1

Module - 3 6 Hours
Elements of Quantum Mechanics

 Introduction / Need for quantum mechanics  (General introduction of

Blackbody Radiation – Concept of Ultraviolet Catastrophe)

 Idea of quantization (Planck & Einstein) – (Concept and Formula,

 Compton effect  (Experiment – Discussion – Final formula and Numerical
Problems)

 de Broglie hypothesis – Davisson – Germer Expt.  (Discussion, DG

Experiment – – Numerical Problems)

 Wave Function and Probability Interpretation  (Definition – Properties -

Operators)

 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle  (Concept and Numerical Problems)

 Schrodinger Wave Equation (Time dependent & time independent)
 (Derivation)
Paul, S., Kiryutin, A.S., Guo, J. et al. Magnetic field effect in natural cryptochrome explored
with model compound. Sci Rep 7, 11892 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-10356-4
• Till 19th Century….All physical phenomena were explained using….

1. Newton’s classical mechanics: Dynamics of the material bodies

2. Maxwell’s Electromagnetic theory: Propagation of electromagnetic waves
and their interaction with matter
3. Classical Thermodynamics: State of the system under thermal
equilibrium

• At 20th Century… Classical mechanics failed to explain some physical

phenomenon at relativistic and microscopic domains
And that gave birth to the Quantum Mechanics! 4
 Quantum nature of radiation
1st evidence from spectrum emitted by a black-body
What is a black body ?
What is a white body?

An object that absorbs all incident radiation, i.e. no reflection - black body

An object that reflects all incident radiation, i.e. no absorption – white body.

A black body is a theoretical object that absorbs 100% of the radiation that
hits it. Therefore it reflects no radiation and appears perfectly black.
 A black-body?
(An object that absorbs all incident radiation, i.e. no reflection)
A small hole cut into a cavity is the most popular
and realistic example.
None of the incident radiation escapes

What happens to this radiation?

•The radiation is absorbed in the walls of the cavity
•This causes a heating of the cavity walls
•Atoms in the walls of the cavity will vibrate at frequencies characteristic of
the temperature of the walls
•These atoms then re-radiate the energy at this new characteristic frequency
 A black-body reaches thermal equilibrium when the incident
radiation power is balanced by the power re-radiated, i.e. if you expose
a black-body to radiation, its temperature rises until the incident and
radiated powers balance.

The maximum wavelength emitted by a black body radiator is

infinite. It also emits a definite amount of energy at each wavelength
for a particular temperature, called black body radiation curves,. All
objects emit radiation above absolute zero.

• The emission from a black-body depends only on its temperature.

• Objects at 300 K radiate in the infrared.

•Objects at 600 - 700 K start to glow.
•At high T, objects may become white hot
Black-body spectrum
This graph shows how the black
body radiation curves change at
various temperatures.
All these have their peak
wavelengths in the infra-red part
of the spectrum as they are at a
relatively lower temperature

A black-body at room temperature appears

black, as most of the energy it radiates is
infra-red and cannot be perceived by the
human eye.

At higher temperatures, black bodies glow

with increasing intensity and colors that
range from dull red to blindingly brilliant
blue-white as the temperature increases.

Fig : Black body radiation curves showing peak wavelengths at various temperatures
As the temperature increases, the
peak wavelength (not peak
intensity) emitted by the black body
decreases.
ie. as the temperature increases
from 1250 to 2000K, the peak
wavelength decreases from
2.5um(2500nm) to 1.5um (1500 nm)
LAVA flow

One can measure the

temperature of the lava
using the colour.
 19th century a major problem for physicists : To predict the intensity of
radiation emitted by a black body at a specific wavelength.

Wien’s theory : Predicted the overall form of the curve by treating the
radiation as gas molecules.

Draw back: However, at long wavelengths his theory disagreed with

experimental data.

Rayleigh and Jeans : Later given a formula by considering the radiation

within the black body cavity to be made up of a series of standing waves.

