CHEMISTRY midterms gwy

THE GAS LAW

3 personalities behind kinetic molecular PROPERTIES OF GASES
theory: Daniel Bernoulli, john herapath,
john james waterston, they developed their 1. Wide spaces between particles/Molecules
own theories related to kinetic molecular
theory of mases. 2 and 3 They don't possess definite volume as
they are just fitting to the size of the container
Kinetic molecular theory describes the
properties and behavior of the gases; explains 4. Gases form a solution in any proportion;
the macroscopic properties of gases such as They are readily soluble or miscible (ability
temperature. of gas to be mixed with other components)
When molecules collide with one another, and 6. Gases have relatively low density (How
with the walls of the container where they are compacted a material is compared to specific
contained, pressure is created. volume)

7. Compressible (Only to a certain extent)

8. Expand when heated (Pag ininit ang gas

ASSUMPTIONS IN KINETIC mas mabilis mag expand)
MOLECULAR THEORY
9. Gas volume changes significantly with
- Gases are made of small particles with no pressure (relationship between the volume
definite volume but possess a defined mass and pressure "Boyle's law")
- The volume of the gases are minisculed 10. Gas volume changes significantly with
compared to the distance between themselves temperature simply because gas expands
and the other molecules. when heated and therefore its volume will
increase as well (Relationship between
- Gas particles undergo no molecular forces volume and temperature Charles' law)
of attraction or repulsion. They move
around freely because there is no energy that 11. Gas flow very freely because the
attracts them. Particles under gases don't molecules of gases are highly energized.
possess potential energy (energy at rest) and
thus the total energy of molecules are equal to
the kinetic energy (energy at motion) that
they possess.

- Gas particles has no definite motion; The

collisions between the dust particles are
completely elastic, meaning that there is no
loss or gain of kinetic energy when particles
collide. (Conservation of energy)

- The average kinetic energy is same with the

other gases at the given temperature
regardless the identity of the gas; the kinetic
energy is proportional to the absolute
temperature of the gas.
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QUANTITIES THAT INFLUENCE THE Accounting all the gases that is beyond the
NATURE AND BEHAVIOR OF GASES assumptions of the kinetic molecular Theory
Pressure (P) - Force exerted by a gas per unit (Van der waals)
area
Gas Laws
The gas laws describe the physical behavior of
gases in terms of 4 variables:
 Pressure (P)
 Temperature (T)
 Volume (V)
 Amount (Number of moles, n)

• An Ideal gas is a gas that exhibits linear

relationships among these variables.
Standard Pressure: 1 atm= 760 mmHg - 760 torr
= 101325 pascal • No ideal gas actually exists, but most simple
gases behave nearly ideally at ordinary
Temperature (I) - Average kinetic energy of gas
temperatures and pressures. (Kasi dapat kino-
particles
Standard temperature: 273.15K = 0 C consider ang mga interparticle attraction
which is not accounted by kinetic molecular
Vapor pressure: When molecules collide with theory, since the basis of ideal gas laws is
one another and to the container. kmt); (Although no ideal gases actually
exists, there are simple and minute gases that
• Atmospheric pressure arises from the force behaves nearly ideal at ordinary temperatures
exerted by atmospheric gases on earth's surface and pressure)
• Atmospheric pressure is the result of the
collision of the gases on earth's surface. Boyle's Law (Ideal Gas Law)
• Atmospheric Pressure decreases with altitude •Established the relationship between pressure
and volume; Accounted by chemist Robert
Volume (V) - Space occupied by gas particles
(1 mol of gas = 22.4L) Ang volume na kayang Boyle
i-occupy ng kahit na anong gas is 22.4L • Pressure exerted by gas, is inversely
proportional to the volume occupied the gas
Number of Particles (n)- Expressed in mole at a constant mass and constant temperature.
(1 mol of gas = 6.02 x 1023 particles • At constant temperature, the volume
= 1 mol of gas = Molecular mass (g)) occupied by a fixed amount of gas is
inversely proportional to the external
Manometer - Material being used to measure the pressure
pressure. (Most of the times it contains mm of
mercury)

Gases: real (Actual behavior of gases at specific

condition) and ideal gas laws

Ideal gas laws: Theoretical gas composed of

continuously and randomly moving particles that
are not subject to intermolecular interaction; Gas
law that follows all the conditions relative to
temperature and pressure (Boyle's Law, Charles'
Law, Gay-Lussac's Law); (Intermolecular
attraction are not considered)

Real gas laws: Actual behavior of gases at

specific condition; Accounting the interaction of
molecules as the gas occupies a specific change;
 CHEMISTRY midterms gwy

Charles’ Law (The relation between volume

and temperature is directly proportional)
Volume-Temperature Relationship by French
physicist Jacques Alexandre Charles in
1787
The kinetic energy of gas particles increases
as temperature increases; The kelvin Gay-Lussac’s Law
temperature and volume of a gas are directly  Pressure-Temperature relationship by
related with no change in pressure and French scientist Joseph Louis Gay-
amount of gas. Lussac in 1808
When temperature increases, the molecules  If the gas is heated, the pressure will
of a matter expands and therefore the volume increase, with constant volume and
expands as well. number of moles, the pressure of a gas
is directly related to its Kelvin
At Fixed P and n, temperature.
T decreases as V decreases Habang tumataas si temperature tumataas din
T increases as V increases si pressure. Because as temperature
increases, the molecules become highly
evergized and the collisions increases which
is known for creating pressure
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Avogadro’s Law
 Volume-Mole relationship by Italian
scientist Amadeo Avogadro in 1811
 The volume of the gas is directly
related to the number of moles at
comstant temperature and pressure.

Volume of gases contain equal number of

molecules at constant temperature and
pressure

Combined Gas Law

Used to solve for changes in pressure,
volume and temperature of a gas
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Values of R
8.314 J / mol K
0.08205 atm L / mol K
8.20 or 8.21 atm / m3 / mol K
1.987 kalari / mol K
62.363 mm of mercury L / mol K or L torr
/ mol K
1.985 btu / lb / mol R
10.73 lb / in2 ft3 / lb / mol R

Ideal Gas Law

Boyle’s Law, Charles’ law, and Avogadro’s
Law were combined where the variables
pressure, volume temperature, and amount of
gas equated to a single constant R or the
universal gas constant
Universal value for R = 0.08205 atm L / mol
K
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STP = 273.15 K and 1 atm

NTP (Normal temperature pressure) = 20C
and 1 atm

Partial Pressure: Pressure exerted by a gas

in a mixture

Mixture of Gases
 Gases mix homogeneously in any
proportions.
 The pressure exerted by each gas in a
mixture is called its partial pressure
 Dalton’s Law of partial pressures
stated that the total pressure in a
mixture is the sum of the partial
pressures of the component gases.
 The partial pressure of a gas is
proportional to its mole fraction:
PA = XA ● PTotal XA = nA / nTotal

The total pressure of the mixture is equal to

the sum of all the partial pressure of each
component of mixture.
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Partial Pressure of A = Mole Fraction of A x

Total Partial Pressure

Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure

 By English chemist John Dalton in
1801
 The total pressure exerted by a
mixture of non-reacting gases is the
sum of the partial pressures by each
gas.

