Course Outline

1. Cryptocurrency and Blockchain

2. Delving into Blockchain
3. Bitcoin and Blockchain
4. Bitcoin Mining
5. Ethereum
6. Setting up a Private Blockchain Environment Using Ethereum Platform
7. Hyperledger
8. Setting up a Development Program Using Hyperledger Composer
9. Creating and Deploying a Private Blockchain on Multichain
10. Prospects of Blockchain
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 Ethereum

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 Agenda
At the end of this session, you will be able to:

 Understand Ethereum
 Define Smart Contracts
 Identify Cryptocurrency used in Ethereum
 Describe Transactions in Ethereum
 Define Consensus Mechanism in Ethereum
 List Development Technologies
 Identify Ethereum Clients
 Define Platform Functions
 Understand Solidity
 Describe Solidity Operators and Functions

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 Ethereum

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 Ethereum “
Let’s know more about Ethereum.

“
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 Ethereum

• Ethereum was conceptualized by Vitalik Buterin in

“
November 2013.

• Ethereum is a distributed open Blockchain network.

• The key idea proposed was the creation of a Turing-

“
complete language that allows the development of
smart contracts for Blockchain and decentralized
applications.

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 Ethereum
Ethereum aims to enable innovations in four key areas:

Currency Issuance Smart Contracts

Decentralized Autonomous Smart Property

Organizations (DAO)

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 Bitcoin–Ethereum Comparison

Bitcoin Ethereum

Idea Digital Money World Computer

Founder Satoshi Nakamoto (unknown) Vitalik Buterin and team

Scripting Language Turing incomplete Turing complete

Release Date January 2009 July 2015

Coin Release Technique Early mining Through ICO

Average Block Time ~10 minutes ~12–15 seconds

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 Smart Contracts

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 Smart Contracts “
The basic building blocks of programs written
for the Ethereum platform are called “smart

“
contracts”. Let’s understand what smart
contracts are.

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 Smart Contracts
• A smart contract is a computerized transaction protocol that executes the terms of a contract.
• When05 06
running on the Blockchain, a smart contract becomes a self-operating computer program that automatically
executes while specific conditions are met.

An option contract between parties A triggering event like an Regulators can use the
is written as a code into the expiration date or a strike Blockchain to understand the
Blockchain. The individuals involved price is hit, and the contract activity in the market, while
are anonymous, but the contract is executes itself according to maintaining the privacy of an
written in the public ledger. the coded terms. individual actor's position.

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 How Smart Contracts Work in a Permission Blockchain

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 Cryptocurrency Used in Ethereum

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 Ether “
Ethereum is incomplete without
cryptocurrency.

“
Let’s have a look at the cryptocurrency used in
Ethereum.

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 Ether
The esteem token of the Ethereum Blockchain is called
Ether.

It is recorded under the code ETH and exchanged on

digital currency trades.

It is also used to pay for transaction fees and

computational services on the Ethereum network.

Every time a contract is executed, Ethereum consumes

tokens which is termed as ‘gas’ to run the computations.

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 Denomination Table of Ether
Unit Wei Value Wei
Wei 1 wei 1
Kwei (babbage) 1e3 wei 1,000
Mwei (lovelace) 1e6 wei 1,000,000
Gwei (shannon) 1e9 wei 1,000,000,000
microether (szabo) 1e12 wei 1,000,000,000,000
milliether (finney) 1e15 wei 1,000,000,000,000,000
ether 1e18 wei 1,000,000,000,000,000,000

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 Gas, a Crypto Fuel for Ethereum “
Let’s understand what gas is in the Ethereum

“
system and why it is necessary.

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 Gas in Ethereum
• Gas is required to be paid for each activity performed
on the Ethereum Blockchain.

• A transaction fee is charged as some amount of Ether

and is taken from the account balance of the
transaction originator.

• A fee is paid for transactions to be included by miners.

• The more the fee, the higher the chances for the
transactions to be picked up by the miners for inclusion
in the block.

• Providing too little gas will result in a failed transaction.

Ether Buys Gas to Fuel up the EVM

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 Assessing the Transaction Cost
“
The transaction cost can be estimated using the following formula:

“ Total Cost = gasUsed * gasPrice

• gasUsed is the total gas that is supposed to be used by the transaction during the
execution.

