Name: ________________________

Cosmology
Class: ________________________

Date: ________________________

Time: 260 min.

Marks: 177 marks

Comments:

Page 1 of 17
Q1.
(a) Describe the links between galaxies, black holes and quasars.

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(2)

(b) At a distance of 5.81 × 108 light year, Markarian-231 is the closest known quasar to
the Earth. The red shift z of Markarian-231 is 0.0415

Use these data to estimate an age, in seconds, of the Universe.

age = ____________________ s
(4)

(c) A typical quasar is believed to be approximately the size of the solar system, with a
power output similar to that of a thousand galaxies.

Estimate, with reference to the inverse-square law, how much further the most
distant visible quasar is likely to be compared to the most distant visible galaxy.

Page 2 of 17
 ___________________________________________________________________

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(3)
(Total 9 marks)

Q2.
Evidence to support the Big Bang theory comes from cosmological microwave
background radiation and the relative abundance of hydrogen and helium in the Universe.

(a) Explain what is meant by cosmological microwave background radiation and how its
existence supports the Big Bang theory.

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(3)

(b) Explain how the relative abundance of hydrogen and helium supports the Big Bang

Page 3 of 17
 theory.

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(3)
(Total 6 marks)

Q3.
According to NASA nearly 2000 exoplanets had been discovered by 2016, and the search
continues. One aim of this search is to find an Earth-like planet orbiting a Sun-like star.

Discuss the difficulties associated with the detection of an Earth-like planet orbiting a
Sun-like star.

In your answer you should compare the methods that are used in the search and suggest
which may be the most successful.

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Page 4 of 17
 _______________________________________________________________________
(Total 6 marks)

Q4.
Two methods involved in the detection of exoplanets are the radial velocity method and
the transit method.

(a) Explain what is meant by the transit method of detection.

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(3)

(b) Explain why it is important that there is more than one method of detection.

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(2)
(Total 5 marks)

Q7.
(a) State which property of the first identified quasar led to its discovery.

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(1)

(b) 3C48 is a quasar in the constellation Triangulum. It is believed to have a power

output 4 × 1011 times greater than that of the Sun. At the Earth, the Sun’s intensity is
1.4 × 1017 times greater than that of the quasar.

(i) Calculate, using the inverse square law, the distance from Earth to this quasar
in AU.

Page 5 of 17
 distance = ____________________ AU
(3)

(ii) Measurements of the red shift of the quasar suggest the expansion of the
Universe has accelerated since the detected light left the quasar.
State the cause of this acceleration.

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(1)
(Total 5 marks)

Q8.
NGC 3842 is a galaxy which contains one of the biggest black holes ever discovered.

(a) State what is meant by a black hole.

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(1)

(b) The mass of the black hole in NGC 3842 is believed to be 1.0 × 1010 times greater
than that of the Sun.

Calculate the radius of its event horizon.

radius = ____________________ m
(2)

(c) NGC 3842 is 3.3 × 108 light years from the Earth, and is receding at a velocity of
6.3 × 106 m s−1.

Estimate, using these data, an age in seconds for the Universe.

age of Universe = ____________________ s

(3)

Page 6 of 17
 (Total 6 marks)

Q9.
(a) State what is meant by the Hubble constant.

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(1)

(b) The recessional velocity of a galaxy 8.0 × 10 8 ly from Earth is measured to be

1.8 × 104 km s−1.

Show that this suggests a value for the Hubble constant of 73 km s −1 Mpc−1.

(2)

(c) (i) Using the value for the Hubble constant given in part (b), estimate the age of
the Universe.
Give your answer in years.

age of the Universe ____________________ years

(3)

(ii) State one assumption that must be made to justify the estimate made in part
(i).