Total pressure is the sum of all the partial

pressures present in the mixture
Partial Pressure: Pressure exerted by each
gas; It occupies a certain volume at a certain
temperature

Graham’s Law of Diffusion

 By Scottish chemist Thomas Graham in
1833.
 Lighter molecules with the same kinetic
energy escape more rapidly than heavier
ones; the rate of diffusion of gases and the
square roots of their molecular masses are
inversely related at constant temperature
and pressure.
Also known as the graham’s law of effusion
The rate of diffusion of gases is inversely
proportional to the square root of their molar
mass; it is being used to compare the effusion
rate of two gases
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Effusion: Describes how the gas escapes

through a hole in its container into an
evacuated space.
Effusion: process by which a gas escapes
through a small hole in its container into an
evacuated space.
Graham’s law of effusion states that the rate
of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional
to the square root of its molar mass.
A lighter gas moves more quickly and
therefore has a higher rate of effusion than a
heaver gas at the same T.

Rate of effusion is inversely proportional to

square root of Molar mass
A lighter gas moves more quickly (Has
higher rate of effusion) than a heavier gas at
the same temperature.

Helium is placed on the top because it is

lighter than ethane (Then do the inverse)
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 CHEMISTRY midterms gwy

CHEMICAL BONDING Coordinate Covalent – formed between a

transition metal and a ligand; only one atom
Elements Combine in two general ways: provides the two electrons required for bonding

A. Transferring electrons from one element

to another to form Ionic Compounds
B. Sharing electrons between atoms of
different elements to form covalent
compounds
These processes generate chemical bonds, the
forces that holds the atoms together in a
compound.

Chemical Bonding
Metallic Bonding: Attraction between the
electropositive atoms and delocalized electrons
within the metal lattice.
Covalent Bonding: Attraction resulting from the
sharing of electrons of atoms (NM + NM)
Ionic Bonding: Electrostatic attraction of cations
Ionic Bonding: Attraction resulting from the
and anions which are formed due to transfer of
transfer of electrons between atoms.(m+nm)
electrons. (Metal + Non metal)
*Electronegativity*- Ability of atom to be
attracted to another atom in a certain bond.

Covalent Bonding: Sharing of electrons; formed

by the overlap of orbitals of the atoms. (NM + NM)
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Polarity of Molecules
A molecule is polar if there is a net dipole
moment. (When there is an overall partial
positive charge on one end of the molecule and
a partial negative charge on the other end of
the molecule.)
(None)

(Meron)

Polarity of Molecules
General steps to determine the polarity of a
molecule.
Aside from the Valence Shell Electron Pair
1. Draw the most plausible Lewis
Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory which states
Structure.
2. Determine the proper shape of molecule that the spaces between Electron Clouds
using VSEPR (Valence Shell Electron should be minimized in order to minimize
Pair Repulsion) theory. the repulsion
3. Determine the individual dipole moments
then get the net.

Properties of Bonds

Bond Energy: Amount of energy involved when a bond is

broken, which is of the same magnitude for the energy
released when the bond is formed.

Bond length: distance between the nuclei of the atoms

forming the bond.

Bond Order: number of bonds between two atoms in a

covalent bond; can be single, double, triple of a single and a
double bond
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Basic Separation Techniques

Filtration: Separates components of a mixture based upon
differences in particle size. Filtration usually involves
separating a precipitate from solution.

Crystallization: Separation is based upon differences in

solubility of the components in a mixture.

Distillation: Separation is based upon differences in volatility.

Extraction: Separation is based upon differences in solubility

in different solvents (major material).

Chromatography: Separation is based upon differences in

solubility in a solvent versus a stationary phase.

Homogenous mixture is called solution

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CLASSIFICATIONS; CHEMICAL FORMULA; NAMING AND

WRITIG FORMULA; BALANCING EQUATIONS

Two Compounds:
Ionic Compounds:
 Referred to as salt

 Ionic compounds are formed from the attraction

of charged atoms called ions- are electrically
charged atoms either positive or negative

 Metal & Non-Metal. Ex: Sodium Chloride

Molecular Compounds: (Covalent bonding)
 Non-Metal compound. Ex: Sulfur Dioxide

Nomenclature
A system of naming. To distinguish one
chemical entity from another, unique names
are assigned to all elements, ions, and
Using -ite And -ate
compounds
Some polyatomic anions contain oxygen.
These anions are called oxyanions. When
Naming Ionic Compounds: elements forms two oxyanions, the one with
less oxygen is given a name ending in -ite and
Ionic compound nomenclature or naming is the one with more oxygen are given a name
based on the names of the component ions. In that ends in -ate
all cases, Ionic compound naming gives the
positively charged cation first, followed by NO2 – Nitrite
the negatively charged anion.
NO3 – Nitrate

Ions Can Be:

Using Hypo- And Per-
 Monoatomic: consist of a single atom
In this case there is a series of four oxyanions,
the -hypo and per- prefixes indicate less
 Polyatomic: Are anions that contains oxygen
oxygen and more oxygen respectively.
attached to some other element, usually a
non-metal. These polyatomic ions are called ClO – Hypochlorite
oxoanions.
ClO2 – Chlorite
 Oxoanions: Combination of oxygen with a
non-metal although some contains metal.
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Ionic Compound Containing BI- and DI- FORMULA ION Stock Name Old Name
2+
Hydrogen FeCl2 Fe Iron (II) Chloride Ferrous Chloride

Polyatomic anions sometimes gain one or

CuO Cu2+ Copper(II) Oxide Cupric Oxide
more H ions to form anions of a lower charge.
These ions are named by adding the word SnO2 Sn4+ Tin (IV) Oxide Stannic Oxide
hydrogen or dihydrogen in front of the name
of the anion. It is still common to see and use
older naming convention in which the prefix
Determining the formula of an ionic compound
bi- is used to indicate the addition of a single
hydrogen ion. A stable ionic compound is electrically nautral
where electrons are shared between cations and
HCO3 – Hydrogen Carbonate or Bicarbonate anions to complete outer electron shells or octets.
You know you have the correct formula for an
HSO4 – Hydrogen Sulfate or Bisulfate
ionic compound when the positive and negative
charges on the ions are the same or “Cancel each
other out”.
Stock System
The specific systemic method used to name ionic
compounds is called STOCK SYSTEM. It uses
numerals in parenthesis after the name of the
metal to indicate the charge.