They thought that electromagnetic radiation was emitted by oscillating atoms

in the walls of the black body and this radiation set up a standing wave
between the walls. Their formula stated: as given ……………

Wien, Rayleigh-Jeans and Planck distributions

8 k BT e   / T 8 hc
uRJ     ; uW     ; uP    
 4 5  5  e hc /  kBT  1
Draw backs : For large wavelengths it fitted the experimental data but it had
major problems at shorter wavelengths.
As the wavelength tended to zero, the curve would tend to infinity.
However we know that there is a peak wavelength for each temperature,
and the energy emitted at either side of this peak dropped.
The Rayleigh-Jeans Law predicted no peak wavelength.
Ultraviolet catastrophe
The formulae failed to explain and account for energy outputs at short
wavelengths (the ultraviolet wavelengths) known as the ultraviolet
catastrophe.
.
Comparison between Classical and Quantum
viewpoint

There is a good fit at long wavelengths, but at short wavlengths there is a

major disagreement. Rayleigh-Jeans ∞, but Black-body 0.
Max Planck

The law was the first to accurately describe black body radiation, and resolved
the ultraviolet catastrope. It is a breakthrough in modern physics and
quantum theory.

A major breakthrough was made by Max Planck who made a formula that
agreed with experimental data.
In 1900, Max Planck studied black body radiation from the
standpoint of thermodynamics.

He proposed that the energy of each electromagnetic

oscillator is limited to discrete values and cannot be varied
arbitrarily, contrary to the assumptions of classical physics.

This limitation of energies to discrete values is called the

quantization of energy.

Planck corrected the problem by assuming that only

specific energies hν could be involved. These permitted
energies of an electromagnetic oscillator are integer
multiples of hν

E = nhν ; n = 0, 1, 2, ……….

where h is Planck’s constant. On the basis of this

assumption, Planck was able to derive the Planck’s
Distribution, which fit the experimental data well at all
wavelengths:
Before Planck it was assumed that these could have any value of energy,

but

Planck decided that the energy must go up in discrete amounts (quantised)

because the frequencies of the oscillating electrons could only take certain
values.

As energy is proportional to frequency (E = hf) , where h is the Planck

constant 6.626 x 10-34 Js) if frequency can only take discrete values,
this means that energy is also quantised.

The electrons have a fundamental frequency (like standing waves on a

string) and the frequency can only go up in whole multiples of this
frequency, called the quantum number. This assumption led Planck to
correctly derive his formula.
Application for Black Body
Limitations of Classical theory (failures)

1. Black body radiation

2. Origin of discrete spectra of atoms (gases)
3. Variation of specific heat of metals and gases
4. Stability of atoms
5. Failed to explain photoelectric effect, Compton effect,
Zeeman effect, Raman effect, etc….
Quantization is the procedure of constraining something from a
continuous set of values (such as the real numbers) to a relatively small
discrete set (such as the integers).

In Physics, quantization is the process of transition from a classical

understanding of physical phenomena to a newer understanding known
as “ quantum mechanics".
 Planck’s Radiation Formula
In 1900 Planck explained the experimentally observed distribution of energy in the
spectrum of black body and suggested that the correct results can be obtained if the
energy of oscillating electrons is taken as discrete rather than continuous.
He derived the radiation law by using the following assumptions:
1. A chamber containing blackbody radiations also contains simple harmonic oscillators
of molecular dimensions which can vibrate with all possible frequencies.
2. The frequency of radiation emitted by an oscillator is the same as the frequency of
vibration.
3. An oscillator cannot emit energy in a continuous manner, it can emit energy in the
multiples of a small unit called quantum (photon). If an oscillator is vibrating with a
frequency ‘ν’, it can radiate in quantas of magnitude hν; the oscillator can have
discrete energies values En given by
En= nhν ; where n – an integer; h – Plancks constant (6.625 x 10-34 Joule- sec)
4. The oscillators can emit or absorb radiation energy in packet of hν. (revolutionary
assumption)
This implies that the exchange energy between radiation and matter cannot take
place continuously but are limited to discrete set of values 0, hν, 2hν, 3hν, ……….nhν.
Plancks radiation formula in terms of frequency

Plancks radiation formula in terms of wavelength

 THEORY

• It was thought that light had a wave nature.

Phenomena such as interference, diffraction and polarisation can be

explained only on the basis of wave nature of light.

At the same time, phenomena such as photo electric effect and

compton effect, etc could not be explained by the wave nature of light.

• The theory behind the Compton Effect was to prove that light has a
particle nature also.

Polarized light waves are light waves in which the vibrations occur in a single
plane. The process of transforming unpolarized light into polarized light is known
as polarization.
• Intensity Problem: According to wave theory, intensity of
radiation is given by
𝟐

Where E is the amplitude of electromagnetic wave

• Classical wave theory failed to explain the black body
spectrum.