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______________________________________________________________
(1)
(Total 7 marks)

Page 7 of 17
Mark schemes

Q1.
(a) Quasars are produced by (supermassive) black holes. ✔

These black holes are at the centre of (active) galaxies (active galactic nuclei.) ✔
2

(b) Using v = cz gives

v = 3 × 108 × 0.0415 ✔ = 1.25 × 107 = 1.25 × 104 kms–1

Using 1pc = 3.26 lyr

d = 5.81 × 108 lyr = 5.81 × 108/3.26 ✔ = 1.78 × 108 pc

= 1.78 × 102 Mpc (= 5.5 × 1024 m)

Using v = Hd

(H = v/d = 1.25 × 104/1.78 × 102 = 70 kms–1 Mpc–1)

Age of Universe = 1/H = d/v ✔

= 5.81 × 108 × 9.47 × 1015/1.25 × 107 = 4.42 × 1017 s ✔

The first mark is for use of zc.
The second mark is for a calculation of d.
The third mark is for using the idea that the age of the
Universe is 1/H.
The fourth mark is for the answer.
Allow own H for 3rd and 4th marks.
4

(c) Both quasar and galaxy should have same brightness (and therefore similar
received power) ✔

Use of Inverse square law eg

Power of quasar/(distance to quasar)2 = power of galaxy / (distance to galaxy)2 ✔

Or 1000/d2 = 1/1

So distance to quasar = (1000)½ = about 30 times greater than distance to galaxy ✔

The first mark is for relating the similar “brightness”. Accept
intensity. Accept in form of equation linking quasar and
galaxy.
The second mark is for applying the inverse square law.
Simply quoting it does not get this mark.
The final mark is for coming to a valid conclusion related to
the distance to the quasar compared to the distance to the
galaxy.
Do not accept answers involving square roots.

Page 8 of 17
 These are standalone marks.
1
2
[9]

Q2.
(a) It is the radiation coming from all parts of the Universe ✔

When the Universe cooled sufficiently for matter and radiation to ‘decouple’, with the
combination of protons and electrons to form neutral atoms ✔

This radiation has been red-shifted into the microwave region as the Universe has
expanded ✔

OR

This is (em) radiation from all parts of the Universe, ✔

the spectrum has a peak in the microwave region / corresponds to a temperature of

2.7 K ✔

It can be interpreted as the radiation left over from the Big Bang / the photons
having been stretched to longer wavelengths and lower energies ✔
One mark is for stating that CMBR comes from all parts of
Universe.
Accept Isotropic.
Condone homogeneous.
Condone same at all points in universe.
Another is for referencing the idea that the radiation has a
peak in the microwave region.
The third is for linking it to the Big Bang theory.
Condone “left over heat from Big Bang”.
3

(b) (The Big Bang theory suggests that a very brief period of) fusion occurred (when the
Universe was very young), resulting in the production of helium from fusing
hydrogen. ✔

Fusion stopped as the Universe then expanded and cooled ✔

Resulting in a relative abundance of hydrogen and helium in the ratio of 3:1/ cooled
too rapidly for the creation of larger nuclei,

Or suitable relevant observation ✔

One mark is for linking helium production to fusion in the
early Universe. This mark can also be awarded for
description of proton and neutron creation/ 7:1 ratio
3
[6]

Q3.
The mark scheme gives some guidance as to what statements are

Page 9 of 17
expected to be seen in 1 or 2 mark (L1), or 3 or 4 mark (L2) and 5
or 6 mark (L3) answer. Guidance provided in section 3.10 of the
‘Mark Scheme Instructions’ document should be used to assist in
marking this question.

Mark Criteria QoWC

6 All three methods The student

described. presents relevant
information
All three methods coherently,
applied to Earth-like employing
planets. structure, style
Judgement reached. and spg to
render meaning
5 Only two methods clear. The text is
described and all three legible.
applied,
Or
All three described and
only two applied.

4 Two methods The student

described and applied, presents relevant
information and
Or three described and in a way which
only one applied. assists the
communication
3 Three methods
of meaning. The
described,
text is legible.
Or SPG are
sufficiently
Two methods accurate not to
described and one obscure
applied. meaning.