Roman Numerals in ionic compound names

A roman numeral in parenthesis, followed by the
name of the element, is used for elements that can
form more than one positive ion.
There is no space between the element name and
parenthesis. This notation is usually seen with
metals since they commonly display more than
one oxidation state or valence.
Fe2 Iron (II)

Naming ionic compounds using -ous and -ic

Although roman numerals are used to denote the
ionic charge of cations, it is still common to see
and use the endings -ous and -ic. These endings
are added to the latin name of the element (e.g.,
Stannous/Stannic for Tin) to represent the ions
with lesser or greater charge, respectively. The
roman numeral naming convention has wider
appeal because many ions have more than two
valences.
Fe2+ Ferrous
Fe3+ Ferric
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Examples:
SO2 – Sulfur Dioxide
Molecular Compound SF6 – Sulfur Hexafloride
CCl4 – Carbon Tetrachloride
Contains two or more non-metals. Usually, you Nl3 – Nitrogen Triiodide
can recognize a molecular compound because the
first element in the compound name is a non-
metal. Writing the formula from the name

• You can write the formula for a covalent

compound from its name by writing the symbols
for the first and second element and translating
the prefixes into subscripts. For example, xenon
hexafluoride would be written XF. It is common
for students to have trouble writing formulae from
compounds names as ionic compounds and
covalent compounds are often confused. You
PREFIXES AND MOLECULAR
aren't balancing charges of covalent compounds;
COMPOUND NAMES
if the compound does not contain metal, don't try
• Non-metals may combine in a variety of ratios,
to balance this!
so it is important that the name of a molecular
compound indicates how many atoms of each type
of element are present in the compound.
• This is accomplished using prefixes. If there is Writing formulas for covalent compound
only one atom of the first element, no prefix is
used. It is customary to prefix the name of one 1. The more electropositive element (further left
atom of the second element with mono-. For on the periodic table) is listed before the more
example, CO is named carbon monoxide rather electronegative element (further right on the
than carbon dioxide periodic table)

2. The second element is given an -ide ending.

3. Prefixes are used to denote how many atoms of

each element are present in the compound.
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ACIDS AND BASES. TYPES OF CHEMICAL FORMULAS

• Acid - is a substance that when dissolved water Molecular Formula - this formula uses the actual
provides hydrogen ions, H+ numbers of moles of each element.
EX. Hydrogen peroxide: H,0,
- Compound that provides hydrogen ions in
solution. Empirical Formula - simplest chemical formula.

• Base - substance that reacts with an acid in cryus EX. Hydrogen peroxide: HO
solution to form water and often provide Structural Formula - it shows the number of
hydroxide ions in a solutionsi atoms by means of showing the bonds between
atoms.
• Binary Acids - are named as hydro- followed by
the root of the element name with an -ic suffix EX. Hydrogen peroxide: H-0-O-H
and the word acid placed at the end of the name.

• Generally, acids containing polyatomic ions are Balancing of Chemical Equation

named by taking the root of the polyatomic ion
name, replacing -ate with -ic or replacing -ite with Nature of Reaction
- ous and adding the word acid at the end.
A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the
transformation of one set of chemical substances
to another.
Chemical reactions are usually characterized by a
chemical change, from substances that are initially
involved in a chemical reaction are called
reactants or reagents.
The reactant in a chemical reaction change into
one or more new substances called product.
Example:
Reactants Products
Iron + Oxygen Iron (III) oxide
Hydrogen Peroxide water + oxygen
Classically, chemical reactions encompass
changes that strictly involve the motion of
electrons in the forming and breaking of chemical
bonds between atoms, and can often be described
by a chemical equation.

Summary.......
•Binary acids in solutions are named with the
prefix hydro- followed by the stem of the name of
the non-metal with the suffix -ic and the word
acid attached.
• Naming acids containing polyatomic ions
requires modifying the name of the polyatomic
ion. The prefix hydro- is not used in naming acids
containing polyatomic ion.
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Rules in Balancing Equations

°1. Determine the correct formulas for all the
reactants and products in the reaction
Basic Concepts
2. Write the skeleton equation. If there are 2 or
used to separate one reactant or product more reactants or products involve separate with
from another plus signs.

used to separate the reactants from the 3. Count the number of atoms of each element in
products - it is pronounced "yields" or the reactants and products.
"produces" when the equation is read 4. Balance the elements one at a time by using
coefficients.
an equilibrium arrow- used when the
reaction can proceed in both directions RULE: You must not attempt to balance an
(commonly indicate a reversible reaction equation by changing the subscripts in the
where your certain reactant can produce a chemical formula of a substance.
product, and that product can also create a
5. Check each atom or polyatomic ion to be sure
reactant as well) that the equation is balanced.

(g) indicates that the substance is in a gaseous 6. Finally, make sure that all the coefficients are
state in the lowest possible

an alternative way of representing a

substance in a gaseous state

(s) indicates that the substance is in a solid

state

an alternative way of representing a

substance in a solid state

indicates that the substance is dissolved in

(aq)
water -the aq comes from aqueous

indicates that heat is applied to make the

reaction proceed
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CHEMICAL
REACTIONS
Two Major Classes of Chemical Reactions:

a. Pag distilled water wala ay maunti na ang

ion na present (Ions is important since it
transmits electrical charges)
b. Positive and negative ions fixed in a solid
do not conduct a current electricity.
c. Sea water can conduct energy when
particles are energized. (Positively and
negatively charged ions move and can
A. Diatomic Hydrogen Molecule conduct electrical current.
B. When Diatomic Hydrogen Molecule reacts with
the molecule oxygen
Partial Charges: Identifying first which is the
most electronegative (Has the highest valence)

a. Ammonium- NH4-; Sulfate- S04-2

1 Mole of (NH4)2 will produce 2 Moles of
ammonium
In every Mole of Ammonium Sulfate produces 1
Mole of Sulfate.

If there is presence of water molecules, they will

be attacked (That will lead to a separation) – Ionic
dissolution of an Ionic compound.
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Double-Displacement Formula =
AB + CD = AD + CB