• Frequency Problem: According to wave theory, photoelectric

effect should take place for all frequencies provided the
intensity of light is sufficient to supply necessary energy to
the electron for its emission.
• Classical wave theory cannot explain the first 3 observations
of photoelectric effect
24
• Stability of atom and atomic spectroscopy
• Black body radiation
• The photoelectric effect

25
• Atom act like a small harmonic oscillator having some characteristic frequency of vibration
• An oscillating atom can absorb or reemit energy in discrete units called as Energy quantum or
quanta

• Where is the frequency of radiation and is a Planck’s constant

• The energy of the oscillator is quantized. It can take only certain discrete amount of energy
n = 1,2,3,….
Where n is called as quantum number
Planck’s hypothesis An atom exists in certain discrete energy state, called quantum state

26
Discrete energy states of atomic harmonic oscillator Mass-spring harmonic oscillator
• In 1905, Albert Einstein coined the word “Photon” (a energy
quanta)
• The energy of a photon is determined by its frequency and given
as

• Light is a stream of photons travelling with a velocity of light “c”

• The rest mass of photons is zero ( 𝟎

• Relativistic mass:
• Linear momentum associated with a photon is expressed as
𝐸 ℎ𝑣 ℎ
𝑃= = =
𝑐 𝑐 𝜆
• Angular momentum or spin of a photon is 1
• Photons are electrically neutral and can not be influenced by
electric and magnetic fields 27
• Wave behaviour of light
• Interference
• Diffraction
• Polarization

• Particle behaviour of light

• Black body radiation
• Photoelectric effect
• Compton effect

1. A particle occupies a definite position in space and it must be very small

2. A wave spreads out and occupies relatively large region in space and can not be attributed to a
particular location in space

Contradictory to each other!

• Light behaves as an advancing wave in some phenomenon and it behaves as flux of particles in
some other phenomenon Light exhibits wave-particle duality! 28
 !
ENERGY

𝟐
Compressed Free Form

Matter Wave

 Photon
 Duality / Symmetry
29
• In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed that matter has dual nature, just like radiation i.e.
Wave Nature
Radiation Matter
Particle Nature

Nature Loves Symmetry…!

de Broglie Hypothesis:
• Any moving particle is associated with a wave. The waves associated with particles are
known as de Broglie waves or matter waves
• The wavelength of matter waves associated with a particle moving with velocity is
inversely proportional to magnitude of momentum of the particle

30
• The de Broglie equation is given as

• If velocity of particle is zero, i.e

• Matter waves are detectable for only for moving particles

• Smaller the mass of a particle Longer the wavelength of matter waves associated with it
• Wave behaviour of micro-particles is significant whereas waves associated with macro-bodies
can never be detected

• Smaller the velocity of the micro-particle Longer the wavelength of the matter wave
associated with it

31
• Case-1: For example, if we consider a cricket ball of 500 gm moving with a velocity of 50 km/hr,
then it’s wavelength comes to

𝟐𝟒

• Case-2: Consider an electron is accelerated by a potential of 100 V. The de Broglie wavelength of

the electron is given by

The size of the electron is about which is smaller than the wavelength of 1.33Å
32
Wavelength associated with an accelerated charged particle
The K.E. of an accelerated charged particle is given as
1
𝐾. 𝐸. = 𝑚𝑣 = 𝑒𝑉
2

2𝑒𝑉
∴ 𝑣=
𝑚
Electron wavelength is given by
ℎ ℎ 𝑚
𝜆= =
𝑚𝑣 𝑚 2𝑒𝑉

𝒉
∴ 𝝀=
𝟐𝒎𝒆𝑽
De Broglie wavelength in terms of K.E.
1 𝑚 𝑣 𝑃
𝐾. 𝐸. = 𝑚𝑣 = =
2 2𝑚 2𝑚

𝑜𝑟 𝑃 = 2𝑚 (𝐾. 𝐸. )

𝒉
∴𝝀=
𝟐𝒎 (𝑲. 𝑬. ) 33
• Bohr’s Postulate: Angular momentum L of the electron revolving in a stationary orbit is quantized

• The associated matter waves propagate along the circumference of the circular loop in form of
standing waves
• The condition for standing wave is that the circumference of the loop should be an integral number
of whole wavelength, i.e.
−❶
And r is the radius of the circular loop