2 Only one method The student

described and applied presents some
relevant
Or two methods information in a
described with simple form. The
application. text is usually
legible. SPG
1 Only one method
allows meaning
described.
to be derived
although errors
are sometimes
obstructive.

0 No relevant The student’s

information. presentation,
SPG seriously
obstruct
understanding.

Higher Level (5 or 6 marks)

Page 10 of 17
 All three methods of measurement are described (transit, radial
and direct observation)

Problems associated with each one are discussed, with particular

reference to detecting an object an Earth-like planet.

Intermediate Level (3 or 4 marks)

Only two of the three methods are described and little effort is
made to link the methods to the detection of an Earth-like planet.

Low level (1 or 2 marks)

Only one method is described, or two methods poorly.

Little or no reference is made to the detection of an Earth-like

planet.

(a more detailed mark scheme will be produced with levelled

statements)
Transit – dips in brightness as planet crosses in front of star
from our point of view.
Alignment must be correct for planets to eclipse, so many
possible candidates not observed. Earth-like planet could be
observed provided not too far away.
Radial velocity (Doppler) – periodic shift in spectra of star
due to star’s movement around common centre of mass with
planet.
Earth-like planet mass much less than mass of Sun-like star
so effect slight. Earth-like planet could be detected with
highly sensitive spectrometers.
Direct observation – very unlikely as Earth-like planet to
small and too near star and too cool to be detected against
the brightness of the Sun-like star. Unlikely to be detected.
[6]

Q4.
(a) Apparent magnitude of star is measured over a long period of time ✔

When planet passes in front of star (as seen from Earth), some of the light from star
is absorbed and therefore the amount of light reaching Earth reduced ✔

This produces a light curve showing constant value with a dip periodically as the
planet passes in front of the star ✔
3

(b) Dip in light curve can be caused by other effects ✔

Except for planets very close to star, periods likely to be very long and may take
many years of observation using transit method alone ✔
2
[5]

Page 11 of 17
Q7.
(a) The quasar is a bright radio source. ✔
Allow strong / intense / powerful for bright.
Ignore reference to pulses
Other incorrect properties, eg red shift, loses the mark.
1

(b) (i) Using I = I0/d2 with some evidence of substitution ✔

Pq = 4 × 1011 Ps

Is = 1.4 × 1017 Iq at Earth

Ps/12 = 1.4 × 1017 (4 × 1011 Ps/d2) ✔

d2 = 4 × 1011 × 1.4 × 1017

=5.6 × 1028

d = 2.4 × 1014 AU ✔
The first mark is for some evidence of using the inverse
square law. Do not condone equation the wrong way up.
The second is for an attempt to compare the two stars using
the inverse square law.
The third is for the final answer.
3

(ii) Dark energy

Evidence of hedging bets eg dark energy / dark matter etc.
loses the mark
1
[5]

Q8.
(a) an object with an escape velocity greater than the speed of light ✓
Ignore references to singularity and density etc.
Allow gravity so strong light cannot escape.
1

(b) mass of black hole = 1 × 1010 × 1.99 × 1030 = 2 × 1040 kg ✓

M correct for the first mark

Use of
R = 2GM / c2

= 2 × 6.67 × 10−11× 2 × 1040 / (3.00 × 108)2

= 3 × 1013 m ✓ allow 2.9 or 2.95 etc.