Predicting Whether a Precipitate Will Form

1. Note the ions present in the reactants.
2. Consider the possible cation-anion
combinations.
3. Decide whether any of the ion combinations is
insoluble.
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Acidity of chemicals depend on the presence of

oxygen Redox reaction is a type of process that focuses
more on the reduction and oxidation of the
charges; more on the presence of electrons

Oxidation number rules

Oxidation number dictates us how many

electrons and what is the charge of an element
Lahat ng element na nag-iisa ang Oxidation
number is equivalent to 0
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In Redox, we are dealing with the oxidation or

reduction of electrons; transferring electrons from
a particular location to another.

MNEMONICS:
LEORA- Losing of Electron is Oxidation, Reducing Agent
GEROA- Gaining of Electron is Reduction, Oxidizing Agent
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 CHEMISTRY midterms gwy

CHEMICAL REACTIONS Nature of Chemical Reaction

Chemical reactions happen at
AND EQUATIONS a specific reaction rate at a given
temperature, chemical
concentration and energy
The general concept of a chemical reaction
has been extended to non-chemical
reactions, including nuclear
reactions, radioactive decays,
and quantum field theory.

Quantum Theories: isophetals, mln, orbitals.

Chemistry is everything that surrounds us, and
because of that, they were able to react with one
another.
Chemical reactions are an integral part of:

 Technology
 Culture
 Indeed of life itself.
- Burning fuels

Two types of Reactions: Chemical and Physical

Nature of Chemical Reaction

A chemical reaction is a process that leads to
the transformation of one set of chemical
substances to another.
Chemical reactions are usually characterized
by a chemical change, and they yield one or
more products, which usually have properties
different from the reactants.
The substance/s initially involved in a
chemical reaction are called reactants or
reagents. The reactant in a chemical reaction
change into one or more new substance/s
called product.
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Double displacement, single displacement, acid-

base, combustion reaction fire
boysis, decomposition, combustion electrolysis
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ISOMERISM
A phenomenon in which more than one
compound have the same chemical formula, but
different chemical structures.

 Isomers are compounds that have the

same molecular formula (same numbers
and kinds of atoms) but differ in the way
the atoms are arranged.

Two Concepts of Isomerism

Constitutional Isomerism

 Also called structural isomerism

 These are isomers that differ in the
connectivity of atoms, that is, in the order
which atoms are attached to each other
within molecules.
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Steroisomerism
 These are isomers that have the same
molecular and structural formula, but
different orientations of atoms in space
Aka Spacial Isomerism
Where molecules have the same molecular
formula ad sequence of bonded atoms but diffeent
in three dimensional orientation of their atoms
in space.
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VSEPR (Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion)

- Dictates the angle that exist between molecules.
- Gives idea and knowledge on how we can
predict the shape of molecule
- “Electrons Repel each other”
- There are 5 cases or shapes:
- Linear (180 Degrees)
- Trigonal Planar (120 Degrees)
- Tetrahedral (109.5 Degrees)
- Bent (104.5 Degrees)
- Trigonal Pyramidal (107 Degrees)
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RESONANCE
Resonance is the way of describing the
delocalized electron with certain
molecule/Polyatomic ions where the bonding
cannot be expressed by one Lewis Structure
- Not all electrons resonate.
- Electrons in the Pi Bonds and electrons as
lone pairs are the only one that participate
in resonance.
Skill: Knowledge in F.C
USED: curved (2electrons) /pushed arrows (1
electron)
The flow of electron in terms of resonance, is
from electron rich going to the electron poor.

3 Rules of Resonance:
1. Only move electron lone pair and pi electron
2. Sigma electron are not delocalize-able. (They
are involved in head on orbital)
3. Do not add atom, deal only with the electrons.
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HYBRIDIZATION
 Combining, mixing atomic orbitals in order to generate/ synthesize a new or hybrid orbital.
 This hybrid orbital, is now suitable for pairing of electrons and/or creating chemical bonding.
 Relative to that, hubridization creates a bride for bonding situations and hybridization works on
carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen which these three elements are the major components of organic
chemistry (major na sakop)
 Most of the times, in terms of hybridization, we are dealing with the situations happening in our
carbon.
 It can be single, double or quantum level or lone pair level of hybridization

 Mixing of atomic orbitals into nee hybrid orbitals suitable for the pairing of electrons to form
chemical bonds.
 Bonding situations.
 Really works on C N and O (Organic elements comprising organic compounds) single, double,
quantum and lone pairs.

1. Consider (C)- rarely exists in nature (always bonded)

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BONE STRENGTH AND

BONE LENGTH
Bond strength and bond length
determines the intermolecular
forces of attraction happening
in a particular compound, how
dense our molecules are, what
force are needed.
Strength and length at some
point, are inverse proportional,
and there are 3 aspects:
 Effect of atomic size
 Effect of hybridization
 Effect of resonance


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Characteristics of Acids: Reacts with

Carbonate
• A safe way to test to see if a solution is an
Acids and Bases acid is to place a few drops on a compound
Acid that contains a carbonate (CO3)
An acid is a substance that releases H+ ions • Example: limestone is a rock that contains
in an aqueous solution calcium carbonate (CaCO3) When an acid
– Aqueous means water touches a piece of limestone, a reaction
• Example: when hydrochloric acid is occurs that produces carbon dioxide gas
dissolved in water, the compound separates
into chlorine ions (Cl-) and hydrogen ions
(H+).
Characteristics of Acids: Reacts with Metal
• Acids also reacts with most metals
• The reaction produces hydrogen gas, which
you can see as bubbles
Strong Acids
• A strong acid breaks down completely in Characteristics of Acids: Contain Hydrogen
water and gives off many H+ ions.

Weak Acid
• A weak acid only partially breaks down. It
gives off much less H+ than a strong acid.