• gasPrice is specified by the transaction originator as an incentive to the miners.

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 Transactions in Ethereum

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 Transactions in Ethereum

The most notable difference between the Bitcoin and

Ethereum Blockchains is that Ethereum blocks contain both
a transaction list and the most recent “state” of the ledger
of these transactions. “
Let’s have a look at the transactions and

“
accounts in Ethereum Blockchain.

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 Transactions
The term “transaction” is used in Ethereum to refer to the signed data package that contains a message to be sent from
an externally owned account to another account on the Blockchain.

Ethereum blocks contain both a transaction list and the most recent “state” of the ledger of these transactions.

Accounts are one of the main building blocks of the Ethereum Blockchain.

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 Types of Accounts
Accounts play a central role in Ethereum. There are two types of accounts: externally owned
“
accounts (EOAs) and contract accounts.

• Externally owned accounts (EOAs): Defined as the basic form of an account, EOAs interact
with and generate updates on the Ethereum Blockchain.

“
• Contract accounts: They programmatically execute when they receive instructions in the
form of a transaction from an EOA. Contracts can push or pull funds and request these
actions from other contracts, calling on the code to perform dynamic actions.

• If we restrict Ethereum to only externally owned accounts and allow only transactions
between them, we arrive at an “altcoin” system that is less powerful than bitcoin itself and
can only be used to transfer ether.

• The state of all accounts is the state of the Ethereum network, which is updated with every
block and about which the network really needs to reach at a consensus.

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 How Approval Occurs in Ethereum Blockchain “
Let’s see how transactions happen and how a block is
created in Ethereum Blockchain.

“
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 Validators (or Miners) in Ethereum
“
• Like in Bitcoin, transactions are approved by the miners.
• Anyone can take on the role of a miner and approve the block of transactions.

“
• It takes around 12–15 seconds approximately for a miner to approve or mine a block.

At a theoretical level, a miner performs the following functions:

• Listens for the transactions broadcasted on the Ethereum network and determines the
transactions to be processed
• Determines stale blocks called “uncles” or “ommers” and includes them in the block
• Updates the account balance with the reward earned from successfully mining the block
• A valid state is computed and block is finalized, which defines the result of all state
transitions

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 Mining Reward

• In order to incentivize miners for supporting the

Ethereum network, a block reward is granted to the
lucky miners who generate the correct block.

• Currently, the block reward is set at 5 ether for every

successful block that is mined.

• This will contribute to the inflation in the number of

Ether available and, hence, the value of each Ether.

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 Consensus Mechanism in Ethereum

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 Consensus Mechanism in Ethereum
For any distributed computing system to properly function,
there needs to be a mechanism by which the entire
network can come to an agreement on its state or its token
supply is divided among registered addresses on the
network. “
Let’s have a look at the consensus mechanism

“
used in Ethereum.

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 Consensus Algorithm
• At the time of writing, Ethereum uses a similar proof-of-work protocol known as
“
Ethash.

• Similar to bitcoin, the core idea behind mining is to find a nonce that once hashed

“
the result in a predetermined difficulty level.

• It uses different cryptographic primitive for its hashing function, known as SHA-3,
rather than SHA-256.

Ethash is designed to make Ethereum both resistant to the high-powered mining

chips that currently dominate the bitcoin industry and more accessible to “light”
client implementations that allow users to use Ethereum without needing to
download the Ethereum Blockchain to their device. However, light clients download
headers of the blocks for reference.

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 More Functions of Ethereum
The Ethereum Blockchain is intended to do far more than
process shared transactions. It is designed to execute
complex code, where the functionality is only restricted by
the imagination of its developers and accessible resources.
“
The complex codes are executed in Ethereum

“
Virtual Machine.

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 Ethereum: Releases

Metropolis Serenity

Metropolis is the next major Serenity is the last phase in the

Ethereum upgrade. It was Ethereum network. Its release was
introduced on GitHub for testing planned for the start of 2018, but
and its just a matter of time there might be some usual delays.
before it goes on live. It is not only Serenity goal is to switch from
introducing further protocol proof-of-work to proof-of-stake,
upgrades and opening the door by using a method called Casper.
for Casper but also new interfaces
for non-technical users. This will
help gain further adaptation. Also,
it will help developers create easy-
to-use apps.

