EEE1001-Electrical Circuits and Systems

Prepared By:
Pavan Mehta
SEEE ,VIT Bhopal
Semiconductor Devices
Contents
PN Junction Diode: Construction and operation
with characteristics
Rectifiers: Half-wave and Full-wave.
Zener Diode: Construction and operation with
characteristics
Zener Regulator.
BJT :Configuration –Characteristics –Amplifier
Power Electronic Devices: SCR & MOSFET.
Electronic Materials
• The goal of electronic materials is to generate and
control the flow of an electrical current.
• Electronic materials include:
1. Conductors: have low resistance which allows electrical
current flow
2. Insulators: have high resistance which suppresses electrical
current flow
3. Semiconductors: can allow or suppress electrical current
flow
The semiconductors fall somewhere midway between
conductors and insulators.
Scientific Principle of Conduction
The conduction band is the band of orbitals that are
high in energy and are generally empty. It is the band
that accepts the electrons from the valence band.

The “leap” required

for electrons from
the Valence Band to
enter the
Conduction Band.
The highest occupied energy band is called the valence
band. Most electrons remain bound to the atoms in this
band.
Conduction Band

Band Gap

Valence Band
 Conductors & its Atomic Structure
• Good conductors have low resistance so electrons flow through them
with ease.
• Best element conductors include:
• Copper, silver, gold, aluminum, & nickel
• Alloys are also good conductors:
• Brass & steel
• Good conductors can also be liquid:
• Salt water
• The atomic structure of good conductors usually
includes only one electron in their outer shell.
• It is called a valence electron. Copper Atom
• It is easily striped from the atom, producing current
flow.
 Conductors

In a conductor, electrons can move freely among these orbitals

within an energy band as long as the orbitals are not completely
occupied. Also in conductors, the energy gap is nonexistent or
relatively small.
 Insulators
• Insulators have a high resistance so current
does not flow in them.
• Good insulators include:
• Glass, ceramic, plastics, & wood
• Most insulators are compounds of several
elements.
• The atoms are tightly bound to one another so In insulators, the
electrons are difficult to strip away for current valence band is full.
flow.
Also in insulators, the energy gap is relatively large.
 Semiconductors
• Semiconductors are materials that essentially
can be conditioned to act as good conductors,
or good insulators, or any thing in between.
• Common elements such as carbon, silicon,
and germanium are semiconductors.
• Silicon is the best and most widely used
semiconductor.
The main characteristic of a semiconductor element is that it
has four electrons in its outer or valence orbit.
 Crystal Lattice Structure
• The unique capability of
semiconductor atoms is
their ability to link
together to form a
physical structure called a
crystal lattice.
• The atoms link together
with one another sharing
Only a small leap is required for an
their outer electrons. electron to enter the Conduction Band.
• These links are called
In semiconductors, the valence band is full
covalent bonds. but the energy gap is intermediate.
Silicon is a very common element, the main element
in sand & quartz.
Semiconductors can be Insulators
• If the material is pure semiconductor material like silicon, the crystal lattice
structure forms an excellent insulator since all the atoms are bound to one
another and are not free for current flow.
• Good insulating semiconductor material is referred to as intrinsic.
• Since the outer valence electrons of each atom are tightly bound together
with one another, the electrons are difficult to dislodge for current flow.
• Silicon in this form is a great insulator.
• Semiconductor material is often used as an insulator.
Semiconductors can be Conductors

• An impurity, or element like arsenic,

has 5 valence electrons.
• Adding arsenic (doping) will allow four
of the arsenic valence electrons to
bond with the neighboring silicon
atoms.
• The one electron left over for each
arsenic atom becomes available to
conduct current flow.
Doping
• To make the semiconductor conduct electricity, other atoms called
impurities must be added.
• “Impurities” are different elements.
• This process is called doping.
• Doping is the process of add impurities to intrinsic semiconductors to
alter their properties. Normally Trivalent and Pentavalent elements are
used to dope Silicon and Germanium. When a intrinsic semiconductor
is doped with Trivalent impurity it becomes a P-Type semiconductors.
The P stands for Positive, which means the semiconductor is rich in
holes or Positive charged ions.
Resistance Effects of Doping
• If you use lots of arsenic atoms for doping, there will be lots of extra
electrons so the resistance of the material will be low and current will
flow freely.
• If you use only a few boron atoms, there will be fewer free electrons
so the resistance will be high and less current will flow.
• By controlling the doping amount, virtually any resistance can be
achieved.
Silicon
Types of Semiconductor Materials
• The silicon doped with extra electrons is called an “N type”
semiconductor.
• “N” is for negative, which is the charge of an electron.
• Silicon doped with material missing electrons that produce locations
called holes is called “P type” semiconductor.
• “P” is for positive, which is the charge of a hole.
 In P-type doping, P-Type Doping
boron or gallium is the
dopant.