Characteristics of Acids
• Corrosive
• Acids have a sour taste
• pH of <7
• Acids react with metals & carbonates to
produce gas
• Acids contain hydrogen H Base
• A base is a substance that releases hydroxide
(OH-) ions in an aqueous solution
• Example: When sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
is dissolved in water, the compound separates
Characteristics of Acids: Taste Sour
into sodium ions (Na+) and hydroxide ions
• Acids in foods taste sour and produce
(OH-)
a burning or prickling feeling on the skin
• Since tasting or touching an unknown
chemical is extremely dangerous, other
methods are needed to tell whether a
solution is an acid
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Characteristics of Bases
Properties of Acids and Bases
• Bases usually taste bitter
• Bases feel slippery
• Caustic
• pH >7
• Bases contain hydroxide ions (OH-)

Characteristics of Bases: Taste Bitter

• Example: Baking soda
• Mild bases in foods taste bitter and feel
slippery, but as with acids, tasting and Properties of Acids and Bases
touching are not safe ways of testing
whether a solution is a base • Similarities between acids and bases
• In fact, some strong bases can burn the skin – Dissolve in water
as badly as strong acids – Conduct electricity in aqueous solution
– Can irritate or burn skin

Acid-Base Strength
Characteristics of Bases: Feel Slippery
• pH stands for “potential hydrogen” and is a
• Bases feel soapy or slippery because they
measure of how many H+ ions there are in
react with acid molecules in your skin
solution.
called fatty acids
• The strength of an acid or base is usually
• In fact, this is exactly how soap is made. measured using a pH scale
Mixing base- usually sodium hydroxide – • The more H+ there are, the lower the pH
with fatty acids produces soap will be.
• So when a base touch your skin, the
combination of the base with your own fatty
acids actually makes a small amount of soap The pH scale is often used to express the
hydronium ion concentration in
an aqueous solution.
Characteristics of Bases: Contain Sodium
Hydroxide (OH-)

Strong Bases The Formulae

Lithium hydroxide LiOH

Sodium hydroxide NaOH

Potassium hydroxide KOH Acid-Base Strength

Rubidium hydroxide RbOH

Caesium hydroxide CsOH

Barium hydroxide Ba(OH)2

Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2

Strontium hydroxide Sr(OH)2

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Acid-Base Strength Acid-Base Indicators

• The numbers of the pH scale usually range • A universal indicator is a mixture of
from 0 – 14, but numbers outside this range chemicals that changes color through a wide
are possible range of pH values
• The middle number, 7, represents a neutral • An even more precise way of determine pH
solution is to use a pH meter
• A neutral substance is neither an acid nor a
base. Pure water has a pH of 7
Acids and Bases Neutralize Each Other
Acid-Base Strength • When an acid and base react with each
• pH < 7 indicate acidic solution other, the characteristic properties of both are
• pH = 7 indicate neutral solution destroyed. This is called neutralization.
• pH > 7 indicate basic solution
• The salts formed may be soluble in water or
• A concentrated strong acid has a low pH can be insoluble
value
• A concentrated strong base has a high • If the sy is insoluble, a precipitate will form
pH value. • Recall: a precipitate is a suspension of a
small, solid particles formed during a
chemical reaction.
Acid-Base Indicators
• An acid-base indicator is a compound that
will change color in the presence of an acid or Acids and Bases Neutralize Each Other
base
• General formula for acid base reaction
• Litmus is a plant extract that can be Acid + Base → H2O + Salt
blue or red (pink) HCl + NaOH → H2O + NaCl
– Litmus turns red/pink in an acidic solution • Salt means any ionic compound formed
– Litmus turns blue in a basic solution from an acid/base reaction
• The color of hydrangea flowers is dependent
upon the pH of soil Acids and Bases Neutralize Each Other
• It would be impossible to determine the pH • A common example of neutralization
of all solutions using just one indicator, such reaction occurs when you swallow an antacid
as litmus tablet to relieve an upset stomach.
• Several other acid-base indicators exist, • The acid in your stomach has a pH of about
each producing a color change at a specific 1.5 due to mostly hydrochloric acid produced
pH level by the stomach lining
• An antacid tablet contains a base, such as
sodium bicarbonate, magnesium hydroxide or
calcium carbonate. The base reacts with the
stomach acid and produces a salt and water.
• This reaction lowers the acidity and raises to
pH to its normal value (about 2)
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ALKANES Four-bond requirement of Carbon

Carbon singularly can bind to four other
Organic Chemistry
atoms
•The study of hydrocarbons (compounds of
Carbon and Hydrogen) and their derivatives. 1. By bonding to four atoms, this
Deals with organic molecules situation requires the presence of four
single bonds
Inorganic Chemistry
•The study of all substances other than
hydrocarbon and their derivatives. (Deals
with elements, chemicals, atoms that are not 2. By bonding to three other atoms. This
organic; these include metals, non metals, situation requires the presence of two
metalloids, transition metals..etc) single bonds and one double bond

Bonding Characteristics of Carbon Atom 3. By bonding to two other atoms. This

situation requires the presence of
Carbon is the focus of organic chemistry, either two double bonds or a triple
because it has a unique ability, versatile to, bond and a single bond
and can bond with different other elements
and create cyclic arrangements of carbon
atoms)
• Carbon atoms have the unique ability to
bond to each other in a wide variety of ways
that involve long chains of carbon atoms or
cyclic arrangements (rings) of carbon atoms
HYDROCARBONS AND
HYDROCARBON DERIVATIVES
• Carbon is a member of Group IVA of the Hydrocarbon - is a compound that contains
periodic table (four valence electrons) In only carbon atoms and hydrogen atoms. (Has
compound formation, four additional valence a notation of Cx-Hx) (Summation of
electrons are needed to give carbon atoms an hydrogen and carbon atoms)
octet of valence electrons.