34
• The de Broglie wavelength of electron is given as

Putting value of λ in equation (1)

Here, is an angular momentum of electron

Thus, de Broglie demonstrated that the quantization of angular momentum is a direct consequence of
wave nature of electron

35
• Matter waves are produced by the motion of the particles and are independent of the
charge. Therefore, they are neither electromagnetic nor acoustic waves but are new kind
of waves
• They can travel through vacuum and do not require any material medium for their
propagation
• The smaller the velocity of the particle, the longer is the wavelength of the matter waves
associated with it
• The lighter the particle, the longer is the wavelength of the matter wave associated with
it
• The velocity of matter wave is not a constant unlike light waves
• Matter waves exhibit diffraction phenomenon as any other waves
• It is a wave of probability indicating the likelihood of locating the particle
36
 • Experiment revealing the particle nature of X-ray (radiation,
with wavelength ~ 10-10 nm)

• Compton, Arthur Holly (1892-1962), American physicist and

Nobel laureate whose studies of X-rays led to his discovery
in 1922 of the so-called Compton effect.

• The phenomenon in which the wavelength of the scattered

X-rays is greater than the wavelength of the incident X-
rays is called Compton Effect. The difference in wavelength
Compton Arthur Holly is known as Compton shift.
American physicist
• The Compton effect is the change in wavelength of high
energy electromagnetic radiation when it scatters off
electrons.

The discovery of the Compton effect confirmed that electromagnetic radiation has both wave and
particle properties, a central principle of quantum theory.
• A beam of X-rays falls on the target (graphite).
• Detector capable of moving in an arc, measures the energy of
the scattered X-rays at various angles of θ.
• The graphs show the Compton experimental results. For each
angle other than 0o, two peaks appear.
• Wavelength of 1st peak matches with the original (incident )
wavelength. This corresponds to the photon that gets
scattered from the tightly bound electrons of the graphite.
Hence they don’t lose their energy.
• Wavelength of the 2nd peak corresponds to the scattered
photon due to loosely bound electron in the graphite, where
they lose some amount of energy.
• Compton performed the experiment with gamma rays and also
found that there was no change in Compton shift, proving that
Compton shift does not depend on the incident wavelength. 38
Compton scattering is an inelastic scattering of a photon by a free charged
particle, usually an electron.
Compton scattering is an example of inelastic scattering, because the wavelength of
the scattered light is different from the incident radiation
The phenomenon in which the
wavelength of the scattered X-
rays is greater than the
wavelength of the incident X-
rays is called Compton Effect.
The difference in wavelength is
known as Compton shift.
The value of Compton shift is
dependent on the angle of
scattering.

The greater the angle of scatter, the more energy is lost by the
photon
h
'    (1  cos  )
mo c
 Beam of x-ray with sharp wavelength 
falls on graphite target. For various
angle q the scattered x-ray is
measured as a function of their
wavelength

Although initially the incident beam

consists of only a single well-defined
wavelength () the scattered x-rays
have intensity peaks at two wavelength
(’ in addition), where ’ > .

Unexplained by classical wave

Wavelength theory for radiation
shift
No shift of wavelength is
predicted in wave theory of light
Let interplanar distance for Ni crystal is d= 0.91Å
From figure, glancing angle 𝜃 = 65⁰

Case I: Applying Bragg’s equation, 𝐧𝝀 = 𝟐𝒅 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽

𝜆 = 2 × 0.91Å × sin 65° = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟓 Å

Case II: Applying de-Broglie equation

𝒉
𝝀=
𝟐𝒆𝒎𝑽

6.63 × 10 𝐽𝑠
𝜆= = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟔Å
2 × 9.1 × 10 𝑘𝑔 × 1.62 × 10 𝐶 × 54𝑉

The values obtained experimentally using Bragg’s equation and de Broglie equation agreed well.
Therefore, Davisson-Germer experiment gave conclusive evidence that electrons exhibit diffraction property.
41
Phase Velocity: A rate at which phase of a wave propagate in space.
• For a harmonic wave of single wavelength and single frequency, the
velocity of propagation is given as
−❶
𝒑

Now, and

𝝎
𝒑 is a phase velocity of de-Broglie wave
𝒌

42
• Phase velocity represents the velocity of propagation of wave front
We know
𝐸 ℎ 𝐸
∴ 𝜐 = 𝜈𝜆 = × =
ℎ 𝑃 𝑃