Final answer correct for the second mark.
Allow ce for the mass.
No sf penalty.
2

Page 12 of 17
 (c) V= Hd
v (in kms−1) = 6300
D (in MPc) = 3.3 × 108 / 3.26 × 106
= 101 ✓
H = v / d = 6300 / 101 = 62 kms−1 Mpc−1 ✓
Alternatively.
Age of universe = 1 / H
=D/v
= 3.3 × 108 × 9.47 × 1015✓ / 6.3 × 106 ✓
= 5.0 × 1017 s ✓

age of Universe =1/H

= 1 / 62
= 1.6 × 10−2 Mpc s km−1

= 1.6 × 10−2 × 3.1 × 1016 × 106 / 103

= 5.0 × 1017 s ✓
The first mark is for calculating D, the second for substituting
correctly to find H
The third is for determining 1 / H in seconds.
If other value of H used, 1 mark max.
3
[6]

Q9.
(a) Gives the ratio of the (recessional) velocity (of galaxies) to distance from Earth
Accept equation with terms defined
not
v depends on d,
the relationship between them, shows the relationship
between them

B1
1

(b) d changed to Mpc (2.45 × 102)

or 1.8 × 104 / their attempt to convert distance
Or d change to m and v to m s−1

B1

(H=) 73.35 or 73.47 seen to at least 3 sf

B1
2

(c) (i) T = 1 / H or H = 2.4 × 10−18 s seen

e.g. 3.08 × 10−19 / 73

C1

Value in s calculated (4.2 × 10 17)

Page 13 of 17
 A1

Correct conversion to years 1.3 × 10 10

Allow their value in s

B1
3

(ii) Universe is expanding at constant / steady rate

B1
1
[7]

Page 14 of 17
Examiner reports

Q1.
This question tested the students’ knowledge of Hubble’s Law and the inverse-square law
in the context of quasars and galaxies.

(a) Many answers to this question focused on simple properties of the three objects
rather than the relationship between them. Some students, who did see what was
required, suggested incorrectly that quasars are black holes, or that galaxies orbit a
black hole in a similar way to planets orbiting stars, perhaps. Only 18.2% of students
gained both marks here.

(b) This calculation was carried out correctly by the majority of students (54.8%). Those
who failed to achieve full marks often tried to work backwards from a ‘known’ age of
the universe, or used the Hubble constant available in the data booklet. Most
correctly calculated a value for the speed and distance and either directly
determined a time or calculated a value for H and determined 1/H in seconds.

(c) The use of the inverse-square law proved to be significantly more demanding. There
was evidence of students obtaining the square root of 1000 as an answer and then
missing a mark by leaving it in this form. Answers of 10, 100 or even 1 000 000 were
also relatively common. It was clear that many students knew the inverse-square
law but were not sure how to apply it. The important point is that the intensity
received at the Earth is the same for the two objects, but that was rarely stated. Only
12.1% of students gained all three marks; the proportion that failed to gain even a
single mark was 48.5%.

Q2.
This question addressed the general practicalities of making measurements (which was
conspicuously poorly-answered in 2017) and use of log graphs to discover power laws.

(a) Two approaches were seen for obtaining the vertical distance y. The indirect
approach involved measuring the height of the tape (from the floor) at the free end
and subtracting this from the height of the bench. The two measurements involved
required the use of a vertical ruler and how this was to be achieved was widely
ignored. Examiners were looking for the use of a set-square in contact with the ruler
and the floor to make the ruler vertical, a detail that could easily be provided if the
students added detail to Figure 7 as was suggested. That so few chose to follow this
advice explains why barely 10% were able to score both marks. Another suggested
method employed a horizontal reference, established by laying a straight edge along
the bench to overhang the free end of the tape. A ruler (made vertical with a
set-square) could then measure y directly. Those students taking this route were
more prepared to add detail to the diagram, but often showed the straight edge
failing to reach the bench or omitted detail involving the set-square. Other
approaches, where safe and relevant, could earn credit, such as the use of a plumb
line or spirit level. Those who suggested using bits of string, lasers or trigonometry
did not gain credit. Disappointingly, nearly half of the students failed to gain any
credit for their answer.

(b) Many students identified that y would become very small if x was less than 70 cm
but barely 10% correctly stated that this made the percentage uncertainty in y
unacceptably high.