• Boron and gallium each have only three outer electrons.

• When mixed into the silicon lattice, they form "holes" in the lattice where a silicon electron
has nothing to bond to.
• The absence of an electron creates the effect of a positive charge, hence the name P-type.
• Holes can conduct current. A hole happily accepts an electron from a neighbor, moving the hole
over a space. P-type silicon is a good conductor.
Current Flow in P-type Semiconductors
• Electrons from the negative supply
terminal are attracted to the positive
holes and fill them.
• The positive terminal of the supply pulls
the electrons from the holes leaving the
holes to attract more electrons.
• Current (electrons) flows from the
negative terminal to the positive
terminal.
• Inside the semiconductor current flow is
actually by the movement of the holes
from positive to negative.
 In N-type doping, phosphorus
or arsenic is added to the
N-Type
silicon in small quantities.

• Phosphorus and arsenic each have five outer electrons, so

they're out of place when they get into the silicon lattice.

• The fifth electron has nothing to bond to, so it's free to move around.

• It takes only a very small quantity of the impurity to create enough

free electrons to allow an electric current to flow through the silicon.
N-type silicon is a good conductor.

• Electrons have a negative charge, hence the name N-

type.
Current Flow in N-type Semiconductors
• The DC voltage source has a positive
terminal that attracts the free electrons in
the semiconductor and pulls them away
from their atoms leaving the atoms
charged positively.
• Electrons from the negative terminal of the
supply enter the semiconductor material
and are attracted by the positive charge of
the atoms missing one of their electrons.
• Current (electrons) flows from the positive
terminal to the negative terminal.
In Summary
• In its pure state, semiconductor material is an excellent insulator.
• The commonly used semiconductor material is silicon.
• Semiconductor materials can be doped with other atoms to add or subtract
electrons.
• An N-type semiconductor material has extra electrons.
• A P-type semiconductor material has a shortage of electrons with vacancies
called holes.
• The heavier the doping, the greater the conductivity or the lower the resistance.
• By controlling the doping of silicon the semiconductor material can be made as
conductive as desired.
 P-N Junction

PN junction device

• A PN junction is a device formed by combining p-type ( doped with B,Al) and

n-type (doped with P,As,Sb) semiconductors together in close contact.
• PN junction can basically work in two modes,
• forward bias mode (as shown below: positive terminal connected to p-region
and negative terminal connected to n region)
• reverse bias mode ( negative terminal connected to p-region and positive
terminal connected to n region)
P-N Junction
In the n-type region there
are extra electrons and in
the p-type region, there are
holes from the acceptor
impurities .

• Filling a hole makes a negative ion and leaves behind a positive ion on the n-side.
• A space charge builds up, creating a depletion region.
PN Junction Diode

• This causes a depletion zone to form around the

junction (the join) between the two materials.
• This zone controls the behavior of the diode.
PN Junction Diode Biasing

• When a junction diode is Forward

Biased the thickness of the
depletion region reduces and the
diode acts like a short circuit
allowing full circuit current to flow.

• When a junction diode is Reverse

• When a diode is Zero Biased no Biased the thickness of the
external energy source is applied and a depletion region increases and the
natural Potential Barrier is developed diode acts like an open circuit
across a depletion layer which is blocking any current flow, (only a
approximately 0.5 to 0.7v for silicon very small leakage current will
diodes and approximately 0.3 of a volt flow).
for germanium diodes.
Forward Biasing

• Forward biasing the p-n junction • At the junction the electrons

drives holes to the junction from and holes combine so that a
the p-type material and electrons continuous current can be
to the junction from the n-type maintained.
material.
 Reverse Biasing

• When the potential formed

• The application of a reverse by the widened depletion
voltage to the p-n junction will layer equals the applied
cause a transient current to flow voltage, the current will
as both electrons and holes are cease except for the small
pulled away from the junction. thermal current.
PN Junction Diode Characteristic

• When forward-biased, there is a small

amount of voltage necessary to get the
diode going. In silicon, this voltage is about
0.7 volts.

• This voltage is needed to start the hole-

electron combination process at the junction.

• When reverse-biased, an ideal diode would block all current. A real diode lets
perhaps 10 microamps through -- not a lot, but still not perfect.
PN Junction Diode (Rectifier)
A rectifier is a circuit which converts the Alternating Current (AC)
input power into a Direct Current (DC) output power.
The input power supply may be either a single-phase or a multi-
phase supply with the simplest of all the rectifier circuits being that of
the Half Wave Rectifier.
The power diode in a half wave rectifier circuit passes just one half of
each complete sine wave of the AC supply in order to convert it into a
DC supply. Then this type of circuit is called a “half-wave” rectifier
because it passes only half of the incoming AC power supply
PN Junction Diode
( Half Wave Rectifier)
During each “positive” half
cycle of the AC sine wave, the
diode is forward biased as the
anode is positive with respect
to the cathode resulting in
current flowing through the
diode.
During each “negative” half
cycle of the AC sinusoidal
input waveform, the diode
is reverse biased as the anode
is negative with respect to the
cathode. Therefore, NO
current flows through the
diode or circuit.
 PN Junction Diode
( Half Wave Rectifier)
Average Value (or mean value) : The arithmetic
average of all the values of an alternating quantity
over one cycle is called its average value.