• If a particle is moving with non-relativistic velocity, then

𝐸 𝑚𝑐 𝑐 𝒄𝟐
𝜐 = = = ⇒ 𝝊𝒑 =
𝑃 𝑚𝑣 𝑣 𝒗

• As the phase velocity of the de-Broglie wave associated with atomic particle is always
greater than c
• According to the theory of relativity, it is not possible that the velocity of the particle wave
greater than or equal to the velocity of light
• Hence, a harmonic wave of wavelength λ can not represent a moving atomic particle
• Thus, de-Broglie waves can not be harmonic waves!
43
• Schrodinger postulated that a wave packet represent a particle
• A wave packet consists of a group of harmonic waves. Each wave having slightly different
wavelength
• The superposition of a very large number of harmonic waves produce a single wave
packet
• The waves interfere constructively over only a small region of space and cancel each
other everywhere
• The velocity with which the wave packet propagates is called Group velocity, 𝒈

44
• The amplitude of the wave packet varies with 𝑥 and 𝑡. Such a variation
of amplitude is called as modulation of the wave
• Consider two waves of equal amplitude and slightly different angular
velocities ω1 and ω2
𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑘 𝑥
𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑘 𝑥
The superposition of these two waves is

𝑦 + 𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑘 𝑥 + 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑘 𝑥

(𝜔1 + 𝜔2 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 (𝜔1 − 𝜔2 𝑘1 − 𝑘2
𝑦 + 𝑦 = 2𝐴 sin 𝑡 − 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 − 𝑥
2 2 2 2

∆𝜔𝑡 ∆𝑘𝑥
𝑦 + 𝑦 = 2𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −
2 2
Where
( ) ( )
𝜔= 𝑘= ∆𝜔 = 𝜔1 − 𝜔2 and ∆𝑘 = 𝑘1 − 𝑘2
45
The resultant wave have two parts
∆𝜔𝑡 ∆𝑘𝑥
𝑦 + 𝑦 = 2𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −
2 2

i) A wave of angular frequency and propagation constant k, moving with velocity

𝜔
𝜐 = = 𝜈𝜆
𝑘

ii) A second wave of angular frequency and propagation constant , moving with
velocity
Δ𝜔
𝜐 =
Δ𝑘
When Δ𝜔 and Δ𝑘 is very small,
𝑑𝜔
𝜐 =
𝑑𝑘

2𝜋𝑑𝜈 𝑑𝜈
𝑜𝑟 𝜐 = = −𝜆
2𝜋𝑑(1/𝜆) 𝑑𝜆 46
The phase velocity is given as
𝜔
𝜐 =
𝑘
Or 𝜔 = 𝑘𝝊𝒑
The group velocity is given as
𝑑𝜔 𝑑 𝑑𝜐
𝜐 = = 𝑘𝜐 = 𝜐 +𝑘
𝑑𝑘 𝑑𝑘 𝑑𝑘

We know, 𝑘 = ∴ 𝑑𝑘 = − 𝑑𝜆

𝑘 𝜆
=−
𝑑𝑘 𝑑𝜆

𝒅𝝊𝒑
𝝊𝒈 = 𝝊𝒑 − 𝝀
𝒅𝝀

In non-dispersive medium, 𝜐 = 𝜐
In dispersive medium, waves of different wavelengths travel in a medium with different velocities. Therefore, the
group velocity is in general less than the phase velocity. 47
The velocity of a particle equals the group velocity of the associated matter waves
Group velocity of a wave packet is
𝒅𝝎
𝝊𝒈 =
𝒅𝒌

𝑑𝜔 𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝑃
𝜐 =
𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑘
We know,
𝑑𝜔 1
𝐸 = ℏ𝜔 ⇒ =
𝑑𝐸 ℏ
𝑑𝑃
𝑃 = ℏ𝑘 ⇒ = ℏ
𝑑𝑘

1 𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝐸
𝜐 = ℏ =
ℏ 𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃
For a particle,
𝑃 𝑃𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝐸 𝑃
𝐸= ⇒ 𝑑𝐸 = ⇒ =
2𝑚 𝑚 𝑑𝑃 𝑚

