KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

Course Code: EPS 1102

Course Name: Educational Psychology
Course Level: Year one

Course Description
The course covers both theory and principles of Educational psychology, practical value of psychology to
the teacher, methods of psychological study and developmental characteristics of the learners.
Course objectives
The course aims at enabling students to;
i. Acquire professional knowledge, skills and values to enable them to be able to interpret and
analyze learners’ behaviors in and outside classroom.
ii. Perform as creative and innovative teachers with practical values to change society positively.
iii. Develop theories and principles in the process of instruction
iv. Analyze the behavioral characteristics of learners.

Detailed Course Description

 Meaning of Educational Psychology; Objectives and goals of Education and Psychology:
Contribution of Psychology to the theory of education, practical value of psychology to a teacher.
Methods of psychological study: - Observation, developmental case study, differential or survey
study method, scientific enquiry method, Merits and demerits of each method of study.
 Applying Psychology to Teaching; Becoming a Better Teacher - Reflecting on a better and the worst
classroom teacher.
 Meaning and scope of Human growth and development;
 Nature of Human Beings – cognitive, behavioral, psychodynamics, community and spiritual
perspective.
 Theories of Psychosocial, Cognitive Development, Information-Processing Theory and their
classroom implications – (Erik Erikson & Jean Piaget).
 Understanding Student Differences; Age-Level Characteristics & Accommodating Student
Variability.
 Developing learner self-definition and interest; creating conducive learning and Motivation.

Modes of Delivery:
The course is taught through lectures, group discussions and student presentations.
Assessment:
Assignments 15%
Tests 15%
Final Examination 70%
Total 100%

Reading List
1. Anita Woolfolk (2007). Educational Psychology (10thed) Boston, Ohio State University.
2. Lokesh, K. (2001). Methodology of Educational Research. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House PVT
LTD.
3. Munchinsky, P(2010). Psychology tp Applied work: An introduction to Industrial and Organizational
Psychology (9th eds). London: Wads worth publishing.
4. Dale, Smith R;Norlin J. and chess W. (2006). Human Behavior and the Social Environment; social
systems theory 5th edition, Pearson Publishers Boston.
5. Patricia H.Miller (2010). Theories of Developmental Psychology, worth publishers Inc. New York.

Introduction: Definition of terms

Psychology
The term Psychology is derived from two Greek words psyche (soul) and logos (science or study). thus,
literally it means study or science of soul. Generally, Psychology is defined as the scientific study of mental
processes and behavior of organisms. There are three key words in this definition namely:
Scientific study: which means that psychology involves use of scientific techniques such as observation,
and experimental investigation to collect information and then organizing it.
Mental processes: means the private and cognitive processes such as attention, perception, remembering,
problem solving, reasoning, decision making, thinking, etc.
Behavior: means all the actions or reactions of an organism in response to external or internal stimuli.
Behavior may be simple or complex, short or enduring. Human behavior may be overt i.e. it is observable,
detectable and public e.g. walking style, facial expression or covert i.e. it occurs within the organism and is
not readily observable or detectable or sensed by observer e.g. attitudes, beliefs, preferences.

PERSONALITY

Personality is the sum total of ways in which individual reacts to and interacts with others. It is most often
described in terms of measurable traits that a person exhibits.

Personality also refers to unique and relatively stable qualities that characterize an individual’s behavior
across different situations over a period of time.

Personality characteristics are relatively stable and enduring, often developed in childhood, and affect the
way we think, act, feel, and behave.

Individual personality patterns are both consistent and stable and unique and distinctive.

Personality: features
• It has both physical and psychological components.
• Its expression in terms of behavior is fairly unique in a given individual.
• Its main features do not easily change with time.
• It is dynamic in the sense that some of its features may change due to internal or external situational
demands. Thus, personality is adaptive to situations.
Types of personality
Jung classified individual into two psychological types – introvert, extrovert, and ambivert was added later
on, as all individuals could not be fitted in only these two types.
Introvert
An introvert limits his acquaintance to a few. This person is very conservative and suspicious of the motives
of others. He is not social and prefers to remain in the background on certain occasions. He avoids
embarrassment and public speaking. He is very reserved, self-centered, introspective, absent minded,
remains worried and is always day dreaming. He is generally slow and hesitant to take the initiative.
Philosophers, poets, and scientists are generally introverts.
Extrovert
An extrovert is socially adaptable and interested in people. He likes to make friends and very soon creates
a circle of friends around him. He prefers working in company with other people, is talkative and fond of
talking. He is self assertive and generally takes things lightly. He never feels embarrassed. He has a keen
sense of observation and is attentive. Reformers and social workers are generally extroverts.
Ambivert
Ambivert types are placed in between extrovert and introverts. Their behavior is balanced. Their psychic
energy is partially directed inwards and partly outwards. They are interested in their own thoughts and
emotions and also in other persons and their action. Most of us belong to ambivert type.
Factors affecting personality
An adult’s personality is now generally considered to be made up of hereditary and environmental factors
and moderated by situational conditions.
Heredity
It refers to those factors that were determined at conception. Physical stature, facial attractiveness, gender,
temperament, muscle composition and reflexes, energy level, and biological rhythms are characteristics
that are generally considered to be either completely or substantially influenced by who your parents were
that is by their biological, physiological, and inherent psychological makeup. The hereditary approach
argues that the ultimate explanation of an individual’s personality is the molecular structure of the genes,
located in the chromosomes.

Evidence demonstrates that traits such as shyness, fear, and distress are most likely caused by inherited
genetic characteristics. It suggests that some personality traits may be built into the same genetic code that
affects factors such as height and hair color.

If personality characteristics were completely dictated by heredity, they would be fixed at birth and no
amount of experience could alter them. For example, if you were relaxed and easy going child, it would be
result of your genes, and it would not be possible for you to change those characteristics. But personality
characteristics are not completely dictated by heredity.

Environment
Environment to which we are exposed plays a substantial role in shaping our personalities. For example,
culture establishes the norms, attitudes, and values that are passed along from one generation to next and
create consistencies over time. The environmental factors that exert pressures on our personality formation
are culture in which we raised, our early conditioning, the norms among our family, friends, social groups,
social interaction, etc that we experience.

Both heredity and environmental factors are important determinant of human personality. Heredity sets the
parameters or outer limits, but, an individual’s full potential will be determined by how well s/he adjusts to
the demands and requirements of the environment.

Situation
 It influences the effects of heredity and environment on personality. An individual’s personality, although
generally stable and consistent, does change in different situations. Situations seem to differ substantially
in the constraints they impose on behavior. Some situations (e.g., employment interview) constraints many
behavior; other situations (e.g., a picnic in a public park) constrain relatively few.
Relevancy of studying personality to a teacher
 The knowledge of human personality enables the teacher to judge and follow the method of
guiding by selecting suitable teaching methods.
 This helps the teacher to properly plan the educational program to accomplish the objectives for a
desirable change in the learners.
 By studying the personality of learners, the teacher can understand the values and value systems
of his/her learners and can precede his/her work accordingly.
 By studying the personality of a particular learner, the teacher can get a clear idea about his
various traits such as sociability. If a person found with this trait, then he can be used as a key
communicator to promote developmental activities in a particular village.
 Similarly, learners with traits of empathy, sympathy, generosity can be engaged in trustworthy
works like sharing, helping etc.