The average value is calculated by integrating the

current for a period θ = 0 to θ = π and averaging it
for the entire cycle, i.e θ = 0 to θ = 2π
Idc is the average value of the rectified current.
PN Junction Diode
( Half Wave Rectifier)
The rms value, I is calculated by first squaring the current, then taking its mean, and
then taking its root as
PN Junction Diode
( Half Wave Rectifier)
During the rectification process the resultant output DC voltage and current are
therefore both “ON” and “OFF” during every cycle. As the voltage across the load
resistor is only present during the positive half of the cycle (50% of the input
waveform), this results in a low average DC value being supplied to the load.
The variation of the rectified output waveform between this “ON” and “OFF”
condition produces a waveform which has large amounts of “ripple” which is an
undesirable feature. The resultant DC ripple has a frequency that is equal to that
of the AC supply frequency.
Very often when rectifying an alternating voltage we wish to produce a “steady”
and continuous DC voltage free from any voltage variations or ripple. One way of
doing this is to connect a large value Capacitor across the output voltage
terminals in parallel with the load resistor as shown below. This type of capacitor
is known commonly as a “Reservoir” or Smoothing Capacitor.
Half-wave Rectifier with Smoothing Capacitor
PN Junction Diode
( Half Wave Rectifier)

 Ripple/ form Factor

 The output of a half-wave rectifier is a pulsating dc. If
we analyse, we will see that it has a steady dc
component and an ac component. The ac component
is called the ripple.
 Ripple factor isdefined as the ratio of the rms value of
ac component to the value of dc component.
 The ripple factor indicates the level of fluctuation of
the output voltage from its steady value. Ripple is an
undesired effect and should be minimized. The ripple
factor, r for a half-wave rectifier is calculated as
PN Junction Diode
( Half Wave Rectifier)
Rectifier efficiency: Therefore, rectifier
efficiency
 It is calculated as the ratio of output power
to input power.
 DC output power,

 AC input power, Pac = Power dissipated in

diode junction + Power dissipated in the
load
PN Junction Diode
( Full Wave Rectifier)
 Full-wave rectifiers can be made using two diodes and a centre-tapped transformer.
 Full-wave rectifiers are also made using a two-winding transformer and four diodes. Such rectifiers
are called bridge rectifiers.
PN Junction Diode
( Full Wave Rectifier)
 The output wave form is a series of consecutive positive half cycles of
sinusoidal wave form.
 In each half cycle one of the two diodes will conduct and current will flow
through the load resistance, RL
 The current through the load resistance is unidirectional but its magnitude
is fluctuating
 The PIV is the maximum voltage that would appear across a diode when it
is reverse biased.
 Here, when D1 is conducting, D2 is reverse biased and vice versa.
 When D1 is conducting, the voltage that would appear across diode D2 is
the sum of the voltage across the lower half of the transformer secondary
winding and the voltage appearing across the load.
 PIV of the diode is equal to 2 Vm
 PN Junction Diode
( Full Wave Rectifier)
 Analysis of Full-wave Rectifiers
 PN Junction Diode
( Full Wave Rectifier)
 Analysis of Full-wave Rectifiers
The Full Wave Bridge Rectifier The Positive Half-cycle The Negative Half-cycle

 During the positive half cycle of the input voltage, terminal A of the
transformer is positive. Current will flow from the positive terminal
through diode D1, load RL and diode D4, and back to the negative
terminal, B of the transformer.
 During the negative half cycle of the input voltage diodes D3 and D2
are forward biased while diodes D1 and D4 are reverse biased.
 During both positive and negative half cycles of the input voltage,
current will pass through the load in the same direction.
 The output voltage wave shape is a series of positive half cycles of
the sinusoidal voltage.
• A half-wave rectifier produces a maximum load current (peak value)
of 40 mA through a 1200 Ω resistor. Calculate the PIV of the diode.
The diode is of silicon material. Also calculate form or ripple or form
factor and Idc.
PN Junction Diode
( Half Wave Rectifier)
A half-wave rectifier produces a maximum load current (peak value) of 40 mA through a
1200 Ω resistor. Calculate the PIV of the diode. The diode is of silicon material. Also calculate
form or ripple or form factor and Idc.