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 Development Technologies

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 Development Technologies “
In addition to the main Ethereum Blockchain
protocol, there are also supporting

“
technologies in development that seek to help
the network, and the components built on the
network, run more efficiently.

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 Supporting Technologies

Web 3.0 Technology Stack

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 Web3.js
• The key connection between the Ethereum network and your DApp
• Allows you to compile, deploy and interact with your smart contracts

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 Mist Application

• Styled as a decentralized application discovery tool, Mist

is meant to serve as a wallet for smart contracts that
features a graphical user interface.

• A desktop application used to communicate with your

node

• Allows users to dynamically set transaction fees and

manage custom tokens

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 Mist Browser Vs. Ethereum Wallet

Mist DApp Browser Ethereum Wallet DApp

• Mist is the browser for • Ethereum Wallet is also known as the

decentralized web apps. Meteor DApp Wallet.

• Mist is still in heavy • These releases are called Ethereum

development (it's not Wallet as it only offers a bundle of the
recommended to visit Mist Browser with a single DApp: the
untrusted DApps until the full wallet.
security audit is done). The
current release allows you to • The future, with Metropolis release,
open any Ethereum DApp with will provide a full Mist Browser that is
the Mist Browser. able to open any DApp available out
there.

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 Ethereum Clients

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 Ethereum Clients to Interact with Contracts

Developers write up contracts, which are then converted

into the EVM bytecode via an EVM complier and uploaded
onto the Blockchain using an Ethereum Client.
“
There are various Clients supporting the
Ethereum network. Let’s see what Clients are

“
and what purpose they serve.

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 Clients of Ethereum
“
Since the start of the Ethereum project, there have been multiple client
implementations across a range of different operating systems and programming

“
languages. This client diversity is essential for the long-term health of the Ethereum
network

Ethereum Clients are software that allow users to:

• Approve transactions/blocks

• Create/manage accounts on Ethereum

• Send/receive transactions to/from your Ethereum accounts

• Deploy smart contracts onto the Blockchain

• "Mine” Ether on the Ethereum Blockchain

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 List of Ethereum Clients
Client Language Developers

Go-ethereum (Geth) Go Ethereum Foundation

Parity Rust Ethcore

Cpp-Ethereum C++ Ethereum Foundation

Pyethapp Python Ethereum Foundation

Ethereumjs-lib Javascript Ethereum Foundation

Ethereum(J) Java <ether.camp>

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 Go-ethereum
Go-ethereum client is commonly referred to as Geth, which supports the running of a full Ethereum
node implemented in the Go language.
Current features:

Integrated with mist browser

Light client (Beta)

Swarm (POC)

Whisper (POC)

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 Platform Functions

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 Platform Functions in Ethereum
While the architecture of the network is certainly
impressive, it’s what’s built on these intricate components
that truly illustrates Ethereum’s potential.
“
Let’s have a look at various platform functions

“
in Ethereum.

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 DAO (Decentralized Autonomous Organization)

• DAOs are organizations that exist entirely on a Blockchain

and are governed by their protocols.
• A unison of many long-term smart contracts between many
people.
• DAOs are designed to hold onto assets and use a kind of
voting system to manage their distribution.
• Two or more entities in a DAO can interact with each other
in a fully decentralized and automated fashion.
• DAOs comprise a global network of nodes and members
that all work together.
• In the DAO, Each action or vote is represented by some
form of transaction in the Blockchain.

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 Working of DAOs
• A group of people writes a smart contract to govern the organization.

• People add funds to the DAO and are given tokens that represent the ownership.

• The DAO begins to operate by having members to propose how to spend the
money.

• The members vote on these proposals.

• When the predetermined time has passed and the predetermined number of votes
has accrued, the proposals passes; otherwise, fails.

• Individuals act as contractors to service the DAO.

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 Example of a DAO

6. Every vote is recorded and processed on the

Ethereum Blockchain which ensures transparency
while allowing everything to be run by itself and to
be decentralized

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 DApps (Decentralized Applications)

• Decentralized applications or DApps are

computer applications that operate over
a Blockchain enabling direct interaction
between end users and providers.