Aims and objectives of psychology

Psychologists pursue four broad goals:
 To measure and describe behavior: Identifying and classifying behaviors and mental processes as
accurately as possible. A measuring tool should be reliable (producing consistent results whenever
administered) and valid (measure what it is meant to measure)
 To understand and explain behavior: Proposing reasons for behaviors and mental processes
 To predict and control behavior: Offering predictions (or hypotheses) about how a given condition
or set of conditions will affect behaviors and mental processes
 To improve society: Using the results of research to solve practical problems that involve behavior
and mental processes.
What is education?
The word education is derived from latin word educare which means to bring up. Thus, education has been
defined as the process of imparting or acquiring knowledge and habits through instruction or study. it can
also be defined as a process in which behavior is modified so as to be in closer agreement with some
model or ideal determined by the values of society.
It is also the process of bringing desired change into behavior of human beings.
More so, education is the process by which society transmits to new members the values, beliefs,
knowledge, and symbolic expressions to make communication possible within society. In this sense,
education is serving a social and cultural function.
What is Educational Psychology?
Educational psychology is the branch of psychology that specializes in understanding teaching and learning
in educational settings.
Educational Psychology focuses on understanding the processes of teaching and learning.
Thus, educational psychology is a branch of psychology which deals with teaching and learning.
It is a discipline that is concerned with teaching and learning processes.
It is concerned primarily with understanding the processes of teaching and learning that take place within
formal environments and developing ways of improving those methods.
It focuses its interest into schooling, teaching, learning, content and culture.
Learning
This refers to a relatively permanent change in an individual's behavior or behavior potential (or capability)
as a result of experience or practice.
It can also be explained as an internal change inferred from behavior.
It can be compared with the other primary process producing relatively permanent change—maturation that
results from biological growth and development
Teaching
The purposeful direction and management of the learning process
Educational psychology therefore is the scientific discipline that addresses the questions;“Why do some
students learn more than others?”, “What can be done to improve that learning?”
Educational psychologists attempt to discover:
 The extent to which factors of heredity and environment contribute to learning
 The nature of the learning process
 The educational significance of individual differences in rate and limit of learning.
 The inner change that occur during learning.
 The relation of teaching procedures to learning outcomes
 The most effective techniques for evaluating progress in learning
Educational psychology has two main goals or functions
1. To create theories that offer valid accounts for learners’ and teachers’ behaviors i.e. to generate
knowledge to teachers about learners and the learning process and relationships (to enable
teachers to acquire better understanding of the learners)
2. To develop the principles that, when applied to instructional situations enhance learners’
capabilities to achieve their own goals and those goals set by society in which learners live
Relevance of educational psychology to the teacher.
It enables the teacher to;
 Understand him/her self.
 Understand why his or her learners behave the way they do
 Be able to develop the personality of the learners and help them grow as acceptable members of
society.
 Be able to nurture emotional growth and development of the learners and be able to help them
overcome frustrations while in difficult situations.
  Understand the process of growth and development of the learner sp as to detect factors that might
have affected some learners and be able to help them improve on such factors for effective
learning to take place.
 Acquire knowledge and skills on research which will enable him/her identify problems and seek
solutions to the problems during the learning process.
 Enables him/her to understand learning as a process and understand the basic theories of learning
so that he/she can use the most appropriate instructional materials and instructional methods for
teaching purposes and be able to select the most suitable, relevant and applicable content.
 Helps in improvement of teachers’ personality.
 Educational psychology helps the teacher to know the learner, his interest, attitudes, aptitude, level
of aspiration, intelligence which all play a major role in one’s learning.
 It helps in selection of teaching methods and aids for effective learning situations and teaching
It is important to note that we study educational psychology so as to become better teachers who
understand our duties, those that we teach and how we teach them.
Educational psychology focuses its interests into the following:
School: which is a social institution that provides social context in which teaching and learning occur.
Teaching: which is the process of learning guided by the action of another person called the teacher.
Learning: which is the process of acquiring knowledge through teaching or other indirect ways but should
lead to a change in behavior.
Content: which is the kind of information, knowledge or skills that schools plan to provide to learners
through teaching.
Culture: which is the process or experience in which the school is located, that we go through and controls
teaching and learning. It involves the whole environment i.e. families, peers, community, colleagues.

Branches of Psychology
 Clinical psychology: is the branch of psychology that specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of
mental and behavioral disorders, such as anxiety, phobias, and schizophrenia. Some also conduct
research in these areas.
 Counseling psychology: is the branch of psychology that involves helping people who have
adjustment problems (marital, social, or behavioral) that are generally less severe than those
handled by clinical psychologists.
 Developmental psychology: is the branch of psychology that deals with the study of how people
grow, develop, and change throughout the life span.
 Educational psychology: is the branch of psychology that specializes in the study of teaching and
learning processes. (Note: Do not confuse educational psychology with school psychology.
 School psychology is the subfield of clinical psychology that deals with the diagnosis and treatment
of learning problems.
 Social psychology: is the branch of psychology that investigates how the individual feels, thinks,
and behaves in a social setting or in the presence of others.
  Industrial/organizational psychology: is the branch of Psychology that involves the study of the
relationships between people and their work environments.
Schools of psychology
Schools of psychology explain the historical background of the existence of psychology as a subject and
how it became the study of human behavior. At the beginning, psychology was a branch of philosophy but
later came a group of philosophers who started asking questions like; why, do we behave the way we do?
To answer such questions, different schools of thought came up namely: structuralism, functionalism,
behaviorism, psychoanalism, gestaltism, associationism psychophysics.

Structuralism
This was the first formal school of thought in psychology that was focused on breaking down mental
processes into the most basic components. Major thinkers associated with structuralism include Wilhelm
Wundt and Edward Titchener. The focus of structuralism was on reducing mental processes down into their
most basic elements. Through the use of Introspection researchers tried to understand the basic
components of consciousnesses. Introspection refers to Wundt's technique that involved training people to
carefully and objectively analyze the content of their own thoughts.
Pros
1. Structuralism is important to study because it is the first major school of thought in the field of
Psychology.
2. It influenced Experimental Psychology

Cons
This method was not around very long due to it’s basis in subjective introspection. There were not
observable variables.

Functionalism
An early school of psychology that was concerned with how humans and animals use mental processes in
adapting to their environment. Functionalism was a response to Structuralism. William James was a strong
proponent /influence behind this school of thought along with theories of evolution like that of Charles
Darwin. James was a philosopher, psychologist, and Physician. While Structuralism was focused on the
consciousness, the Functionalists focused on the “purpose” of our consciousness and human behavior.
This school of thought acknowledged the differences in each person’s individual experience. From what I
understand it is a sort of philosophical look at the way of what is happening in our brains then becomes
behavior and trying to understand why.

1. Influenced Behaviorism and applied Psychology

2. Influenced the educational system. John Dewey’s belief that children should learn at the level for
which they are developmentally prepared was recognized.

Functionalism has the most influence of any theory in contemporary psychology. Psychological
functionalism attempts to describe thoughts and what they do without asking how they do it. For
functionalists, the mind resembles a computer, and to understand its processes, you need to look at the
software, which is what the mind does, without having to understand the hardware that includes the
underlying how and why.

Gestalt psychology
The school of psychology that emphasizes that individuals perceive objects and patterns as whole units
and that the perceived whole is more than the sum of its parts. According to Gestalt psychologists, the
human mind works by interpreting data through various laws, rules or organizing principles, turning partial
information into a whole. For example, your mind might interpret a series of lines as a square even though
it has no complete lines; your mind fills in the gaps. Gestalt psychotherapists apply this logic to help
patients solve a wide array of problems from issues at work to relationship troubles.

The Psychoanalytic School of Thought

This is a school of psychology founded by Sigmund Freud. This school of thought emphasized the
influence of the unconscious mind on behavior. Freud believed that the human mind was composed of
three elements: id, ego and superego. The id consists of primal urges while the ego is the component of
personality charged with dealing with reality. The superego is the part of personality that holds all of the
ideals and values we internalize from our parents and culture. Freud believed that the interaction of these
three elements was what led to all of the complex human behaviors. Freud's school of thought was
enormously influential, but also generated considerable debate. This controversy existed not only in his
time, but also in modern discussions of Freud's theories. Other major psychoanalytic thinkers include: Anna
Freud and Carl Jung

Behaviorism
The school of psychology that views observable, measurable behavior as the appropriate subject matter for
psychology and emphasizes the key role of environment as a determinant of behavior. In the 1950s, B.F.
Skinner carried out experiments with animals, such as rats and pigeons, demonstrating that they repeated
certain behaviors if they associated them with rewards in the form of food. Behaviorists believe that
observing behavior, rather than attempting to analyze the inner workings of the mind itself, provides the key
to psychology. This makes psychology open to experimental methods with results that can be replicated the
same as any other scientific experiment.