Assuming a voltage drop of 0.7 V across the silicon diode, the peak value of current, Im is

Im is =40 mA

Idc = 0.0127 A

FF=1.57
PIV = Vm = 48.7 V
Irms =0.02
A half-wave rectifier circuit has been made using a step-down transformer of turn
ratio 10:1. The input voltage is = 325 sin ωt the diode forward resistance is 25 Ω. A load
resistance of 1.2 kW has been connected in the circuit. Assuming a secondary winding
resistance of the transformer as 1Ω, calculate the following: (a) Rms value of load current
(b) rectification efficiency, and (c) ripple factor

Solution:

Input voltage, = 325 sin ωt

Input, Vm = 325
Transformer has a turn ratio of 10:1
The output V m = 325/10 =32.5
Contd..
 The input to a bridge rectifier is through a step-down transformer of turn ratio
10:1.The supply voltage is 230 V at 50 Hz. The load resistance is 1.2 kΩ secondary
winding resistance of the transformer is 4 Ω diode forward resistance is 2 Ω.
Calculate the efficiency of the bridge rectifier.
 Zener Diodes

2. Schematic symbol for a zener diode.

Objectives

• After completing this chapter, you will be able to:

• Describe the function and characteristics of a zener diode
• Draw and label the schematic symbol for a zener diode
• Explain how a zener diode operates as a voltage regulator
Special Diodes
 A zener diode is a special diode
that has been optimized for
operation in the breakdown
region.
 Voltage regulation is the most
common application of a zener
diode.
 Fig. shows the schematic
symbol for a zener diode.

Fig. 27-25
Zener Diode
 When a diode is reverse based, only a minutely small current called
saturated current flows (ideally no current should flow).
 If the reverse voltage is increased continuously, the junction breaks down
and suddenly a large reverse current flows.
 This reverse current is controlled or limited by connecting a suitable series
resistance so that excessive heat produced due to heavy current flow may
not burn the diode.
 If the reverse breakdown current is limited to the current-carrying capacity
of the diode, it can be operated under reverse breakdown condition
 The V–I characteristic of the diode under the reverse-biased condition can
be made dropping down almost vertically by proper doping of the
semiconductor material.
 A diode with a very sharp breakdown voltage is called a zener diode.
 Diodes designed to operate under the reverse breakdown condition,
maintain a fairly constant voltage over a wide range of current levels.
 When the reverse voltage is reduced below the breakdown voltage, the
current level returns to the very low saturation current level.
Zener Diode
Zener Diode
 There are two ways that breakdown of a Zener diode may occur. One is
called Zener breakdown and the other is called avalanche breakdown.
 If the depletion layer of a diode is narrow and we apply a reverse voltage,
the voltage per unit of width of the depletion layer becomes high. This
establishes a strong electric field intensity which causes electrons to break
away from their parent atoms. Thus, a depletion layer which was insulating
in nature, becomes a conducting path. This kind of breakdown due to the
creation of a strong electric field intensity, i.e., V/μm is called Zener
breakdown.
 If the width of the depletion layer is wide for a Zener breakdown, a
sufficient reverse voltage may provide the free electrons (minority carriers
causing saturation current) to gain sufficient energy to knockout electrons
from the atoms of the semiconductor in the depletion region. This is called
ionization by collision. The breakdown occurring this way is called
Avalanche breakdown.
• What is Zener Breakdown?
• When the diode is reverse biased, the kinetic energy of the electrons increases and they move at
a high velocity. The high-velocity electrons collide with other atoms and give rise to free
electrons. These free electrons, in turn, give rise to a high value of reverse saturation current.
This is known as Zener breakdown.
• What is Avalanche Breakdown?
• The avalanche breakdown occurs when a high reverse voltage is applied across the diode. As we
increase the applied reverse voltage, the electric field across the junction increases. This electric
field exerts a force on the electrons at the junction and frees them from covalent bonds. These
free electrons start moving with high velocity across the junction and collide with the other
atoms, thus creating more free electrons. This results in a rapid increase in net current. Both
these breakdowns occur in Zener diodes.
What is a Voltage Regulator?
• A voltage regulator is a device that regulates the voltage level. It
essentially steps down the input voltage to the desired level and keeps it
at that same level during the supply. This ensures that even when a load is
applied the voltage doesn’t drop. The voltage regulator is used for two
main reasons, and they are:
• To vary or regulate the output voltage
• To keep the output voltage constant at the desired value in spite of
variations in the supply voltage.
• Voltage regulators are used in computers, power generators, alternators
to control the output of the plant.
Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator
• There is a series resistor connected to the circuit in order to
limit the current into the diode. It is connected to the positive
terminal of the d.c. It works in such a way the reverse-biased
can also work in breakdown conditions. We do not use
ordinary junction diode because the low power rating diode
can get damaged when we apply reverse bias above its
breakdown voltage. When the minimum input voltage and the
maximum load current is applied, the Zener diode current
should always be minimum.
• Since the input voltage and the required output voltage is
known, it is easier to choose a Zener diode with a voltage
approximately equal to the load voltage, i.e. VZ = VL.
The value of the series resistor is written as RS = (VL − VZ)/IL
Designing a Circuit with the Zener Diode