• DApps can be comprised of a single DAO

or even a series of DAOs that work
together to create an application.

• A decentralized application has an

unbounded number of participants on all
sides of the market.

ETHERIA (www.etheria.world), a Minecraft-like game

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 Types of DApps

Type 1: A user may need to Type 2: The app mixes money with Type 3: The goal of DAO is to
exchange ether as a way to information from outside the Blockchain, form a leaderless company and
settle a contract with another for example, a crop insurance application program rules at the beginning
user, using the network's that's dependent on an outside weather about how members can vote
distributed computer nodes feed. (Say, a farmer buys a derivative that and how to release company
to facilitate the distribution of automatically pays out if there's a drought funds and then let it go.
this data. that impacts his work.)

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 Future of DApps
As Ethereum and other projects have made writing DApp protocols quicker and more accessible, a number of
possibly disruptive DApps have appeared.

KYC-chain allows users to maintain a private “identity wallet” which can be used to authenticate
their identification in finance, legal or commerce settings.

WeiFund uses smart contracts to enhance crowdfunding services including GoFundMe and
Kickstarter.

Storj provides censorship-free, secure and zero-downtime distributed cloud storage by sharing data
and storing it among a decentralized network of computers.

4G Capital provides micro loans for small businesses in Africa by utilizing smart contracts.

Note: A curated collection of various DApps can be seen at https://www.stateofthedapps.com/

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 Solidity: Introduction

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 Solidity: Introduction “
Ethereum would be incomplete without a native

“
programming language and that language is Solidity.

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 Solidity
• Solidity is a contract-oriented, high-level language
whose syntax is similar to that of JavaScript.

• It is designed to target the Ethereum Virtual Machine

(EVM).

• Solidity is statically typed and supports inheritance,

libraries and complex user-defined types, among
other features.

• In contrast to “object-oriented” languages, Solidity is

“contract-oriented”.

• It compiles instructions into bytecode so that they

can be read by the network.

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 Layout of a Solidity Source File
Source files can contain an arbitrary number of contract definitions and include
“
directives and pragma directives.

Version Pragma
• Source files can (and should) be annotated with a so-called version pragma to reject

“
being compiled with future compiler versions that might introduce incompatible
change.

The version pragma is used as follows:

pragma solidity ^0.4.0;

Such a source file will not compile with a compiler, earlier than version 0.4.0, and it
will also not work on a compiler starting from version 0.5.0.

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 Comparison between Memory & Storage in Solidity

They are analogous to memory and hard drive storage in a computer.

Memory Storage

The contract can use any amount of The storage, on the other hand, is
memory while executing its code. But, persisted into the Blockchain itself so that
when execution stops, the entire content the next time the contract executes some
of the memory is wiped out, and the next code, it has access to all the data it
execution will start afresh. previously stored into its storage area.

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 General Value Types
The following types are also called value types because variables of these types will always be passed by a
value:

Boolean Integers
Bool: The possible values are int/uint: Signed and unsigned
constants, i.e., true and false. integers of various sizes.

Keywords uint8 to uint256 in steps

of 8 (unsigned of 8 up to 256 bits)
and int8 to int256. uint and int are
aliases for uint256 and int256,
respectively.

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 General Value Types
Address
“
Address holds a 20 byte value (size of an Ethereum address). Address types also
have members and serve as a base for all contracts.

“ Members of Addresses

Balance and Transfer

It is possible to query the balance of an address using the property balance and to
send Ether to an address using the transfer function.

pragma solidity ^0.4.0;

address x= 0x123;
address myAddress = this;
if (x.balance< 10 && myAddress.balance >=10) x.transfer(10);

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 General Value Types
String Literals

String literals are written with either double or single quotes, such as “foo” or ‘bar’.

They do not imply trailing zeroes as in C; ”foo” represents three bytes not four.

As with integer literals their types can vary, but they are implicitly convertible to bytes1, …,
bytes32, if they fit to bytes and to string.

String literals support escape characters, such as \n, \xNN and \uNNNN.

\xNN takes a hex value and inserts the appropriate byte, while \uNNNN takes a Unicode code point
and inserts a UTF-8 sequence.

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 Arrays
Arrays can have a compile-time fixed size or they can be dynamic.

For storage arrays, the element type can be arbitrary.