Humanistic Psychology
The school of psychology that focuses on the uniqueness of human beings and their capacity for choice,
growth, and psychological health. Humanist psychologists teach that understanding psychology must
involve looking at individuals and their motivations. Abraham Maslow's "hierarchy of needs" exemplifies this
approach: A system of needs, such as food, love and self-esteem, will determine a person's behavior;
meeting these needs leads to a sense of self-satisfaction and solves psychological problems.

Cognitivism
The school of psychology that sees humans as active participants in their environment; studies mental
processes such as memory, problem solving, reasoning, decision making, perception, language, and other
forms of cognition. Cognitive psychology follows behaviorism by understanding the mind through scientific
experimentation, but it differs from behaviorism by accepting that psychologists can study and understand
the internal workings of the mind and mental processes. This school of thought rejects psychoanalysis as it
regards psychoanalytic theories about the subconscious mind as subjective and not open to scientific
analysis.

Associationism
This school of psychology was established in the early 18 th century by David Harley after Edward Lee
Thorndike had started it. According to Thorndike all our behavior and learning can be explained in terms of
stimulus-response (S-R) connections. The pioneers of this school include: Ivan Pavlov, Edward Lee
Thorndike, B.F Skinner, and Hull.
The school of Psychophysics
This was the earliest of all schools of psychology and originated from the search of all contents in
psychology. This school looked at all psychology as experimental psychology. It was founded by Theodore
Fechner whose work was inspired by Ebbinghaus who then started carrying out researchers on memory
(short and long term).

Perspectives of psychology

An approach is a perspective (i.e., view) that involves certain assumptions (i.e., beliefs) about human
behavior: the way they function, which aspects of them are worthy of study and what research methods are
appropriate for undertaking this study. There may be several different theories within an approach, but they
all share these common assumptions.

You may wonder why there are so many different psychology perspectives and whether one approach is
correct and others wrong. Most psychologists would agree that no one perspective is correct, although in
the past, in the early days of psychology, the behaviorist would have said their perspective was the only
truly scientific one.

Each perspective has its strengths and weaknesses, and brings something different to our understanding of
human behavior. For this reason, it is important that psychology does have different perspectives on the
understanding and study of human and animal behavior.

Below is a summary of the six main psychological approaches (sometimes called perspectives) in
psychology.
Behavioral perspective

If your layperson's idea of psychology has always been about people in laboratories wearing white coats
and watching hapless rats try to negotiate mazes in order to get to their dinner, then you are probably
thinking about behavioral psychology.

Behaviorism is different from most other approaches because they view people (and animals) as controlled
by their environment and specifically that we are the result of what we have learned from our environment.
Behaviorism is concerned with how environmental factors (called stimuli) affect observable behavior (called
the response).

The behaviorist approach proposes two main processes whereby people learn from their environment:
namely classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning involves learning by
association, and operant conditioning involves learning from the consequences of behavior.

Classical conditioning (CC) was studied by the Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov. Though looking into
natural reflexes and neutral stimuli he managed to condition dogs to salivate to the sound of a bell through
repeated associated with the sound of the bell and food.

B.F. Skinner investigated operant conditioning of voluntary and involuntary behavior. Skinner felt that some
behavior could be explained by the person's motive. Therefore behavior occurs for a reason, and the three
main behavior shaping techniques are positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment.

Behaviorism also believes in scientific methodology (e.g., controlled experiments), and that only observable
behavior should be studied because this can be objectively measured. Behaviorism rejects the idea that
people have free will, and believes that the environment determines all behavior. Behaviorism is the
scientific study of observable behavior working on the basis that behavior can be reduced to learned S-R
(Stimulus-Response) units.

Behaviorism has been criticized in the way it under-estimates the complexity of human behavior. Many
studies used animals which are hard to generalize to humans, and it cannot explain, for example, the
speed in which we pick up language. There must be biological factors involved.

Psychodynamic perspective

Who hasn't heard of Sigmund Freud? So many expressions of our daily life come from Freud's theories of
psychoanalysis - subconscious, denial, repression and anal personality to name only a few.

Freud believes that events in our childhood can have a significant impact on our behavior as adults. He
also believed that people have little free will to make choices in life. Instead, our behavior is determined by
the unconscious mind and childhood experiences.

Freud’s psychoanalysis is both a theory and therapy. It is the original psychodynamic theory and inspired
psychologists such as Jung and Erikson to develop their own psychodynamic theories. Freud’s work is
vast, and he has contributed greatly to psychology as a discipline.
Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, explained the human mind as like an iceberg, with only a small
amount of it being visible, that is our observable behavior, but it is the unconscious, submerged mind that
has the most, underlying influence on our behavior. Freud used three main methods of accessing the
unconscious mind: free association, dream analysis and slips of the tongue.

He believed that the unconscious mind consisted of three components: the id, ego and superego. The 'id'
contains two main instincts: 'Eros', which is the life instinct, which involves self-preservation and sex which
is fuelled by the 'libido' energy force. 'Thanatos' is the death instinct, whose energies, because they are
less powerful than those of 'Eros' are channeled away from ourselves and into aggression towards others.

The 'id' and the 'superego' are constantly in conflict with each other, and the 'ego' tries to resolve the
discord. If this conflict is not resolved, we tend to use defense mechanisms to reduce our anxiety.
Psychoanalysis attempts to help patients resolve their inner conflicts.

An aspect of psychoanalysis is Freud's theory of psychosexual development. It shows how early

experiences affect adult personality. Stimulation of different areas of the body is important as the child
progresses through the important developmental stages. Too much or too little can have bad consequences
later.

The most important stage is the phallic stage where the focus of the libido is on the genitals. During this
stage little boys experience the 'Oedipus complex,' and little girls experience the 'Electra complex.' These
complexes result in children identifying with their same-sex parent, which enables them to learn sex-
appropriate behavior and a moral code of conduct.

However, it has been criticized in the way that it over emphasizes the importance of sexuality and under
emphasized of the role of social relationships. The theory is not scientific, and can't be proved as it is
circular. Nevertheless, psychoanalysis has been greatly contributory to psychology in that it has
encouraged many modern theorists to modify it for the better, using its basic principles, but eliminating its
major flaws.

Humanistic perspective

Humanistic psychology is a psychological perspective that emphasizes the study of the whole person
(know as holism). Humanistic psychologists look at human behavior, not only through the eyes of the
observer, but through the eyes of the person doing the behaving.

Humanistic psychologists believe that an individual's behavior is connected to his inner feelings and self-
image. The humanistic perspective centers on the view that each person is unique and individual, and has
the free will to change at any time in his or her lives.

The humanistic perspective suggests that we are each responsible for our own happiness and well-being
as humans. We have the innate (i.e., inborn) capacity for self-actualization, which is our unique desire to
achieve our highest potential as people.

Because of this focus on the person and his or her personal experiences and subjective perception of the
world the humanists regarded scientific methods as inappropriate for studying behavior.
Two of the most influential and enduring theories in humanistic psychology that emerged in the 1950s and
1960s are those of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

Cognitive perspective

The cognitive perspective is concerned with “mental” functions such as memory, perception and attention
etc. It views people as being similar to computers in the way we process information (e.g., input-process-
output). For example, both human brains and computers process information, store data and have input an
output procedure.

This had led cognitive psychologists to explain that memory comprises of three stages: encoding (where
information is received and attended to), storage (where the information is retained) and retrieval (where
the information is recalled).

Biological perspective

According to Charles Darwin (1859), genetics and evolution play a role in influencing human behavior
through natural selection.

Theorists in the biological perspective who study behavioral genomics consider how genes affect behavior.
Now that the human genome is mapped, perhaps, we will someday understand more precisely how
behavior is affected by the DNA we inherit. Biological factors such as chromosomes, hormones and the
brain all have a significant influence on human behavior, for example, gender.

Conclusion

Therefore, in conclusion, there are so many different perspectives in psychology to explain the different
types of behavior and give different angles. No one perspective has explanatory powers over the rest.

Only with all the different types of psychology, which sometimes contradict one another (nature-nurture
debate), overlap with each other (e.g. psychoanalysis and child psychology) or build upon one another
(biological and health psychologist) can we understand and create effective solutions when problems arise,
so we have a healthy body and a healthy mind.