Problem:
You have an unstable 12 Volt supply voltage and need a stable output
of 8 Volts to power a 100mA device.
Designing a Circuit with the Zener Diode
1. Choose a Zener Diode
Target voltage is 8 V, so choose a zener diode between 7.5V and 8.2V. An diode with 8.2 Volt zener voltage is perfect.
2. Calculate the Maximum Current in the Circuit
Our load device needs 100mA of current, plus we also need at least 5mA for the zener diode, therefore lets set Imax as
110mA to be safe (add 10-20% to the load current,).
3. Select the Power Rating of the Zener Diode
If a large current flows through a small zener diode it will be destroyed, therefore we calculate the power to be lost in the
diode and select a diode rated above that value.
zener power rating = 8.2 * 0.110 = 0.9 Watts.
Because, no current is flowing through the load when the device is switched off . Therefore a 1.3 Watt power rated zener
diode should be perfect.
. Select the Resistor
The voltage dropped across the resistor is equal to the difference between the source voltage and the zener voltage = 12-8 = 4 Volts, and therefore
the resistance according to Ohm's Law is the voltage drop divided by Imax = 4/0.110 = 36 Ohms so choose a 39 Ohm resistor.
If the source voltage is likely to be much over the 12 Volts stated then the voltage dropped across the resistor will be larger and so a resistor with a
larger resistance may be required.
5. Select the Power Rating of the Resistor
The power dissipated in the resistor is equal to the voltage drop across the resistor multiplied by Imax. Therefore in this example power = 4 * 0.110 =
0.440 Watts. Using a 0.5 Watt resistor would be cutting it a bit fine - particularly if the source voltage is going to fluctuate higher regularly, therefore a
1 or 2 Watt rated resistor should be used here despite it costing a few pennies extra.
Designing a Circuit with the Zener Diode

4. Select the Resistor

The voltage dropped across the resistor is equal to the difference between the source
voltage and the zener voltage = 12-8 = 4 Volts, and therefore the resistance according to
Ohm's Law is the voltage drop divided by Imax = 4/0.110 = 36 Ohms so choose a 39 Ohm
resistor.
If the source voltage is likely to be much over the 12 Volts stated then the voltage
dropped across the resistor will be larger and so a resistor with a larger resistance may
be required.
5. Select the Power Rating of the Resistor
The power dissipated in the resistor is equal to the voltage drop across the resistor
multiplied by Imax. Therefore in this example power = 4 * 0.110 = 0.440 Watts. Using a
0.5 Watt resistor would be cutting it a bit fine - particularly if the source voltage is going
to fluctuate higher regularly, therefore a 1 or 2 Watt rated resistor should be used here
despite it costing a few pennies extra.
The circuit of Fig. has a
zener diode connected
across the load.
(a) For RL = 180 W,
determine all currents and
voltages.
(b) Repeat part (a) for RL =
450 Ω
(c) Find the value of RL for
the zener to draw maximum
power.
(d) Find the minimum value
of RL for the zener to be just
in on-state.
(a) As RL is small, assume that the zener does not conduct, i.e. Iz = 0.
Then, IR = IL = 20/(200+180)=52.6 mA

Vz = VL = 20 – (200 × 52.6 × 10–3) = 9.48 < 10 V

So our assumption is correct.

(b) RL = 450 V

Assume that the zener conducts. VL = Vz = 10 V

IL = (10/450)x103 = 22.3 mA
IR = ((20-10)/200) 103 = 50 mA

Iz = 50 – 22.2 = 27.8 mA
Pz = 27.8 × 10 = 278 mW < 350 mW (rating)

(c) When the zener draws maximum power,

Iz = (350/10) = 35 mA
Then IR = ((20- 10)/200) x103 = 50 mA
IL = IR – Iz = 50 – 3.5 = 15 mA
RL = 10/15 x10-3 = 667Ω
(d) Iz = 0 (just on state)
IR = 50 mA = IL ; VL = Vz = 10 V ; RL (min) =10/50mA =200Ω
Determine the range of Vi in which the zener diode of Fig.
conducts.
Summary

• Zener diodes are designed to operate at voltages greater than the

breakdown voltage (peak reverse voltage)
• The breakdown voltage of a zener diode is determined by the
resistivity of the diode
• Zener diodes are used to stabilize or regulate voltage
Summary (cont’d.)

