 % coherence

bandwidth” is approximated by

By Asst. Prof. Bijaya Shrestha, nec, 2015 76

Rayleigh Fading Distribution
In mobile radio channels, the Rayleigh distribution is
commonly used to describe the statistical time varying
nature of the received envelope of a flat fading signal,
or the envelope of an individual multipath component.
The Rayleigh distribution has a probability density
function (pdf) given by

where σ is the rms value of the received voltage signal,

and σ2 is the time-average power of the received signal.

By Asst. Prof. Bijaya Shrestha, nec, 2015 77

Rayleigh Fading Distribution
The probability that the envelope of the received signal
does not exceed a specified value R is given by the
corresponding cumulative distribution function (CDF)

The mean value of the Rayleigh distribution is given by

The variance of the Rayleigh distribution which represents

the ac power in the signal envelope is given by

The median value of r is found by solving

and is

By Asst. Prof. Bijaya Shrestha, nec, 2015 78

Rayleigh Fading Distribution

By Asst. Prof. Bijaya Shrestha, nec, 2015 79

Ricean Fading Distribution
The Rayleigh fading model assumes that all paths are
relatively equal, that is, there is no dominant path.
In case there exists a strong line-of-sight path, the
radio channel is said to have a Ricean distribution.
The complex envelope can now be expressed as h =
αejφ+vejθ , where α follows the Rayleigh distribution
and v is a constant such that v2 is the power of the LOS
signal component.
As the dominant signal becomes weaker, the
composite signal resembles a noise signal which has an
envelope that is Rayleigh.
By Asst. Prof. Bijaya Shrestha, nec, 2015 80
Ricean Fading Distribution
The Ricean distribution is given by

where parameter A (≥ 0)deontes the peak amplitude of

the dominant signal I0(.) is the modified Bessel
function of the first kind and zero-order.
The Ricean distribution is often described in terms of a
parameter K which is defined as the ratio between the
deterministic signal power and the variance of the
multipath. That is,

By Asst. Prof. Bijaya Shrestha, nec, 2015 81

Ricean Fading Distribution
The parameter K is known as the Ricean factor.
As the dominant path decreases in amplitude, the
Ricean distribution degenerates to a Rayleigh
distribution.

By Asst. Prof. Bijaya Shrestha, nec, 2015 82

References
Hata Model,
“https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hata_model_for_urba
n_areas [Nov. 23, 2015].

By Asst. Prof. Bijaya Shrestha, nec, 2015 83