The fact that there are different perspectives represents the complexity and richness of human (and animal)
behavior. A scientific approach, such as behaviorism or cognitive psychology, tends to ignore the subjective
(i.e., personal) experiences that people have.

The humanistic perspective does recognize human experience, but largely at the expense of being non-
scientific in its methods and ability to provide evidence. The psychodynamic perspective concentrates too
much on the unconscious mind and childhood. As such, it tends to lose sight of the role of socialization
(which is different in each country) and the possibility of free will.

The biological perspective reduces humans to a set of mechanisms and physical structures that are clearly
essential and important (e.g., genes). However, it fails to account for consciousness and the influence of
the environment on behavior.
Contribution of psychology to the theory and practice of education
Psychology has greatly contributed to the development and enrichment of the field of education in the
following ways;
 Understanding development characteristics: it is necessary for a teacher to know about the
development stages of the learner in order to help him or her achieve the goals of education.
 Understanding classroom learning: educational psychology enables the teacher to manage his/her
class and ensure that learners derive maximum benefit from the learning process. The teacher will
know how to utilize the principles of learning to assist his/her learners.
 Will know how to identify and cater for individual learners’ differences in intelligence, personality,
age, sex, emotions, etc.
 Enables the teacher to develop new strategies of teaching and determine which methods of
teaching are appropriate and beneficial to the learner.
 Enables the teacher to identify learners’ problems and to apply appropriate remedies.
 Enables the teacher to identify maladjusted learners and factors responsible for the
maladjustments using the knowledge of mental health and improve the learning environment
 Curriculum construction-psychological principles are used in the formulation of curriculum
 Measuring learning-psychological principles and methods are used in measuring and evaluating
learners
 Educational psychology helps teachers to develop skills in research. Through educational
psychology, we can control, direct and predict the behavior of learners on the basis of research
conducted in the classroom.
 Guidance and counseling of learners at all levels by using psychological principles
 Understanding group dynamics-educational psychology helps teachers to identify relationships in
class, students’ social behavior and group dynamics
 Enables the teacher to ensure that there is discipline in his/her class.

METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY

There are number of methods to study human behavior and these are:-

1. Introspection. This is also known as self-observation method. Introspection means ‘to look within’. It is
not possible to understand the inner feelings and experiences of other persons. But the individual himself
can observe and report. Example: A student can report about his pains and other disturbances in a better
way than by a teacher. He will look within himself and explain how he is feeling. This will help for a better
help. Though Introspection is a useful method and the advantage with it is that it is cheap and easy to use.
However, it has some demerits and these include:

 We cannot verify the reports given by the observer hence we have to accept his report.
 At times even if he is reporting correctly there may be distortions
 This method cannot be used to study children, animals and persons suffering from mental
disorders.
2. Observation Method: This method is very useful in the areas where experiments cannot be conducted.
In this method the observer will observe and collect the data. Example: In the classroom the teacher will
make observation of students’ behaviors. This method is very useful to study the children, mentally ill,
animals and unconscious patients. At times the observer will go to the natural settings, situations, etc. in
order to get the objective data. Because, in natural settings the person being observed will not be aware
that he is being observed, his behavior will be natural/ original. Hence, this method is also known as
‘naturalistic observation’ or ‘objective observation’ method. This is a very good and useful method.

3. Experimental Method:

This is the most objective way of studying the behavior. In this method, experiments are conducted in the
laboratories under controlled conditions.

The advantage of this method is that, the results of the experiment may be verified by repetition of the
same experiment. But this method has some demerits also.

They are:

(a) Conducting experiment is very expensive and time consuming;

(b) Another feature is that the experiments cannot be conducted outside the laboratory.

4. Clinical Method/Case History Method: This method is used very commonly in hospitals and also in
educational settings. In education setting, when a student is admitted, the teachers can collect the detailed
information pertaining the student. The information includes the past history of the disease, school
performance, etc.. This information may be obtained from the student, his close relatives like parents,
siblings or others who accompany him or from his friends, neighbors, etc.

5. Survey Method: This is used to gather the information from large number of people. Questionnaires,
checklists, rating scales, inventories are used to collect the required information.

6. Genetic Method/developmental method: This method is also called as developmental method. Most of
our behaviors are the result of earlier experiences. In some cases when we need to understand some
behavior we need to know their developmental aspects also. For example, in order to understand the
behavior of adults we need to know their childhood development.

This can be done by two ways:

(a) Cross-sectional study in which, the children of different age groups will be studied simultaneously,

(b) Longitudinal study in which, the same individual will be studied in different stages of life.
 7. Testing Method: Different tests are developed by psychologists to study various aspects of behavior.
The attitudes, interests, abilities, intelligence, adjustments, personality and such other factors which
influence behavior, can be studied by administering the suitable tests.

(Read about the advantages and disadvantages of each method of psychological study)

HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Human growth is the quantitative increase in the size and height of an individual.
It is the systematic visible increase in weight, height, girth (burst) of an individual from the time of
conception up to the time of early adulthood (between 18-21 years)
Human development is the progressive sequence of qualitative change of an organism. It begins at
conception and is continuous until death (under normal circumstances). It involves biological, emotional,
social, cognitive and psychological processes in an unending sequence of interactions some of them are
systematic and orderly while some are unpredictable.

The physical growth under normal circumstances is systematic, biological development e.g. on set of
menstruation, change of voice are also predictable while social, emotional and other psychological factors
are unpredictable.eg loss of a mother or a close relative, occasional lack of food, provocation may result
into unpredictable emotional/ psychological developments.

Growth and development are closely related and inter-dependent processes. E.g. a change in physical
growth may trigger a change in emotional, cognitive or social development. Adolescence for example
causes many physical and psychological changes in an individual. But on attainment of adulthood,
individuals change in the emotions, social interactions, and cognitive ability. In other words, as a child
increases in size, she matures in structure and functions and her behaviors become more complex e.g. will
learn to tell lies, to reason etc.

Growth and development are the result of the interaction of the influences of heredity and the environment.

Principles of growth and development.

According to various psychologists like Erickson, Piaget, Bruner etc, growth and development constitute
the funder mental i.e.,
 Growth and development processes are gradual i.e. they occur unnoticed at given moments and
are not bullet shot (drastic)
 Both processes are directional i.e. they start and move towards a direction ie cephalocaudal and
proximal- distal.
 Cephalocaudal means the development is from head to tail. Infants learn to control movements of
the head parts first. New borns have good movement control of the eyes (tracking), rooting,
sucking and swallowing.
 Proximaldistal (near to far) refers to progression of physical development from the centre of the
body outwards. Activities to do with the central nervous system are controlled before the ones to do
with the peripheral nervous system.
 Growth and development are orderly and continuous (no sharp demarcation)
 Growth and development processes precede stages i.e. one must occur before the other.
 The rate of these processes is not uniform in all individuals nor in all stages.
 Growth and development are influenced by heredity as well as the environment.
 Gender sometimes influences growth and development i.e. females tend to mature more rapidly
than males. For example a girl of 20 years looks at herself to be at the level of a male of 28 years.
 They are both cumulative i.e. each change is an accumulation of previous aspects of the process.
Maturation
 This is the innately determined sequence of growth and development that may or may not be
influenced by the environment (eg the fetus in the uterus will mature/ develop at the same rate with
that in an incubator). Maturation is dependent on age and learning.
 According to the maturation theory, many innate behavior patterns appear only when the
organisms/ individual has reached the right stage of physical/ physiological maturity e.g. ability to
speak/ walk.
 Maturation and learning are very closely related aspects. Maturation may make certain aspects of
behavior to occur and that behavior must be learned before it can be used e.g. walking, reading
etc.
 Maturation crisis
 This is the form of crisis caused by a person having difficulty adjusting to the transition from one
stage of development or stage of life to another.
 Maturation is most apparent during childhood and adolescence but it also continues into adult life
PRECOCITY

This refers to early maturation. Or it is the unusual development before the actual time.

Mary Ainthworth an American Psychologist carried out research on the development of the Ugandan child
between 1963-1967. She studied a group of children whose mothers were attending clinic at Mulago
hospital and Kasangati health center. She especially looked at motor development, cognitive development,
social development and emotional development.