• Zener diode regulators provide a constant output voltage despite

changes in the input voltage or output current
• To determine whether a zener diode is regulating at the proper
voltage, a regulation test must be performed
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
 Transistors
• Two main categories of transistors:
• bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) and
• field effect transistors (FETs).
• Transistors have 3 terminals where the application of
current (BJT) or voltage (FET) to the input terminal increases
the amount of charge in the active region.
• The physics of "transistor action" is quite different for the
BJT and FET.
• In analog circuits, transistors are used in amplifiers and
linear regulated power supplies.
• In digital circuits they function as electrical switches,
including logic gates, random access memory (RAM), and
microprocessors.
The Junction Transistor
• First BJT was invented early in 1948, only weeks after
the point contact transistor.
• Initially known simply as the junction transistor.
• It did not become practical until the early 1950s.
• The term “bipolar” was tagged onto the name to
distinguish the fact that both carrier types play
important roles in the operation.
• Field Effect Transistors (FETs) are “unipolar”
transistors since their operation depends primarily on
a single carrier type.
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)

• A bipolar transistor essentially

consists of a pair of PN
Junction diodes that are joined
back-to-back.
• There are therefore two kinds
of BJT, the NPN and PNP
varieties.
• The three layers of the
sandwich are conventionally
called the Collector, Base, and
Emitter.
Introduction

• The basic of electronic system nowadays is

semiconductor device.
• The famous and commonly use of this device is
BJTs
(Bipolar Junction Transistors).
• It can be use as amplifier and logic switches.
• BJT consists of three terminal:
 collector : C
 base : B
emitter : E
• Two types of BJT : pnp and npn
Position of the terminals and symbol of BJT.

• Base is located at the middle

and more thin from the level
of collector and emitter
• The emitter and collector
terminals are made of the
same type of semiconductor
material, while the base of the
other type of material
Transistor Construction

• 3 layer semiconductor device consisting:

• 2 n- and 1 p-type layers of material  npn transistor
• 2 p- and 1 n-type layers of material pnp transistor
• The term bipolar reflects the fact that holes and electrons
participate in the injection process into the oppositely
polarized material
• A single pn junction has two different types of bias:
• forward bias
• reverse bias
• Thus, a two-pn-junction device has four types of bias.
• BJTs are usually constructed vertically
• Controlling depth of the emitter’s n doping sets the base
width

E B C

n
p

n
• By imaging the analogy of diode, transistor can be
construct like two diodes that connetecd together.
• It can be conclude that the work of transistor is base on
work of diode.
Terminals & Operations
Terminals & Operations

• Three terminals:
• Base (B): very thin and lightly doped central region (little
recombination).
• Emitter (E) and collector (C) are two outer regions sandwiching
B.
• Normal operation (linear or active region):
• B-E junction forward biased; B-C junction reverse biased.
• The emitter emits (injects) majority charge into base region and
because the base very thin, most will ultimately reach the
collector.
• The emitter is highly doped while the collector is lightly doped.
• The collector is usually at higher voltage than the emitter.
Operation Mode
Operation Mode

• Active:
• Most importance mode, e.g. for amplifier operation.
• The region where current curves are practically flat.
• Saturation:
• Barrier potential of the junctions cancel each other out
causing a virtual short.
• Ideal transistor behaves like a closed switch.
• Cutoff:
• Current reduced to zero
• Ideal transistor behaves like an open switch.
Operation Mode
How the BJT works
• Figure shows the energy levels in
an NPN transistor under no
externally applying voltages.
• In each of the N-type layers
conduction can take place by the
free movement of electrons in
the conduction band.
• In the P-type (filling) layer
conduction can take place by the
movement of the free holes in
the valence band.
• However, in the absence of any
externally applied electric field,
we find that depletion zones
NPN Bipolar Transistor form at both PN-Junctions, so no
charge wants to move from one
layer to another.
 Transistor currents
-The arrow is always drawn
on the emitter

-The arrow always point

toward the n-type

npn bipolar junction transistor -The arrow indicates the

direction of the emitter
current:
pnp:E B
npn: B E

IC=the collector current

IB= the base current
pnp bipolar junction transistor IE= the emitter current
Common-emitter, common-collector, and common-base configurations of
n–p–n and p–n–p transistors
 Common-Emitter Configuration BJT NPN Transistor
• 1 thin layer of p-type, sandwiched between 2 layers of n-type.
• N-type of emitter: more heavily doped than collector.
• With VC>VB>VE:
• Base-Emitter junction forward biased, Base-Collector reverse biased.
• Electrons diffuse from Emitter to Base (from n to p).
• There’s a depletion layer on the Base-Collector junction no flow of e-
allowed.
• BUT the Base is thin and Emitter region is n+ (heavily doped)  electrons have
enough momentum to cross the Base into the Collector.
• The small base current IB controls a large current IC
 BJT characteristics