For memory arrays, it cannot be mapping.

An array of fixed size k and element type T is written as T[k].

An array of dynamic size is written as T[].

Variables of type bytes and strings are special arrays.

Arrays have a length member to hold their number of elements.

Dynamic storage arrays and bytes have a member function called push that can be used to append
an element at the end of the array.

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 Apportioning Memory Arrays

• Creating arrays with variable length in memory can be done using a “new” keyword.
• As opposed to storage arrays, it is not possible to resize memory arrays by assigning to the
length member.

pragma solidity ^0.4.0; contract C {

function f(uint len) {
uint[] memory a = new uint[](7); bytes memory b =
new bytes(len);
// Here we have a.length == 7 and b.length == len a[6] = 8;
}
}

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 Allotting Storage Variable to Memory Arrays

// unnamed array in storage, but storage is “

is no sensible location it could point to.

delete y;
g(x); // calls g, handing over a reference to x
h(x); // calls h and creates an independent, temporary
memory
}
function g(uint[] storage storageArray) internal {}
function h(uint[] memoryArray) {}
}

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 Allotting Storage Variable to Memory Arrays

pragma solidity ^0.4.0; contract C {

uint[] x; // the data location of x is storage
// the data location of memoryArray is memory function f(uint[]
memoryArray) {
x = memoryArray; // works, copies the whole array to storage var y = x; // works,
assigns a pointer, data location of y is
storage
y[7]; // fine, returns the 8th element
y.length = 2; // fine, modifies x through y
delete x; // fine, clears the array, also modifies y
// The following does not work; it would need to create a new temporary /

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 Array Literals/Inline Arrays
• Array literals are arrays that are written as an expression and are not assigned to a variable right
away.

• A type of an array literal is the memory array of fixed size whose base type is a common type of
the given elements.

pragma solidity ^0.4.0;

contract C {
function f() { g([uint(1), 2, 3]);
}
function g(uint[3] _data) {
// ...
} }

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 Mappings

Mapping types are declared as:

Mapping( _Keytype => _ValueType )

Here, _KeyType can be almost any type except for a dynamically sized array, a contract, an enum
and a struct.

_ValueType can actually be any type, including mappings.

Mappings can be seen as hash tables which are virtually initialized such that every possible key
exists and is mapped to a value whose byte representation is all zeros: a type’s default value.

The similarity ends here. Though the key data is not actually stored in a mapping, only its hash is
used to look up the value.

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 Example of Mappings
pragma solidity ^0.4.0;

contract MappingExample {
mapping(address => uint) public balances;

function update(uint newBalance) { balances[msg.sender] = newBalance;

}
}

contract MappingUser {
function f() returns (uint) { MappingExample m = new MappingExample(); m.update(100);
return m.balances(this);
}
}

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 Enums
• Enums are a way to create the user-defined type in Solidity.

• They are explicitly convertible to and from all integer types, but implicit conversion is not
allowed.
• The explicit conversions check the value ranges at runtime and a failure causes an exception.
Enums need at least one member.

pragma solidity ^0.4.0; contract test {

enum ActionChoices { GoLeft, GoRight, GoStraight, SitStill } ActionChoices
choice;
ActionChoices constant defaultChoice = ActionChoices.GoStraight;

function setGoStraight() {
choice = ActionChoices.GoStraight;
}

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 Structs
• Solidity provides a way to define new types in the form of structs.
• Structs are custom-defined types that can group several variables.
• Struct types can be used inside mappings and arrays, and they can itself contain mappings and arrays.
• It is not possible for a struct to contain a member of its own type, although the struct itself can be the
value.

pragma solidity ^0.4.0;

contract Ballot {
struct Voter { // Struct
uint weight1, weight2, weight3; bool voted;
address delegate1, delegate2, delegate3, delegate4; uint vote1, vote2,
vote3, vote4, vote5;
uint height1, height2, height3 //structs can only have 16 members, exceeding which
the following error might occur [stack too deep]
} }

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 Internationally Available Variables & Functions “
There are special variables and functions which always exist in the global
namespace and are mainly used to provide information about the Blockchain.