In terms of motor development, she looked at their locomotion(crawling, sitting, walking standing).

Cognitive development she looked at alertness, responsiveness, language development.

In social emotional development she looked at especially the weaning period.

She then compared her results with Gasell scale results obtained from study of American children.

She found out that Ugandan children development stages were 3-4 months in advance in terms of crawling,
sitting and walking as compared to their American counterparts. In terms of cognitive development,
Ugandan children were very alert and were quite early in language development in terms of cooing and
giggling.

Factors influencing precocity in Ugandan (African) children.

 In the African culture, the arrival of the baby is always looked forward to and doesn’t cause anxiety
like in the European and American cultures.
 A lot of physical stimulation and contact between mother/ care taker and the child. Mothers share
beds with their babies and are carried on the back all of which provide close physical contact and
warmth for the baby yet western children are always left in cribs alone.
  The support from extended families. In typical African homes, extended families are common. The
child is handled by many people other than parents. The extended family reduces the amount of
stress the child experiences. This helps to create a state of balance in the child’s systems.
 Majority of African children are breast fed.

Factors leading to loss of precocity

Around the age of two (2), the precocity in the African child disappears and the child in the western world
catches up rapidly and even develops faster. This is because of the following;

 After the first year, the child is left to wonder on his or her own with little assistance from adults.
He/she loses the attention and nurturance that he/she has been enjoying. But the European and
American child now receives greater attention.
 Weaning in many African cultures is harsh and abrupt. The loss of emotional support from the
mother depresses the psychological comfort of the child who may lose appetite and hence be
malnourished.
 After the child is weaned, she/he is introduced to a highly carbohydrate diet and this retards the
rate of physical and mental development.
 Sometimes African children are physically separated from their parents and sent to their relatives
who may not look after the child like real parents.
THE ANTE NATAL /PRENATAL / NEONATAL PERIOD OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT.
 This is the period before birth (the first 9 months of life)
 Growth of a person starts right at the moment the sperm cells from the male unite with the ova from
the female during the act of sexual intercourse (natural way) the union between the sperm and the
ovum is called fertilization or conception. It occurs in the fallopian tubes. The newly fertilized egg is
called the zygote. The zygote stays in the mother’s womb for a period of about 38 weeks (9
months) and this period is called gestation. There are three stages of gestation or prenatal growth
which are also broken into trimesters each of three months.
Germinal stage or the zygote stage
 This occurs between 0-2 weeks from fertilization. During this stage, the zygote divides its self into
two cells through a process of mitosis. This process continues the zygote changing from two cells
to four up to a dozen of cells by the fourth day. During the next 4-5 days, the zygote descends
through the fallopian tube and implants itself in the blood lined walls of the uterus.
 By the fifth day, the cells form a hollow fluid-filled ball called a blastocyt. The cells on the inside
called the embryonic disk will become the new organism, and the outer ring will provide protective
covering known as the placenta which allows oxygen, nutrients and other substances to be
transferred between the mother and the baby. A membrane called the amnion forms that enclose
the developing organism in the amniotic fluid, a York sac also appears, it produces blood cells until
the developing liver, and spleen and bone marrow are mature enough to take over this function
(Moore and Persuad, 1993). The placenta is connected to the developing organism by the
umbilical cord. The umbilical cord contains one large vein that delivers blood loaded with nutrients
and two arteries that remove waste products. The force of blood flowing through the cord keeps it
firm much like a garden horse so it seldom tangles while the embryo, like a space walking
astronaut, floats freely in its fluid like chamber (Moore and persuad, 1993).
The embryonic stage
 This is between 2-8 weeks. It is a critical period because all parts of the body are forming.
The embryo develops within a covering called amniotic sac with three layers, namely the ectoderm,
mesoderm and endoderm. The ectoderm is the outer layer of the sac from which later the skin,
sensory organs, nervous system (brain and spinal cord) will develop. The mesoderm is the middle
layer from which the muscles, circulatory system, and skeleton system will form. The endoderm is
the inner layer which ultimately will form digestive, glands, respiratory and lining of internal organs.
These three layers give rise to all parts of the body. By the end of the first month, a primitive and
spinal cord appear. Heart, muscles, back bone ribs and digestive tract begin to develop. In the 2 nd
month, many external body structures e.g. face, arms, legs, toes, fingers and internal organs form.
The sense of touch begins to develop and the embryo can move. By the eighth week,
organogenesis (organ development) is complete.

The fetal stage

 This occurs between eight weeks up to birth. In the third month, the organs, muscles and nervous
system start to be organized and connected, the brain signals and in response the fetus moves
 (bends, kicks, opens its mouth and even sucks). The lungs begin to expand and contrast
(breathing) and by the 12th week, the external genitals are well formed and the sex of the fetus can
be detected with ultra sound. The heart beat is strong and can be heard through a stethoscope. By
this time the fetus is an inch long. That is the end of the 1st trimester.
2nd trimester
 By middle of the second trimester, between 17 and 20 weeks, the new being has grown large
enough and is about 12 inches and weighs about 1.8 pounds and its movements can be felt by the
mother.
 Vernix and lanugo (white cheese like substance) keep the fetus from chapping in the amniotic fluid.
The 20 week old fetus can be stimulated as well irritated by sounds and if a doctor has reason to
look inside the uterus with fetoscopy, fetuses try to shield their eyes from the light with their hands,
indicating that the sense of light has begun to emerge. All the neurons that will be produced in the
brain are present by 24 weeks. Still a fetus born at this time cannot survive because its lungs are
too immature and the brain has not yet developed to the point at which it can control breathing
movements and body temperature.
The 3rd trimester
 This is between 25- 38 weeks. During the final trimester, a fetus born early has a chance of
survival. The point at which the baby can survive is called the age of viability. If born between the
7th and 8th month, breathing would be a problem so oxygen assistance would be necessary. Size
continues to increase. Lungs gradually mature, rapid brain development causes sensory and
behavior capacities to expand. In the middle of this period, a layer of fat is added under the skin to
assist with temperature regulation. Antibodies are transmitted from the mother to the fetus to
protect against diseases.
 In the last weeks, most fetuses assume an upside-down position, partly because the shape of the
uterus and because the head is heavier than the feet. Growth starts to slow and birth is about to
take place. At this time, most fetuses are 19-21 inches and weigh around 2.5 kgs.


PRENATAL ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES (problems in prenatal development)

 Genetic disorders

Genetic inheritance
Two or more forms of each gene occur at the same place on the chromosomes, one inherited from the
mother and one from the father. Each different form of gene is called an allele. If the alleles from both
parents are alike, the child is said to be homozygous and will display the inherited trait. If the alleles are
different, then the child is heterozygous, and the relationships between the alleles determine the trait that
will appear. In many heterozygous pairings, only one allele affects the child’s characteristics. It is called
dominant; the second allele, which has no effect, is called recessive. Heterozygous individuals with just one
recessive allele can pass on the trait to their children and they are called carriers. Harmful genes can be
created through mutations (a sudden but permanent change in the segment of DNA) a mutation can affect
one or two genes. It may also involve many genes as in the case of chromosome disorders. Some
mutations occur by chance and others are caused by hazardous environmental agents that enter our food
supply or present in the air we breathe.
The disorders in the genetic makeup are as followsRH factor (Rhesus), PKU (phenylketonuria), Sickle cell
anemia, Down’s syndrome (trisomy 21), Patau’s syndrome. (Also called trisomy 13), Turner’s syndrome
(X0)Klinefelter’s syndrome.Red-Green color blindness, Hemophilia.

Teratogens (environmental factors)

These refer to any environmental agent that causes damage during the prenatal period

i. Maternal diseases.
ii. Drugs
iii. Cigarette smoking
iv. Alcohol
v. Marijuana and heroin, cocaine
vi. Environmental toxins
vii. Radiation.
 Other maternal factors
a. Mother's age
b. Mother's diet and physical health
c. Maternal emotional state
d. Accidents and physical exercises

CHILD BIRTH (peri-natal stage)

The physical process of birth

Once gestation is complete, the fetus must be born, an event that holds some pain as well as a good deal
of joy for most parents. It is not surprising that child birth is often referred to as labor. It is the hardest
physical work a woman may ever do. A complex series of hormonal changes initiates the process, which
naturally divides into three stages.