• Current Gain:
• α is the fraction of electrons that diffuse
across the narrow Base region
• 1- α is the fraction of electrons that
I C  I E
I B  (1   ) I E
recombine with holes in the Base region to
create base current
• The current Gain is expressed in terms of
IC 
the β (beta) of the transistor (often called
hfe by manufacturers).  
• β (beta) is Temperature and Voltage
IB 1
dependent.
• It can vary a lot among transistors (common
values for signal BJT: 20 - 200).
 • IB is microamperes compared
to miliamperes of IC.
• IB will flow when VBE > 0.7V
for silicon and 0.3V for
germanium
• Before this value IB is very
small and no IB.
• Base-emitter junction is
forward bias
• Increasing VCE will reduce IB
for different values.

Input characteristics for a

common-emitter NPN transistor
 Output characteristics for a
common-emitter npn
transistor

• For small VCE (VCE < VCESAT, IC increase linearly with increasing
of VCE
• VCE > VCESAT IC not totally depends on VCE  constant IC
• IB(uA) is very small compare to IC (mA). Small increase in IB
cause big increase in IC
• IB=0 A  ICEO occur.
• Noticing the value when IC=0A. There is still some value of
current flows.
 NPN Common Emitter characteristics
• Emitter is grounded.
• Base-Emitter starts to conduct with VBE=0.6V,IC flows and it’s IC=b*IB.
• Increasing IB, VBE slowly increases to 0.7V but IC rises exponentially.
• As IC rises ,voltage drop across RC increases and VCE drops toward ground. (transistor in
saturation, no more linear relation between IC and IB)

Collector current
controlled by the Collector current The avalanche
collector circuit. (Switch proportional to Base multiplication of
behavior) current current through
collector junction
In full saturation
occurs: to be
VCE=0.2V.
avoided

No current flows
 Operation region summary

Operation IB or VCE BC and BE Mode

Region Char. Junctions
Cutoff IB = Very Reverse & Open
small Reverse Switch
Saturation VCE = Small Forward & Closed
Forward Switch
Active VCE = Reverse & Linear
Linear Moderate Forward Amplifier
Break- VCE = Beyond Overload
down Large Limits
 Common-Base Configuration
• Common-base terminology is derived from the fact that the
:
- base is common to both input and output of the
configuration.
- base is usually the terminal closest to or at
ground potential.
• All current directions will refer to conventional (hole) flow
and the arrows in all electronic symbols have a direction
defined by this convention.
• Note that the applied biasing (voltage sources) are such as
to establish current in the direction indicated for each
branch.
• To describe the behavior of common-base amplifiers
requires two set of characteristics:
- Input or driving point characteristics.
- Output or collector characteristics
• The output characteristics has 3 basic regions:
- Active region –defined by the biasing arrangements
- Cutoff region – region where the collector current is 0A
- Saturation region- region of the characteristics to the left of
VCB = 0V
Common – Collector Configuration
• Also called emitter-follower (EF).
• It is called common-emitter configuration since both the
signal source and the load share the collector terminal as
a common connection point.
• The output voltage is obtained at emitter terminal.
• The input characteristic of common-collector
configuration is similar with common-emitter.
configuration.
• Common-collector circuit configuration is provided with
the load resistor connected from emitter to ground.
• It is used primarily for impedance-matching purpose
since it has high input impedance and low output
impedance.
Notation and symbols used with the common-collector configuration:
(a) pnp transistor ; (b) npn transistor.
• For the common-collector configuration, the output
characteristics are a plot of IE vs VCE for a range of values of IB.
Simulation of transistor as an amplifier
 Beta () or amplification factor
• The ratio of dc collector current (IC) to the dc base current
(IB) is dc beta (dc ) which is dc current gain where IC and
IB are determined at a particular operating point, Q-point
(quiescent point).
• It’s define by the following equation:

30 < dc < 300  2N3904

• On data sheet, dc=hFE with h is derived from ac hybrid

equivalent cct. FE are derived from forward-current
amplification and common-emitter configuration
respectively.
• For ac conditions an ac beta has been defined as the
changes of collector current (IC) compared to the
changes of base current (IB) where IC and IB are
determined at operating point.
• On data sheet,  ac=hfe
• It can defined by the following equation:
 BJT as Switch
•Vin(Low ) < 0.7 V
•BE junction not forward
biased
•Cutoff region
•No current flows
•Vout = VCE = Vcc
•Vout = High