𝒅𝑬 𝑷
𝝊𝒈 = = = 𝝊
𝒅𝑷 𝒎

 Thus, the de-Broglie wave group associated with an atomic particle travels with the same velocity as that of the
particle itself 48
i) Possible energy state of a microparticle
trapped in a box

ii) Neutron diffraction

iii) Transmission Electron Microscopy

(TEM)

iv) Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

49
Classical Mechanics is a physical theory of deterministic nature
It is governed by the principle of causality (In nature nothing
happens by chance)

Quantum Mechanics is a physical theory of probabilistic nature

It is based on the concept of probability and observation

50
• In 1927 Heisenberg stated that:
“It is not possible to know simultaneously and with accuracy
both the position and momentum of a micro particle”
(This principle is based on the wave-particle duality of matter)

Mathematically
• The product of uncertainty in the x-coordinate of a particle and Werner Heisenberg
uncertainty in in the x-component of the momentum would German physicist
always be of the order of Planck’s constant

51
• The HUP is a direct consequence of the wave nature of particle
• The limit on measurement is independent of measuring instrument

• This principle applies to all conjugate quantities

i) Position-Linear momentum ii) Energy-Time
iii) Time and Frequency iv) Angular momentum-Angular displacement

Physical Significance of HUP

• We can not have the exact value of the position and momentum of a particle, but we can
have the probability of finding the particle at a certain position with probable value of
momentum
• The estimation of such probabilities is made by means of certain functions called as
probability density functions 52
The uncertainty relation for the simultaneous measurement of energy and time is
expressed as

Physical Significance:
If is the maximum uncertainty in the determination of energy of a particle, then the
minimum time interval for which the particle remains in that state is given by

And if a particle remains in a particular energy state for a maximum time , then the
minimum uncertainty in the particle energy is given by

53
Let consider a microparticle of mass moving with a velocity , then its K.E. will be

If the uncertainty in the energy is , then

Thus,
ℏ ℏ
𝟐 ∵ ∆𝑥 ∆𝑃 ≥
2

“In a very short time the energy is not defined” 54

1. Bohr’s Orbit and Energy
Consider an electron in hydrogen atom
Let Δ𝑥 be the uncertainty in position and Δ𝑃 is the uncertainty in its
momentum
Let Δ𝑥 = r = 0.5 x 10-10 m
∴ uncertainty in electron speed is
ℎ
Δ𝜐 =
2𝜋𝑚Δ𝑥

6.62 × 10 𝐽. 𝑠
Δ𝜐 =
2 × 3.124 × 9.11 × 10 𝑘𝑔 × 0.5 × 10 𝑚

𝜟𝝊 = 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒎/𝒔
That is matches with the velocity of electron in an atom 1.0 x 106 m/s The uncertainties in the position
and velocity of electron in an atom.
∴ uncertainty in momentum is of the same order as the momentum
i.e. Δ𝑃 ≈ P
⇒ Sharp position and momentum do not exist simultaneously for an 55
electron in an atom
Now let us see the energy of the Bohr’s first orbit

Substituting values for P and r,

This energy value matches with the value given by Bohr theory.
56
2. Particle in a Box:
Let us consider a particle confined to a box of length . The uncertainty in the position
is

Energy is given by

This result agrees with the result obtained from the Schrodinger equation.

57
3. Electron cannot be present in the nucleus
In 𝛽-decay, electrons are emitted. We apply uncertainty principle to find whether electrons are coming out of
the nucleus
If electrons present in the nucleus, the maximum uncertainty Δ𝑥 in the position of the electron is equal to the
diameter of the nucleus
Δ𝑥 = 2 × 10 𝑚
The minimum uncertainty in its momentum is given by

ℏ 1.04 × 10 𝐽. 𝑠
∆𝑝 = = = 5.2 × 10 𝑘𝑔 − 𝑚/𝑠
Δ𝑥 2 × 10 𝑚

The minimum uncertainty in momentum can be taken as the momentum of electron

𝑝 = 5.2 × 10 𝑘𝑔 − 𝑚/𝑠

∴ 𝑬𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝑃 𝑐=( )(3 × 10 𝑚/𝑠) = 1.56 × 10 𝐽 = 𝟗. 𝟕𝐌𝐞𝐕

If an electron exists within the nucleus, it must have a minimum energy of about 10 MeV. But experimental
measurements showed that the maximum kinetic energy of β particles were of the order of 4 MeV only.
Hence electrons are not present in the nucleus! 58