1) Dilation and effacement of the cervix

2) Delivery of the baby
3) Birth of the placenta.

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT AFTER BIRTH (POST NATAL)

Of all animals, human beings are the most immature at birth. They require the longest period of
development before they become self reliant. They are dependants for many years and require a long
period of learning and interaction with others before becoming self-reliant.

The most widely used classification of developmental periods after birth involves the following sequence;

Infancy; (birth to 18 months), early childhood (infancy to about 5-6 years), middle and late childhood (6-11
years), adolescence (approximately 10 to 12 ending at 18-21 years), early adulthood (late teens or early
twenties through the thirties), middle adulthood ( approximately 35-45 up to sixties), late adulthood ( sixties
to death) (read about them).

FACTORS THAT INFLUNCE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

 Heredity
 Environmental factors

Growth and development are the result of the interaction of the influences of heredity and the environment.

Both heredity (nature) and environmental (nurture) contribute to physical, emotional, social, intellectual and
language development of an individual. In some cases, biological and genetics predominate while in others
environment exerts more influence.
Heredity (nature) is the transmission of potentialities/ characteristics for physical, mental, social, emotional
etc from parents to off springs at conception. It is the nature of the individual’s make up contained in the
genes. The genes are carried on the chromosomes and the chromosomes are carried in the parents’
reproductive cells i.e. sperm and ovum. Each reproductive cell contains 23 chromosomes. At fertilization
the mother donates 23 chromosomes and the father too making a total of 46 (23 pairs) of chromosomes in
a normal person.

In adults, the reproductive cells (sperm and ovum) continuously divide themselves in a process known as
meiosis. This enables the genes and chromosomes to continuously divide into halves. Each normal
individual formed at fertilization therefore gets the 23 pairs of chromosomes. At fertilization, the
chromosomes arrange themselves in such a way that sex and body parts can form normally.

The genes which are borne in the chromosomes determine physical characteristics such as height, body
size, color of the skin, eyes, hair, voice etc. they also determine behavior and intelligence to a certain extent
and the environment also plays a part. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) contains genetic information. Because
each parent donates 23 chromosomes, and each chromosome contains thousands of genes and therefore
thousands of combinations are possible. Some of these genes are dominant while others are recessive. All
these factors allow for unlimited characters among brothers and sisters. This accounts for individual
differences even among siblings. Thus children of the same parents may be tall or short fat or thin, dark or
light skinned, clever/ dull, introverted/ extroverted.

Environment (nurture) refers to various external factors to which an individual is exposed from conception
to death. These external or environmental factors include physical environment (e.g. second hand smoking
and prenatal nutrition) and social environment (e.g. the media, and peer pressure). Environmental factors
may also involve families, friends, school systems, local governments, global warming etc.

Nature- Nurture Debate

Since as early as 1930s, researchers have attempted to determine the contribution of hereditary and
environmental factors to human growth and development.

According to John Locke, a British philosopher, the mind of a newly born is a blank slate “tabula rasa” the
babies experience are written on a blank slate and all knowledge comes to us through the senses i.e. what
we see, hear, taste, smell and feel. According to John Lock, no knowledge is in born.
In addition, behavioural psychologists J.B. Watson and B.F Skinner argued that human bahaviour is
capable of being hammered into any shape. To them, training can turn a child into any kind of adult
regardless of heredity. Watson further believes that, that environmental has tremendous power to shape a
child’s development.

On the other hand, in his theory of evolution (1859) Charles Darwin emphasised the biological basis of
behavior (nature). He believed that there was struggle for existaence for the limited resources, survival is
for the fittest and the less fit are out competed. Darwin emphasized that our behavior and our ability to cope
with situation is determined by our body make up (nature).

In the nature-nurture debate/controversy, day to day behaviours in individuals are an interplay of heredity
and environmental factors e.g., headache. For example, many biological diseases, mental break down,
ulcers can also be a result of psychological stressors in the environment (nurture) e.g., heat, conflicts and
anxiety due to social interactions, etc. Also people’s moods and thoughts are often the result of genetic
factors and the environment.

There’s a complex interplay between nature and nurture e.g., a person may eat well, and never grow fat or
may spend years working in a gym to build up physical strength but the biological nature may limit him.
Also, people may maximize their intellectual gifts through reading widely and training but the nature will
contribute to the limit.

It’s also important to note that psychologists have learned that inherited traits do not become evident in
behavior unless a person’s environment supports or encourages them. Thus a child who has inherited
some special talent must be given opportunities to express them e.g. a child with a music talent should be
encouraged by parents and be exposed to the instruments and opportunities.

N: B The talented do not express their abilities at birth, instead the talents unfold as people mature and
interact with the environment.

Thus;-

1) Both nature and nurture affect expression of a trait such as intelligence, fatness, etc
2) The surrounding environment must make it possible for an inherited trait to be expressed.
3) The complex and constantly changing relationship between nature and nurture affects behavior.
THEORIES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

Psycho dynamic theorists believe that development is an active dynamic process that is strongly influenced
by individual’s social and emotional experiences. A child’s development occur in a series of stages, at each
stage the child experiences conflicts which must be resolved in order to go to the next stage.

Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory.

Freud viewed the new born as a “seething cauldron” that is an inherently negative creature that is driven by
two kinds of biological instincts which he called Eros and Thanatos. Eros/life instincts help a child to
survive and directs life sustaining activities such as respiration, eating among others. Thanatos/death
instincts were viewed as a set of destructive forces present in all human beings. Freud believed that eros is
stronger than thanatos thus enabling us to survive than self destruct. Freud thought that destructive acts
like murder and war were out ward expressions of the death instinct.

Components of personality development.

According to Freud, personality has three components. That is the id, ego and superego.

The id is a psychoanalytic term for the in born component of the personality that is driven by the instincts.
At birth the personality is id whose function is to serve the instincts by seeking objects that will satisfy them.
It is unconscious and has no contact with reality. It is also irrational
According to Freud, the id obeys the pleasurable principlestrives to relieve tension by seeking pleasure
and avoiding pain and by seeking immediate gratification. We might have difficult time satisfying our needs
by relying on our irrational ids. Freud believed that these difficulties lead to the second component of
personality which is the ego.

The ego. This operates according to the reality principle, working out realistic and rational ways of
satisfying the id’s demands and sometimes ego must invest some of it’s available psychic energy to block
the id’s irrational thinking. The ego is partly conscious. It houses our mental functions such as reasoning,
problem solving and decision making.
Freud stressed that the ego’s mastery over id is reflected by its ability to delay gratification until reality is
served. Due to some difficulties found at this component of personality, it leads to the third component,
superego.

Superego. It works on the morality principle. This controls the id’s impulses especially those that society
forbids e.g. aggression, murder etc.. it also persuades the Ego to turn to moralistic goals than simply
realistic ones and strive to perform. Freud believed that between 3 to 6 year-old children are gradually
internalizing the moral standards of their parents. Thus the internalized code of conduct form child’s
superego.

The superego consists of 2 systems that is conscience this push the ego by making a person feel bad
through guilt. And the ideal self is an imaginary picture of how you ought to be.

 You can now see that the id and the super ego make life hard for the ego eg. Your ego might say,
“I want to have sex only occasionally and be sure to use an effective form of birth control”. But
your id is saying “ I want to be satisfied; sex feels good”. And your superego is at work too, “I feel
guilty about having sex”

DEFENCE MECHANISMS

According to Freud, besides the id, ego and the super ego, defense mechanisms are important in
understanding how personality works. The ego calls a number of startegies to resolve the conflict between
its demands for reality, the wishes of the id, and the constraints of the superego. Defence mechanisms are
the ego’s protective methods for reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality. Defence mechanisms
are unconscious ie we are not aware we are calling on them to protect our ego and reduce anxiety and
when they are used in moderation or on a temporary basis, they are not necessarily un healthy. Examples
of defence mechanisms include;

Repression. This is a master defence mechanism. The ego pushes unacceptable impulses out of the
awareness, back into the unconscious mind. E.g. a young girl was sexually abused by her uncle. As an
adult, she can’t remember anything about the traumatic experience.