“Block and Transaction Properties

Block.blockhash(uint blockNumber) returns (bytes32): hash of the given block only works for 256
most recent blocks excluding current

Block.coinbase (address): current block miner’s address

Block.difficulty (uint): current block difficulty

Block.gaslimit(uint): current block gas limit

Block.number (uint): current block number

Block.timestamp (uint): current block timestamp as seconds since unix epoch

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 Internationally Available Variables & Functions
• msg.data(bytes): complete calldata

• msg.sender(address): sender of the message call (current call)

• msg.sig(bytes4): first four bytes of the message (current call)

• msg.value (uint): number of wei sent with the message

• now (uint): current block timestamp (alias for block.timestamp)

• tx.gasprice(uint): gas price of the transaction

• tx.origin(address): sender of the transaction (full call chain)

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 Mathematical Functions

addmod(uint x, uint y, uint k) returns (uint): mulmod(uint x, uint y, uint k) returns (uint):
Compute (x+y)%k where the addition is Compute (x*y)%k where the multiplication is
performed with arbitrary precision and does performed with arbitrary precision and does
not wrap around at 2**256 not wrap around at 2**256

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 Address Related Functions
<address>.balance(uint256): <address>.delegatecall(…) returns(bool):
Balance of the Address in Wei Issue low-level DELEGATECALL, return false on
failure

<address>.send(uint256 amount) returns <address>.transfer(uint256 amount):

(bool): Send given amount of Wei to Address, throw
Send given amount of Wei to Address, on failure
returns false on failure

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 Error Handling

Assert(bool condition):
Throws if the condition is not met to be used for internal errors

Require(bool condition):
Throws if the condition is not met to be used for errors in inputs or
external components

Revert():
Abort execution and revert state changes

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 Operators & Functions in Solidity

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 Operators & Functions in Solidity “
Let’s learn about operators and functions in

“
Solidity.

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 Operators: Arithmetic, Logical & Bitwise
Arithmetic Operators: Operators in Solidity are same as in JavaScript.
• Operators such as addition (+), subtraction (−), multiplication (*), division (/) and modulus (%) have the
same effect in Solidity like any other programming language.

Incremental Operators:
• Incremental operators in Solidity are: a++, a--, ++a, --a, a+=1, a=a+1
• Rules applicable to other programming languages are similar in Solidity as well.

Bitwise Operators:
• Following are the operators: (Bitwise OR) ‘|’, (Bitwise XOR), (Bitwise negation) ‘~’ , (Bitwise right shift)
‘>>’, (Bitwise left shift) ‘<

Logical Operators:
• Logical operators in Solidity: ! (logical negation), && (logical and), || (logical or), ==(equality), != (not
equal)

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 Various Operators in Solidity
pragma solidity ^0.4.0; contract operators {
// Arithmetic Operators
// +,-,*,/, %, **
// Incremental Operators
// a++, a--, a+=1, a=a+1,++a,--a;
a=10;
a= a++; //here, output will be 10, returned and then then increment is done
a=++a;
//Logical Operators
!, &&, ||, ==, !=
isOwner = true && false;
var orValue= 0x02 | 0x01; // output
//Bitwise Operators~,>>, <<; function Operators() {
// Initialize state variables here}}

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 Control Structures

• Most of the control structures from JavaScript are available in Solidity except for switch
and goto.

• So there is: if, else, while, do, for, break, continue, return, ? :, with the usual semantics
known from C or JavaScript.
• Parentheses can not be omitted for conditionals, but curly braces can be omitted from
around single-statement bodies.

• There is no type conversion from non-Boolean to Boolean types as there is in C and

JavaScript.

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 Scoping & Declarations
A variable which is declared will have an initial default value whose byte representation
is all zeros.

Example:
• The default value for a bool is false.
• The default value for the uint or int type is 0.
• For statically-sized arrays and bytes1 to bytes32, each individual element will be
initialized to the default value corresponding to its type.
• For dynamically-sized arrays, bytes and string, the default value is an empty array or
string.

Declaration:
A variable declared anywhere within a function will be in scope for the entire function,
regardless of where it is declared.

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 Input Parameters & Output Parameters

• In Solidity, functions may take parameters as the input.

• It may also return arbitrary number of parameters as the output.