Hydrocarbon Derivative - is a compound

• The sharing of four valence electrons that contain carbon and hydrogen and one or
requires the formation of four covalent more additional elements. (Compounds that
bonds. (Non metal + non metal) (in covalent, also has a carbon and oxygen, and can also
we do share electrons, and carbon has the have the presence of other elements such as
capacity to establish four covalent bonds “but not limited to” nitrogen, oxygen,
because it has four valence electrons chlorine, fluorine that are all non metals)
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2 Classes of Hydrocarbon Saturated (single bond) Hydrocarbon

(Alkanes)
Saturated Hydrocarbons
• is a hydrocarbon in which all carbon– Alkanes: Acyclic Saturated Hydrocarbons
carbon bonds are single bonds. (Alkane) • is a saturated hydrocarbon in which the
(hydrocarbon ending with “ane”- single bond) carbon atom arrangement is acyclic.
• General molecular formula of Alkane:
• 𝑛 =number of carbon atoms present.
• number of Hydrogen atoms present in an
Unsaturated Hydrocarbon alkane is always twice the number of
• is a hydrocarbon in which one or more carbon atoms plus two more.
carbon–carbon multiple bonds (double • Example: CH₄ - Methane
bonds, triple bonds, or both) are present. C₂H₆ - Ethane
(Alkene “double bonds”; alkyne “triple C₃H₈ - Propane
bonds”) (hydrocarbon ending with “ene”-
double bond; “yne”- triple bonds) Practice: Identify if the following molecular
formula is an Alkane

2 Categories of Hydrocarbons
Arrangements
•Acyclic Carbon Atom
•Cyclic Carbon Atom

Cyclic usually has cyclo (cyclohexane,

cycloheptane, cyclooctane)
Acyclic are the linear representations of
hydrocarbons

Structural Formulas (2-D)

• A two-dimensional structural
representation that shows how the various
atoms in a molecule are bonded to each other
1. Expanded structural formula – shows all
atoms in a molecule and all bonds connecting
the atoms.
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2. Condensed structural formula – uses Alkane Isomerism

groupings of atoms in which central atoms • Isomers are compounds that have the same
and the atoms connected to them are written molecular formula (that is, the same
as a group, to convey molecular structural numbers and kinds of atoms) but that differ
information. in the way the atoms are arranged.
Ex: Four-carbon alkane isomers: (molecular
formula C₄H₁₀)

Structural Formulas
• The condensed structural formulas of
hydrocarbons in which a long chain of
carbon atoms is present are often condensed Five-carbon alkane isomers: (molecular
even more. The formula formula C₅H₁₂)

can be further abbreviated as

IUPAC Nomenclature for Alkanes

where parentheses and a subscript are used to • International Union of Pure and Applied
denote the number of —CH2— groups in the Chemistry (IUPAC) – formulated systematic
chain. rules for naming Organic compounds known
as “IUPAC rules”. (IUPAC has its own rules
Structural Formulas in terms of naming)
3. Skeletal structural formula – is a
structural formula that shows the arrangement
and bonding of carbon atoms present in an • The advantage of the IUPAC naming system
organic molecule but does not show the is that it assigns each compound a name that
hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon atoms. not only identifies it but also enables one to
(We are hiding the hydrogen atoms) draw its structural formula.
As long as there are no charges in the atoms,
• Continuous-Chain Alkane is an alkane in
always assume that they are bonded to
which all carbon atoms are connected in a
hydrogen satisfying the octetrule
continuous non-branching chain (Linear)

.
Structural Formulas • Branched-Chain Alkane is an alkane in
4. Line-angle structural formula – is a which one or more branches (of carbon
structural representation in which a line atoms) are attached to a continuous chain of
represents a carbon–carbon bond and a carbon carbon atoms.
atom is understood to be present at every
point where two lines meet and at the ends of
lines. Hindi na pinapakita both carbon and
hydrogen; most 3D among structural formulas
because we no longer show presence of
carbons
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IUPAC Names for Continuous-Chain Alkyl Groups

Alkanes • Alkyl groups are named by taking the stem
• All Alkane names end in -ane of the name of the alkane that contains the
• Beginning with the five-carbon alkane, same number of carbon atoms and adding the
Greek numerical prefixes are used to ending -yl.
denote the actual number of carbon atoms
in the Continuous chain.

Alkanes

IUPAC RULES for naming Branched-

Chain Alkanes
Rule 1:
Identify the longest continuous carbon chain
(the parent chain), which may or may not be
IUPAC Names for Branched-Chain
Alkanes shown in a straight line, and name the chain.
• To name branched-chain alkanes, we must
be able to name the branch or branches that
are attached to the main carbon chain.
These branches are formally called
substituents. Sa major straightline chain

• Substituent is an atom or group of atoms

attached to a chain (or ring) of carbon atoms. Rule 2:
(in general term) Number the carbon atoms in the parent chain
• Alkyl groups – substituents of Alkanes from the end of the chain nearest a
- is the group of atoms that would be obtained substituent (alkyl group).
by removing a hydrogen atom from an alkane.

Alkyl Groups
• The two most commonly encountered alkyl
groups are the two simplest: the one-carbon
and two-carbon alkyl groups. Their formulas
and names are: • Additional guideline for numbering carbon
atom chains:
If both ends of the chain have a substituent
the same distance in, number from the end
• The extra long bond in these formulas (on closest to the second-encountered substituent.
the left) denotes the point of attachment to the
carbon chain.
• Alkyl groups are always found attached to
another entity (usually a carbon chain).
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Rule 3: Rule 5:
If only one alkyl group is present, name and When two kinds of alkyl groups are present
locate it (by number), and prefix the on the same carbon chain, number each group
number and name to that of the parent carbon separately, and list the names of the alkyl
chain. groups in alphabetical order.

• Additional guidelines for numbering carbon

Rule 4: atom chains:
If two or more of the same kind of alkyl If there are substituents equidistant from
group are present in a molecule, indicate the each end of the chain and there is no third
number with a Greek numerical prefix (di-, substituent to use as the “tie-breaker,” begin
tri-, tetra-, penta-, and so forth). In addition, a numbering at the end nearest the substituent
number specifying the location of each that has alphabetical priority—that is, the
identical group must be included. These substituent whose name occurs first in the
position numbers, separated by commas, alphabet.
precede the numerical prefix. Numbers are
separated from words by hyphens.
3-ethyl-5-methylheptane

Rule 6:
Follow IUPAC punctuation rules, which
include the following:
(1) Separate numbers from each other by
commas.
(2) Separate numbers from letters by hyphens.
(3) Do not add a hyphen or a space between
the last-named substituent and the name of the
parent alkane that follows.
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Practice #1: Give the IUPAC name for each

of the following branched-chain alkanes • The zigzag (sawtooth) pattern used in line-
angle structural formulas has a relationship to
the three-dimensional shape of the
molecules that are represented.

2,3-dimethylpentane. 4-ethyl-2,7 dimethyloctane

Practice #2: Give the IUPAC name for each

of the following branched-chain alkanes
• The structures of branched-chain alkanes
can also be designated using Line-
Angle Structural Formulas.