(c) All of the marking points discriminated well but not always in combination, so only

Page 15 of 17
 10.2% of students scored all three marks. The line quality was usually good, but
examiners expected the line to pass above the first and below the sixth points: a
surprising number of students drew their line passing through or below the first
point. The result of the gradient calculation usually fell within the expected range,
but those who truncated it (usually to 4) were penalised. In addition, those who
copied their gradient result onto the answer line for n failed to recognise that an
integer was expected, so they too failed to score.

(d) About half of the students correctly stated that log A was the (log) y-intercept and
many then correctly explained how, having obtained the intercept, they could
calculate A. A few spoiled their answer by using base 10 for the first point and base
e for the latter, and others, anticipating 02.5, stated that they would use data from
Table 2. With a three-mark tariff, it was surprising how few students provided detail
of how the intercept could be calculated indirectly, a comparatively easy process to
describe if done carefully. Over a third of students scored two marks, but very few
(4.3%) scored all three.

(e) The work seen here was sometimes very good and two-thirds of students could at
least produce a suitable value for A. The problem for many was identifying the order
of magnitude (most simply copied their result for A onto the answer line). To a lesser
extent, many struggled to identify the unit, particularly when a non-integer was given
for n. For a typical value of A, using the top row in Table 2, a result of 1.99 × 10−7
was routinely obtained. Examiners accepted −7 or 10−7 for the order of magnitude
and cm−3 for the unit. A non-integer n such as 3.3 would produce A = 6.09 × 10−6
so the order of magnitude is −5 and the unit cm−2.3. As with question 02.4, all the
marking points were accessible, but it was unusual to see all scored together; just
less than 10% gained full credit.

Q3.
This question was related to another aspect of current astronomical research: the search
for planets orbiting other stars. Most students were able to recall the transit and radial
velocity methods of detection, without making much more progress. More success was
made by those that mentioned problems of direct observation. Very few students related
any of these methods to the particular situation of an Earth-like planet orbiting a Sun-like
star or made any attempt to discuss which method would be most successful in this
situation. The most successful students were able to point out that most of the planets
discovered so far have been so-called ‘hot Jupiters’ and that the Earth, being relatively
small and far from the Sun, would make little impact on the apparent magnitude of the
Sun, or affect its motion significantly.

Q7.
(a) There were several recall questions on this paper. Despite this being explicit on the
specification relatively few students knew the property that led to the discovery of
the first quasar.

(b) The inverse square law is a useful idea in many different branches of physics. It
was clear, however, that few students had had little practice in its use with questions
of this kind. The best answers often started from first principles, using the equation
for the surface of a sphere, which was given full credit. Far too often answers were
seen that made very little or no progress.

(c) It was expected that many students would be able to give the correct answer for this
but some lost the mark by stating two answers, or demonstrated some confusion by
simply writing “the big bang”.

Page 16 of 17
Q8.
On this specification, the defining property of a black hole is that it has an escape velocity
greater than the speed of light. References to singularities were ignored.

The calculation of the radius of the event horizon was the most accessible question on the
paper, with 84% of students getting both marks.

The calculation of the age of the Universe caused more problems for some students.
Many gained full marks by simply converting the distance into metres and dividing it by the
speed, removing the need to calculate Hubble’s constant and convert the units into
seconds.

Q9.
(a) Only small minority were able to express what is meant by the Hubble constant
clearly. Most gave vague answers such as that it gives the relationship between
velocity and distance of galaxies.

(b) Here the first requirement was to show the change the distance from ly to Mpc.
Those who could do this usually managed the next step without difficulty.

(c) (i) There were many who were unable to make any progress with this
calculation. Some clearly had a number for the age of the Universe (≈1010y) in
mind and made an incomprehensible series of calculations to arrive at that
number. Converting between units was a problem for many.

(ii) Relatively few candidates gave an acceptable response to this part.

Page 17 of 17