Input Parameters

Input parameters are declared the same way as variables.

pragma solidity ^0.4.0; contract Simple {

function taker(uint _a, uint _b){
// do something with a and b
} }

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 Input Parameters & Output Parameters
Output Parameters
• Output parameters can be declared with the same syntax after the returns keyword.

Example: If we wish to return two results, the sum and the product of the two given
integers, then we would write:

pragma solidity ^0.4.0; contract

Simple {
function arithmetics(uint _a, uint _b) returns (uint o_sum, uint
0_product){
O_sum = _a + _b; O_product
= _a* _b;
}
}

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 Function Calls & Return types
pragma solidity ^0.4.0;
contract FunctionCall {
// Constructor calls are also a function calls and are defined like this
function FunctionCall(uint param1) {
// Initialize state variables here
}
// you can create a contract object with a name & then use it inside the
function calls like this
Miner m;
function setMiner(address addr) {
m = Miner(addr); // type casted the addr to Miner type and stored in m
}//function setMiner(Miner _m) { m = _m; } is also correct
// Now you can use the Miner's function which is info to sent
// some ether with optionally specifying the gas like this
function callMinerInfo() {
m.info.value(10).gas(800)();
}

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 Function Calls & Return types

//function can also be called as json object as parameters

// below function can be called by using the json object as shown in demo
function below
function someFunction(uint key, uint value) {
// Do something }
function demoFunction() {
// named arguments
someFunction({value: 2, key: 3}); }
//also note that variable names are optional in parameters & in returns
function someFunction2(uint key, uint) returns (uint){
return key; // Do something} }
contract Miner{
//The modifier payable has to be used for info,
// because otherwise, we would not be able to
//send Ether to it in the call m.info.value(10).gas(800)()
function info() payable returns (uint ret) {
return 42; } }

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 Function Modifiers

Modifiers can be used to easily change the behavior of functions.

For example, they can automatically check a condition prior to executing the function.

These conditions can be checked even before making the function calls because they have
been declared in the function definitions in the smart contracts.

Modifiers are the inheritable properties of the contract and may be overridden by the
derived contracts.

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 Function Modifier Example
If you want to call a kill contract function through only the owner or the creator of the
function:

pragma solidity ^0.4.0;

contract FunctionModifiers{
address public creator;
function FunctionModifiers(){
creator= msg.sender; }
Modifier onlyCreator(){
if(msg.sender!=creator){
throw;
}
_; // resumes the function execution wherever the access modifier is used
}
function killContract() onlyCreator{ //this function will not execute if an
exception occurs
self-destruct(creator); }}

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 Fallback Functions

A contract can have exactly one unnamed function.

This function cannot have arguments and cannot return anything.

It is executed on a call to the contract if none of the other functions match the given
function identifier.

Furthermore, this function is executed whenever the contract receives plain ether.

Contracts that receive ether directly (without a function call, i.e., using send or transfer),
but do not define a fallback function, throw an exception sending back the ether. So if you
want your contract to receive Ether, you have to implement a fallback function.

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 Fallback Function Example

pragma solidity ^0.4.0;

contract Test {
// This function is called for all messages sent to
// this contract (there is no other function).
// Sending Ether to this contract will cause an exception,
// because the fallback function does not have the "payable"
// modifier.
function() { x = 1; }
uint x;
}
// This contract keeps all Ether sent to it with no way
// to get it back.
contract Sink {
function() payable { }
}

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 Fallback Function Example
contract Caller {
function callTest(Test test) {
test.call(0xabcdef01); // hash does not exist
// results in test.x becoming == 1.
// The following will not compile, but even
// if someone sends ether to that contract,
// the transaction will fail and reject the
// Ether.
//test.send(2 ether);
}
}

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 Inheritance

Solidity supports multiple inheritance by copying code including polymorphism.

All function calls are virtual, which means that the most derived function is called, except
when the contract name is explicitly given.

When a contract inherits from multiple contracts, only a single contract is created on the
Blockchain, and the code from all the base contracts is copied into the created contract.