Rationalisation. The ego replaces a less acceptable motive with a more acceptable one. E.g. A college
student doesn’t get into the fraternity of his choice. He says that if he would have tried harder, he could
have gotten in.
Displacement. The ego shifts unacceptable feelings from one object to another, more acceptable object.
E.g. a woman can’t take her anger out on her husband so she takes it on her children.

Sublimation. The ego replaces an unacceptable impulse with a socially acceptable one. E.g. a man with
strong sex urges or desires becomes an artist who paints nudes.

Projection. The ego attributes personal shortcomings, problems and faults to others. A man has a strong
desire to have an extramarital affair accuses his wife of flirting with other men.

Reaction formation. The ego transforms an unacceptable motive into its opposite. E.g. A woman who fears
her sexual urges becomes a religious zealot.

Denial. The ego refuses to acknowledge anxiety producing realities. E.g. a man won’t acknowledge that he
has cancer even though a team of doctors has diagnosed his cancer.

Regression. The ego seeks the security of an earlier developmental period in the face of stress. E.g. A
woman returns home to her mother every time she and her husband have a big argument.

Freud’s psychosexual development.

Freud thought that personality develops in a fixed series of stages which he called psychosexual

stages. According to him, interest and pleasure begin before an individual matures. An infant gets sexual

gratification from different parts of the body at different stages but the sexual instinct reduces as the child

grows. He used the term psychosexual pleasure in a wider sense to include good feelings that arise from

the stimulation of the different parts of the body. These early experiences may have long-term effects on

social and personality development. Below are the stages that Freud called psychosexual stages of

development.

The five stages of psychosexual development.

Oral stage (birth-1year). This is Freud’s first stage of psychosocial development in which children satisfy the
sexual instinct by stimulating the mouth, lips and gums. Thus children derive their pleasure from sucking
on, chewing/ biting objects. Fixation at this stage may result into behaviours like nail biting, over smoking,
over talking alcohol, pleasure from over kissing, gluttony, oral hygiene, chewing gum.
The anal stage. (1-3years). This is Freud’s second stage of psychosexual development in which anal
activities like defecation become the primary methods of gratifying the sex instinct. During this anal stage
children must endure the demands of toilet training.
Fixation at this stage result into development of an anal expulsive personality character i.e. they become
wasteful, irresponsible, sloppy, or extreme messiness, etc. If toilet training was too strict, fixation results into
development of anal retentive character that is become too orderly, clean, organized etc.
3. The phallic stage (3-6years). This is Freud’s stage of psychosexual development in which children gratify
the sex instinct by fondling their genitals and developing an incestuous desire for the parent of other sex.
Freud talked of Electra complex in girls where girls envy their fathers for possessing the penis and would
choose him as a sex object in the hope of sharing this valuable organ. And Oedipus complex ) is the
conflict experienced by boys of 4-6 years when they develop an incestuous desire for their mothers and at
the same time, become jealous and hostile with their fathers.
The above conflicts children are resolved through the process of identification this involves a child adapting
the characteristics of the same parent. Fixation at this stage is reflected in behaviours like heavy reliance
on masturbation, homosexuality, lesbianism, etc.

4. The latency period (6-12year). At this stage the child’s sex instinct are relatively quiet and all available
libido is channeled into some socially acceptable activity like school work and acquiring new skills. The
latency period, continues until puberty when the child suddenly experiences a number of biological changes
and this takes us to his last stage of psychosexual development. There is no fixation in this stage.

5. The genital stage (12 onward). In this stage the underlying aim of sex instinct is to establish an erotic
relationship with another adult and to have children. At this stage individuals prepare for a career, courting,
marrying to satisfy fully the mature sex. At this stage the superego develops further.

ERIKSON'S THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development is one of the best-known theories of personality in
psychology. Much like Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that personality develops in a series of stages.
Unlike Freud’s theory of psychosexual stages, Erikson’s theory describes the impact of social experience
across the whole lifespan.
One of the main elements of Erikson’s psychosocial stage theory is the development of ego identity. Ego
identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction. According to Erikson, our
ego identity is constantly changing due to new experience and information we acquire in our daily
interactions with others. In addition to ego identity, Erikson also believed that a sense of competence also
motivates behaviors and actions. Each stage in Erikson’s theory is concerned with becoming competent in
an area of life. If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which he sometimes
referred to as ego strength or ego quality. If the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge with a
sense of inadequacy. In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning
point in development. In Erikson’s view, these conflicts are centered on either developing a psychological
quality or failing to develop that quality. During these times, the potential for personal growth is high, but so
is the potential for failure.

Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust

The first stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and one year of age
and is the most fundamental stage in life. Because an infant is utterly dependent, the development of trust
is based on the dependability and quality of the child’s caregivers.
If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world. Caregivers who are
inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children they care
for. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.

Psychosocial Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early childhood and
is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control.
Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However, Erikson's
reasoning was quite different from that of Freud's. Erikson believe that learning to control one’s body
functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence.
Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing
selection. Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not
are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt.

Psychosocial Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt

During the preschool years, children begin to assert their power and control over the world through
directing play and other social interaction. Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able
to lead others. Those who fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt and lack of
initiative.
Psychosocial Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority
This stage covers the early school years from approximately age 5 to 11 years. Through social interactions,
children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities. Children who are
encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of competence and belief in their
skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their ability
to be successful.

Psychosocial Stage 5 - Identity vs. Confusion

During adolescence, children are exploring their independence and developing a sense of self. Those who
receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from this stage
with a strong sense of self and a feeling of independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their
beliefs and desires will insecure and confused about themselves and the future.
Psychosocial Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation
This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships.
Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other people. Those
who are successful at this step will develop relationships that are committed and secure. Remember that
each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that a strong sense of personal
identity was important to developing intimate relationships. Studies have demonstrated that those with a
poor sense of self tend to have less committed relationships and are more likely to suffer emotional
isolation, loneliness, and depression.
Psychosocial Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation
During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family. Those who are
successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by being active in their home
and community. Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.
Psychosocial Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair
This phase occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life. Those who are unsuccessful
during this phase will feel that their life has been wasted and will experience many regrets. The individual
will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair. Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a
sense of integrity. Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general
feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting death
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Cognitive development is the development of the thinking and organizing systems in the brain. it involves
language, mental imagery, thinking, reasoning, problem solving, memorydevelopment etc.

PIAGET'S STAGE THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT

Jean Piaget was among other things, a psychologist who was interested in cognitive development. He saw
children’s thinking developing in a series of increasingly complex stages each of which incorporates and
revises those which precede it. He formulated a most complete and detailed description of the process of
cognitive development based on observations of behavior of his own children and those in his area of
genetic epistemology. He noted that children of similar age tend to engage in similar behaviors and to make
the same kinds of mistakes in problem solving. He concluded that these similarities are as a result of a
sequence of development that is followed by all normal children. He also concluded that completion of each
period with its corresponding abilities is the pre-requisite for entering the next period.

According to Piaget, individuals acquire the cognitive structures by interacting with their environment. Two
processes help the individual to adapt to her environment and grow cognitively i.e. assimilation and
accommodation.

Assimilation: it is the process by which an individual uses existing concepts to interpret new ideas or
experiences. It involves adding new items to the existing concepts.

Accommodation: it involves changing the existing concepts on the basis of new information. Existing
concepts/ ideas are modified to fit new ideas or experiences better.
Adaptation: occurs as a result of the interplay between assimilation and accommodation to make the
learning process complete. Adaptation results from a combination of the individual’s experiences, cultures
and society as well as physical maturation.

Together these processes (assimilation, accommodation and adaptation) create a state of cognitive
equilibrium (balance) but there is sometimes temporally dis-equillibrium in the development of these
processes.

After observation of many children, he posited that children progress through 4 stages and that they all do
so in the same order. These four stages are described below.