Practice #4: Draw the Skeletal Structural

Formula of the following

Line-angle Structural Formulas for

Alkanes
• A structural formula in which a line m
represents a carbon–carbon bond and a carbon
atom is understood to be present at every
point where lines meet and at the ends of
lines.
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Cycloalkanes
• Saturated hydrocarbon in which carbon
atoms connected to one another in a cyclic
(ring) arrangement are present.
• The general formula for cycloalkanes is
𝑪𝒏𝑯𝟐𝒏
Ex. Butane (C₄H₁₀) -> Cyclobutane (C₄H₈)

• Line-angle structural formulas are

generally used to represent cycloalkane
structures.

IUPAC NOMENCLATURE FOR

CYCLOALKANES

• IUPAC naming procedures for cycloalkanes

are similar to those for alkanes.
• The ring portion of a cycloalkane molecule
serves as the name base, and the prefix cyclo-
is used to indicate the presence of the ring.
• Alkyl substituents are named in the same Chemical Properties of Alkanes and
manner as in alkanes. Cycloalkanes
STEPS • Combustion reaction – is a chemical
reaction between a substance and oxygen
• Numbering conventions used in locating (usually from air) that proceeds with the
substituents on the ring include the evolution of heat and light (usually as a
following: flame); when using alkanes, there is a
1. If there is just one ring substituent, it is production of heat and light lalo na’t organic
not necessary to locate it by number. compounds ang alkanes
2. When two ring substituents are present, • All alkanes and cycloalkanes are
the carbon atoms in the ring are numbered flammable
beginning with the substituent of higher • Complete combustion products: carbon
alphabetical priority and proceeding in the dioxide (CO₂) and water (H₂O)
direction (clockwise or counterclockwise) that • Incomplete combustion products: Carbon
gives the other substituent the lower number. monoxide (CO) and Carbon dioxide
3. When three or more ring substituents are (CO₂)
present, ring numbering begins at the
substituent that leads to the lowest set of
location numbers. When two or more
equivalent numbering sets exist, alphabetical
priority among substituents determines the set
used.
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• Halogenation - is a chemical reaction Nomenclature and Properties of

between a substance and a halogen in which Halogenated Alkanes
one or more halogen atoms are incorporated • The IUPAC rules for naming halogenated
into molecules of the substance. alkanes are similar to those for naming
• Halogens are the elements in Group VIIA of branched alkanes, with the following
the periodic table: Fluorine (F₂) Chlorine modifications:
(Cl₂), Bromine (Br₂), and Iodine (I₂) 1. Halogen atoms, treated as substituents on
a carbon chain, are called fluoro-, chloro-,
bromo-, and iodo-.
• Hydrogen atoms are replaced with halogen 2. When a carbon chain bears both a halogen
atoms (a substitution reaction) and an alkyl substituent, the two substituents
• Requires the presence of heat or light (it is are considered of equal rank in determining
non spontaneous by nature because it requires the numbering system for the chain. The
the presence of light or heat) chain is numbered from the end closer to a
substituent, whether it be a halo- or an alkyl
group.
3. Alphabetical priority determines the order
in which all substituents present are listed.

• In halogenation of an alkane, the alkane is

said to undergo fluorination, chlorination,
bromination, or iodination, depending on the
identity of the halogen reactant.
These four depends if halogen is florine,
chlorine, bromine and iodine

• Halogenated alkane – is an alkane

derivative in which one or more halogen
atoms are present.
• Halogenated cycloalkane – is a
cycloalkane derivative in which one or more
halogen atoms are present.
 CHEMISTRY midterms gwy

compounds are often called dienes; for three

Alkene and Alkyne double bonds the designation trienes is used.
Unsaturated Hydrocarbon
Saturated: Alkanes
Unsaturated: Compounds with double or Cycloalkenes
triple bonds (alkenes and alkynes) • is a cyclic unsaturated hydrocarbon that
contains one or more carbon– carbon
double bonds within the ring system.
Unsaturated Hydrocarbon • General molecular formula:
• is a hydrocarbon in which one or more
carbon–carbon multiple bonds (double bonds, • Note that two hydrogen atoms are lost
triple bonds, or both) are present. because of the double bond and two
• Unsaturated hydrocarbons are chemically because of the ring structure.
more reactive than their saturated • The simplest cycloalkene is the compound
counterparts. cyclopropene (C₃H₄), a three-membered
• Its multiple bonds serve as locations where carbon ring system containing one double
chemical reactions can occur. bond.
(Kung sa saturated may substituents, in
unsaturated carbon we have Functional
groups)

• Functional group – is the part of an organic ALKYNES

molecule where most of its chemical reactions • is an acyclic unsaturated hydrocarbon that
occur. (Commonly exists in) Carbon–carbon contains one or more carbon–carbon triple
multiple bonds are the functional group for bonds.
an unsaturated hydrocarbon. • Alkyne Functional Group is: C≡C group
• The -yne ending means a triple bond is
present.
3 Subdivisions of Unsaturated • General molecular formula:
Hydrocarbons according to the type of
multiple bonds • Thus the aqust member of this type of
•Alkenes alkyne has the formula C2H2, Ethyne.
•Alkynes
•Aromatic Hydrocarbons

ALKENES
• Is an acyclic unsaturated hydrocarbon that
contains one or more carbon–carbon double
bonds.
• Alkene Functional Group is: C=C group
• The -ene ending means a double bond is
present.
• General molecular formula:

• The two simplest alkenes are Ethene (C₂H₄)

and Propene (C₃H₆).
*When two double bonds are present, the
 CHEMISTRY midterms gwy

IUPAC nomenclature for Alkenes and Rule 6. Do not use a number to locate the
Alkynes double bind in unsubstituted cycloalkenes
with only one double bond because that bond
Rule 1. Replace the alkane suffix -ane with is assumed to be between carbons 1 and 2.
the suffix -ene, which is used to indicate the
presence of carbon-carbon double bond. Rule 7. In substituted cycloalkenes with only
Rule 2. Select as the parent carbon chain the one double bond, the double-bonded carbon
longest continuous chain of carbon that atoms are numbered 1 and 2 in the direction
contains both carbon atoms of the double (clockwise or counterclockwise) that gives the
bond. For example, select first-encountered substituent the lower
number. Again, no number is used in the
name to locate the double bond.

Rule 3. Number the parent carbon chains

beginning at the end nearest the double bond.