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 Inheritance Example

pragma solidity ^0.4.0;

contract owned {
address owner;
function owned(){
owner = msg.sender;
}}
contract mortal is owned{ //’is’ keyword is used for Inheritance
function kill(){
self-destruct(owner);}}
contract User is owned, mortal //Multiple Inheritance
{
String public UserName;
function User(String _name){
UserName = _name;
}
}

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 Abstract Contracts
Contract functions can lack an implementation as in the following example:

pragma solidity ^0.4.0;

contract Feline {
function utterance() returns (bytes32);
}

Such contracts cannot be compiled, but they can be used as base contracts.

pragma solidity ^0.4.0;

contract Feline {
function utterance() returns (bytes32);
}
contract Cat is feline{
function utterance() returns (bytes32) {
return “miaow;
}

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 Interfaces
Interfaces are similar to abstract contracts, but they cannot have any functions
implemented.

There are further restrictions, such as they cannot:

• Inherit other contracts or interfaces
• Define constructor
• Define variables
• Define structs
• Define enums

pragma solidity ^0.4.0;

interface Token {
function transfer(address recipient, uint amount);
}

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 Events
Events allow the convenient usage of the EVM logging facilities, which in turn can be used
to “call” JavaScript callbacks in the user interface of a DApp, which listen for these events.

Events are inheritable members of contracts.

When they are called, they cause the arguments to be stored in the transaction’s log—a
special data structure in the Blockchain.

pragma solidity ^0.4.0;

contract SimpleAuction {
event HighestBidIncreased(address bidder, uint amount); // Event

function bid() payable {

// ...
HighestBidIncreased(msg.sender, msg.value); // Triggering event
} }

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 Events Example

pragma solidity ^0.4.0;

contract ClientReceipt {
event Deposit(
address indexed _from,
bytes32 indexed _id,
uint _value
);

function deposit(bytes32 _id) payable {

// Any call to this function (even deeply nested) can
// be detected from the JavaScript API by filtering
// for `Deposit` to be called.
Deposit(msg.sender, _id, msg.value);
}
}

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 Events Example

The use in the

pragma JavaScript^0.4.0;
solidity API would be as follows:
var abi = /* abi as generated by the compiler */;
var ClientReceipt = web3.eth.contract(abi);
var clientReceipt = ClientReceipt.at(0x123 /* address */);

var event = clientReceipt.Deposit();

// watch for changes
event.watch(function(error, result){
// result will contain various information
// including the argumets given to the Deposit call.
if (!error)
console.log(result);
});
// Or pass a callback to start watching immediately
var event = clientReceipt.Deposit(function(error, result) {
if (!error)
console.log(result); });

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 Creating Contracts via “New”
pragma solidity ^0.4.0;
• A contract can create a new contract
using the “new” keyword. contract D{
uint x;
function D(uint a) payable {
• The full code of the contract being x=a;
} }
created has to be known in advance, so contract C {
recursive creation dependencies are D d= new D(4); // will be executed
as part of C’s constructor
not possible.
function created(uint arg) {
• As seen in the example, it is possible to D newD =new D(arg);
}
forward ether to the creation using the function createAndEndowD(uint arg,
“.value()”. uint amount){
D newD= (new D).value(amount)(arg);}
}

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 Libraries
Libraries are similar to contracts, but their purpose is that they are deployed only
once at a specific address and their code is reused using the DELEGATECALL
feature of the EVM.

This means that if library functions are called, their code is executed in the
context of the calling contract.

As a library is an isolated piece of source code, it can only access state variables of
the calling contract if they are explicitly supplied.

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 Quiz

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 Quiz 1

Q1. A Decentralized application would (typically) not require a midtier as it connects directly to the Ethereum
Network.

A. True

B. False

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 Answer 1

Q1. A Decentralized application would (typically) not require a midtier as it connects directly to the Ethereum
Network.

A. True

B. False

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 Quiz 2

Q2. EVM stands for ___________

A. Ethereum Virtual Machine

B. Ethereum Validation Methodology

C. Ethereum Value Metadata

D. None of the above

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 Answer 2

Q2. EVM stands for ___________

A. Ethereum Virtual Machine

B. Ethereum Validation Methodology

C. Ethereum Value Metadata

D. None of the above

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 Quiz 3

Q3. The Ethereum Proof of Work protocol is known as the ________

protocol

A. Casper

B. Ghost

C. Clique

D. ETHash

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 Answer 3

Q3. The Ethereum Proof of Work protocol is known as the ________

protocol

A. Casper

B. Ghost

C. Clique

D. ETHash

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