The Sensorimotor Period (birth to 2 years)

During this time, Piaget said that a child's cognitive system is limited to motor reflexes at birth, but the child
builds on these reflexes to develop more sophisticated procedures. Infants cannot predict reaction, and
therefore must constantly experiment and learn through trial and error. Such exploration might include
shaking a rattle or putting objects in the mouth. As they become more mobile, infants' ability to develop
cognitively increases. Early language development begins during this stage. The development of object
concept is an important feature of this stage. This means that at the beginning of this stage, when a child
perceives an object and it is removed from sight, he thinks that it has disappeared for good (objects out of
sight are out of mind). Object permanence starts occurring at 7-9 months, demonstrating that memory is
developing when infants realize that an object exists after it can no longer be seen. Object permanence is
one of the major accomplishments in the sensori-motor stage.

Pre-Operational period (2 to 6/7 years)

At this age, there’s rapid development of language and ability to represent things symbolically. Children use
toys to represent objects and ideas (symbolic representation) and they begin to classify and categorise
them. They learn to count and manipulate numbers. Operations in this stage are mental representations
that are irreversible. E.g. A preschooler may know that 2+3=5 but may not understand the reverse 5-2=3.
Piaget says children at that stage have not grasped the concept of conservation. i.e. A belief in the
permanence of certain attributes of objects or situations inspite of superficial changes e.g. if a round piece
of clay is moulded into a longer shape, a child will think that the longer clay has more clay than the round
shaped one. Another example is when a child is presented with two identical Beakers A and B and filled
with same amount of liquid. Then a third Beaker C which is tall and thin is filled with the same amount of
liquid. If a child in typical preoperational stage is asked whether the amounts in A and C are the same,
she/he will say that the liquid in C is more.
They are very self-oriented, and have an egocentric view; that is, they think that others see the world the
way they do. They also have intuitive thoughts i.e. children can’t answer logically why they know something
but offer personal insights or guesses instead. Young children at this stage also have much desire to know
their world and they ask a lot of questions.

Concrete Operations (6/7 to 11/12 years)

Children in the concrete operations stage have logical reasoning which replaces intuitive reasoning. They
lack abstract reasoning but classification skills are present. They are able to take another's point of view
and take into account more than one perspective simultaneously. They can also represent transformations
as well as static situations. Although they can understand concrete problems, Piaget would argue that they
cannot yet perform on abstract problems, and that they do not consider all of the logically possible
outcomes. A concrete operational child can solve the beaker problem seen earlier. He/she can say that
liquids in all beakers are the same. That is they have learnt reversibility and the law of conservation.
Children in this stage can reason in respect to objects they have seen but not with hypothetical objects.
Formal Operations (11/12 years to adult)

Children who attain the formal operation stage are capable of thinking logically and abstractly. They can
also reason theoretically. Piaget considered this the ultimate stage of development, and stated that
although the children would still have to revise their knowledge base, their way of thinking was as powerful
as it would get.

MORAL DEVELOPMENT

The continued existence of human groups in every society is determined by an overarching social
organization that specifies rules of good conducts and vices. This constitutes the moral aspects of life
which are basically roles and behaviors by which a society is expected to live. Attitudes and behaviors
which are generally accepted as ideal or rejected as improper in society may be determined by rules or
forces of law but can be from the religious, philosophical, cultural, biological or other ideologies.
Morals can be, “one’s judgments about what is right or wrong and their reasoning capacity as to why one’s
action is right and the other is wrong. Morals can be habits, expectations which are acquired or learned
which begin right from parents, peers and society. Therefore moral development involves the do’s and the
don’ts of society.

Therefore children can obtain their morality directly from their parents and act in accordance with moral
prescriptions to avoid punitive feeling of guilt from a harsh, restrictive super ego.

KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Lawrence Kohlberg viewed development in terms of levels of reasoning applied to choices people make in
their lives. Kohlberg viewed moral reasoning in three levels which included six sequential stages.

Kolberg perceived these stages as universal, that is, no stage is ever skipped, and applicable to all
cultures. Kolberg stressed that the actual decisions people make are not important, but that the reasoning
behind the decisions was important. This reasoning determines which stage of development a child is in.

Unlike the other theories, Kohlberg’s developmental levels and stages are not related to age.
Developmental levels are determined by the moral dilemmas people face and the reasoning they apply in
making decisions to resolve these dilemmas. A moral dilemma is a conflict situation faced by an individual
that involves making a choice between two alternatives, both of which would be considered socially
unacceptable.

The best known of these moral dilemmas is the “Heinz dilemma,” which asks individuals to choose between
the value of obeying the law ( not stealing) and the value of human life (saving a dying person): For
example in Europe, a woman was near death from cancer. There was one drug the doctors thought might
save her. A druggist in the same town had discovered it, but he was charging ten times what the drug
costed him to make. The sick woman’s husband, Heinz, tried to borrow the money, but he could only get
together half of what it costed. The druggist refused to sell it cheaper or let Heinz pay later. So Heinz got
desperate and broke into the man’s store to steal the drug for his wife. Should Heinz have done that? Why
or why not?.

Kohlberg organized his six (6) stages into three (3) general levels
These three (3) levels of development range from reasoning based upon self-gratification (pre conventional
morality), to reasoning based upon conformity (conventional morality),to reasoning based upon individual
values that have been internalized (post conventional morality).

Level one: The Pre conventional morality (2-7 years)

At this level, the child makes decisions based on cultural roles of what is considered to be right or wrong.
The reasoning applied is based upon reward and punishment and the satisfaction of their own needs. This
level is divided into two stages.

Stage One: Punishment and Obedience Orientation.

The child acting in this level avoids breaking rules because he/she may be punished. The child
demonstrates complete deference to rules. Often the interests of others are not considered.

Stage Two: Instrumental Relativist Orientation.

The reasoning applied during this stage is the one that satisfies the needs of the individual and sometimes
the needs of others. However, the only reason that the individual helps another is because a deal has been
made where the person the individual helps owes him/her something.

Level Two: Conventional Morality (7-12 years)

Conformity is the most important aspect at this level. The individual conforms to the expectation of others,
including the general social order. Kohlberg identified two stages within this level.

Stage Three the “good boy – good girl” Orientation, or the morality of interpersonal cooperation.

Living up to the expectations of others and good behavior are the important considerations for the individual
in this stage. Stage 3 individuals want to maintain the affection and approval of friends and relatives by
being a “good person “by displaying actions of trustworthy, loyalty, respect, helpful and being nice. For
instance “no one will think you’re bad if you steal the drug, but your family will think you’re an inhuman
husband if you don’t. If you let your wife die, you’ll never be able to look anyone in the face again”

Stage Four: The social – order maintaining orientation or law and Order Orientation.
The person acting in this stage is oriented towards authority and maintaining the social order. The
emphasis is on doing one’s duty and showing respect for authority. In stage 4, individuals believes laws
cannot be disobeyed under any circumstances because they are vital for ensuring societal order.

Level Three: Post conventional Morality (+12 years)

This is Kohlberg’s highest level of moral development, in which individuals define morality in terms of
abstract Principles and values that apply to all situations and societies. Individuals move beyond
unquestioning support for the rules and laws of their own society.

People who are in this level make decisions on the basis of individual values that have been internalized.
These values are not dependent on one’s friends, family or group, but totally on the individual making the
decision. The stages of reasoning also comprise this level.

Stage Five: Social Contract - Legalistic orientation.

In this stage, correct behaviour is defined in terms of individual rights and the consensus of society. Right is
a matter of personal opinion and values, but there is an emphasis on the legal point of view present here.
When laws are consistent with individual rights and the interests of the majority, each person follows them
because of a social-contract orientation – free and willing participation in the system because it brings
about more good for people than if it did not exist.

Stage Six: The Universal ethical principle orientation.

The ultimate judge of what’s moral is a person’s own conscience operating in accordance with certain
universal principles. Society’s rules are arbitrary and may be broken when they conflict with universal moral
principles.

At this stage, right action is defined by self-chosen ethical principles of conscience that are valid for all
humanity, regardless of law and social agreement. These values are abstract, not concrete moral rules like
the Ten Commandments. For example “If Heinz does not do everything he can to save his wife, then he is
putting some value higher than the value of life. It doesn’t make sense to put respect for property above
respect for life itself. Respect for human life and personality is absolute and accordingly people have a
mutual duty to save one another from dying”.