Rule 8. In cycloalkenes with more than one

double bond within the ring, assign one
If the double bond is equidistant from both double bond the number 1 and 2 and the other
ends of the parent chain, begin numbeting double bonds the lowest numbers possible
from the end closer to the substituent

Rule 4. Give the position of the double bond

in the chain as a single number, which is the
lower-numbered carbon atom participating in
the double bond. This number is placed
immediately before the name of the parent
carbon chain. Additional guidelines for :
• If a double and triple bond are equidistant
from the end of the chain, the double bond
receives the lowest numbers.

Number the carbon chain from the end nearest

the multiple bond so that the carbon atoms in
that bond have the lowest possible numbers.

• If a molecule contains both a double and a

Rule 5. Use the suffixes -diene, -triene, - triple bond, the carbon chain is numbered so
tetrene, and so on when more than one double that the first multiple bond gets a lower
bond is present in the molecule. A separate number. If both bonds can be assigned the
number must be used to locate each double same number, the double bond takes
bond. precedence. The molecule is then named "n-
ene-n-yne", with the double bond root name
preceding the triple bond root name.
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Practice: Assign the IUPAC names of the CONSTITUTIONAL ISOMERISM IN

following Alkenes and Cycloalkenes. ALKENES
•Constitutional isomerism is possible for
alkenes, just as it was for alkanes.
•In general, there are more alkene isomers for
a given number of carbon atoms than there
are alkane isomers. This is because there is
more than one location where a double bond
can be placed in systems containing four or
more carbon atoms

Four carbon alkanes (two isomers)

Four carbon alkenes (three isomers)
Four carbon alkanes (three isomers)
Five carbon alkenes (five isomers)

Constitutional Isomerism in Alkenes:

When two or more multiple bonds are present • Positional isomers are constitutional
in a molecule, the structure must be classified isomers with the same carbon-chain
further depending on the relative position of arrangement but different hydrogen
the multiple bonds. atom arrangements as the result of
differing location of the functional
group present.

Cumulated when two multiple bond

connected to a similar atom.
Conjugated when two multiple bonds
separated by a single bond.
Nonconjugated (Isolated) when two multiple
bonds are separated by more than one
single bond.
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Constitutional Isomerism in Alkenes: Chemical Reactions of Alkenes

• Skeletal isomers are constitutional isomers
that have different carbon-chain Combustion
arrangements as well as different hydrogen • Alkenes, like alkanes, are very flammable.
The combustion products, as with any
atom arrangements.
hydrocarbon, are carbon dioxide and water.
• Pure alkenes are, however, too expensive to
be used as fuel.
Mas mahal ang alkenes fuel in terms of
economics kasi mahirap sila ihandle, are very
reacive, and are very explosive by nature.

Addition Reaction
• An addition reaction is a reaction in which
atoms or groups of atoms are added to each
carbon atom of a carbon–carbon multiple
bond in a hydrocarbon or hydrocarbon
derivative.

Cis-Trans (Geometric) Isomerism in

Alkenes
• Cis–trans isomerism is possible for some
alkenes.
• Such isomerism results from the structural
rigidity associated with carbon–carbon double
bonds: Unlike the situation in alkanes, where
free rotation about carbon–carbon single Addition Reaction
bonds is possible, no rotation about carbon– A symmetrical addition reaction is an
carbon double bonds (or carbon– carbon triple addition reaction in which identical atoms (or
bonds) can occur. groups of atoms) are added to each carbon of
a carbon–carbon multiple bond

.
An unsymmetrical addition reaction is an
addition reaction in which different atoms (or
groups of atoms) are added to the carbon
atoms of a carbon–carbon multiple bond.
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Hydrogenation Reaction hydrogen atom. Hydrohalogenation reactions

• A hydrogenation reaction is an addition require no catalyst.
reaction in which H2 is incorporated into
molecules of an organic compound.
• In alkene hydrogenation a hydrogen atom is Hydration Reaction (creates alcohol)
added to each carbon atom of a double bond. • A hydration reaction is an addition
It is accomplished by heating the alkene and reaction in which H2O is incorporated into
H2 in the presence of a catalyst (usually Ni or molecules of an organic compound.
Pt). • In alkene hydration one carbon atom of a
double bond receives a hydrogen atom and
the other carbon atom receives an —OH
group.
• Alkene hydration requires a small amount of
H2SO4 (sulfuric acid) as a catalyst

Alkane ang na po-produce sa alkene reaction

in the presence of Ni or Pt

.
Halogenation Reaction (gas)
• A halogenation reaction is an addition Reactions of Alkenes
reaction in which a halogen is incorporated • When the alkene involved in a
into molecules of an organic compound. hydrohalogenation or hydration reaction is
• In alkene halogenation a halogen atom itself unsymmetrical, more than one
is added to each carbon atom of a double product is possible. (An unsymmetrical
bond. Chlorination (Cl2) and bromination alkene is one in which the two carbon atoms
(Br2) are the two halogenation processes most of the double bond are not equivalently
commonly encountered. No catalyst is substituted.)
needed.

Hydrohalogenation (acid ang umaatake) or

hydrogen haline
• A hydrohalogenation reaction is an addition
reaction in which a hydrogen halide (HCl,
HBr, or HI) is incorporated into molecules of
an organic compound.
• In alkene hydrohalogenation one carbon Reactions of Alkenes
atom of a double bond receives a halogen • When two isomeric products are possible,
atom and the other carbon atom receives a one product usually predominates.
The dominant product can be predicted by
using Markovnikov’s rule.
• Markovnikov’s rule states that when an
unsymmetrical molecule of the form HQ
adds to an unsymmetrical alkene, the
hydrogen atom from the HQ becomes
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attached to the unsaturated carbon atom that

already has the most hydrogen atoms.
• Thus the major product in our example
involving propene is 2-chloropropane.
Physical and Chemical Properties of
Alkynes
• The physical properties of alkynes are
similar to those of alkenes and alkanes. In
general, alkynes are insoluble in water but
soluble in organic solvents, have densities
less than that of water, and have boiling
points that increase with molecular mass.
• The triple-bond functional group of alkynes
behaves chemically quite similarly to the
double-bond functional group of alkenes.
Thus there are many parallels between alkene
chemistry and alkyne chemistry.

Physical and Chemical Properties of

Alkynes
• The same substances that add to double
bonds (H2, HCl, Cl2, and so on) also add to
triple bonds.
• However, two molecules of a specific
reactant
can add to a triple bond, as contrasted to the
addition of one molecule of reactant to a
double bond.
• In triple-bond addition, the first molecule
converts the triple bond into a double bond,
and the second molecule then converts the
double bond into a single bond.