•Vin(High)
•BE junction forward biased (VBE=0.7V)
•Saturation region
•VCE small (~0.2 V for saturated BJT)
•Vout = small
•IB = (Vin-VB)/RB
•Vout = Low
 BJT as Switch 2
• Basis of digital logic circuits
• Input to transistor gate can be analog or digital
• Building blocks for TTL – Transistor Transistor Logic
• Guidelines for designing a transistor switch:
• VC>VB>VE
• VBE= 0.7 V
• IC independent from IB (in saturation).
• Min. IB estimated from by (IBminIC/).
• Input resistance such that IB > 5-10 times IBmin because  varies
among components, with temperature and voltage and RB may change
when current flows.
• Calculate the max IC and IB not to overcome device specifications.
In a BJT, the emitter current is 8 mA and IB = IC/100. Determine IC and IB.
 MOSFET

Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor

1
 Introduction (FET)
• Field-effect transistor (FET) are important devices such as BJTs
• Also used as amplifier and logic switches
• Types of FET:
• MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor)
• JFET (junction field-effect transistor)

• MOSFET
1. MOS properties
2. Enhancement mode
3. Depletion mode
4. I-V characteristics
 FET - Introduction

BJTs (bipolar junction transistors) were covered in previous chapters. Now

we will discuss the second major type of transistor, the FET (field-effect
transistor). Recall that a BJT is a current-controlled device; that is, the base
current controls the amount of collector current. A FET is different. It is a
voltage-controlled device, where the voltage between two of the terminal
(gate and source) controls the current through the device. The FET’s major
advantage over the BJT is high input resistance. Overall the purpose of the
FET is the same as the BJT.

3
1. FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR (FET)

 FET is a three terminal semiconductor device. It is unipolar transistor i.e. depends only on one
type of charge carrier, either electron or hole.

 The current is controlled by the applied electric field hence, it is a voltage controlled device.

 FET is simple to fabricate and occupies less space on a chip than a BJT. About 100000 FETs can be
fabricated in a single chip. This makes them useful in VLSI (very large scale integrate) system.

 It have high input Impedances and Low output Impedance so they are used as buffers at the front end of
voltage and other measuring devices.

 It has small coupling capacitances, as a result, they are used in hearing aids.

 There are two types of FET – the JFET (Junction Field Effect Transistor) and MOSFET (Metal Oxide
Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor)
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 Introduction.. (Advantages of FET)
• High input impedance (M)
• (Linear AC amplifier system)
• Temperature stable than BJT
• Smaller than BJT
• Can be fabricated with fewer processing
• BJT is bipolar – conduction both hole and electron
• FET is unipolar – uses only one type of current carrier
• Less noise compare to BJT
• Usually use as logic switch

Disadvantages of FET
• Easy to damage compare to BJT
• ???
Comparison Between FET and
BJT
FE BJT
T
i) Carriers of only one type i.e either electron or i) Carriers- electron and hole (majority and minority
hole (majority carrier) are responsible for the carrier)-involved in current conduction
conduction.
ii) It is the drift mechanism that helps the ii) The carriers are transported by the process of
movement of carriers diffusion.
iii) More stable than BJT.
iii) Less stable than FET
iv) The FET is voltage controlled device or
voltage amplifier. iv) It is current controlled device or current amplifier

v) Input impedance offered much higher than BJT v) Input impedance offered is Less

vi) Easy to fabricate and required less space and vi) Not easy as compared to FET.
hence all the ICs use as their basic technology
and preferred VLSI design. vii) Required more space than FET.
vii) Less noisy compared to BJT thats way
extensively vii) More noisy than FET.
used in communication devices. 11
viii) Offers high power gain compared to BJT
•

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3
The ideal MOS Structure have the following explicit properties

i. The metallic gate is sufficiently thick so that it can be consideredto be

an equipotential region under both AC and DC biasing.

ii. The oxide is perfect insulator

with zero current flowing through the oxide
layer under all static biasing condition.

iii. There are no charge centers located in the oxide or in oxide

semiconductor
interface .

iv. The semiconductor is sufficiently thick to ensure that regardless of the

applied gate potential, a field-free region is encountered before reaching the
black contact.

v. on
Thethe
semiconductor
black side of is uniformly doped.
the 13
 The MOSFET
The metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET) is the second category of FETs. The chief difference is that there no actual
pn junction as the p and n materials are insulated from each other. MOSFETs are static sensitive devices and must be handled by appropriate
means.
There are depletion MOSFETs (D-MOSFET) and enhancement MOSFETs (E-MOSFET). Note the difference in construction. The E-
MOSFET has no structural channel.
Construction wise we can categorise the device into four types
i. P-channel Enhancement MOSFET
ii. n-channel Enhancement MOSFET
iii. n-channel Depletion MOSFET
iv. p-channel Depletion MOSFET

Representation of the basic E-MOSFET

Representation of the basic structure of D-MOSFETs.
construction and operation (n-channel).
Enhancement mode
When there is no voltage on the gate, the device doesn't conduct. More
voltage on the gate, the better the device can conduct.

136
The MOSFET – Enhancement MOSFET (E-MOSFET)
The schematic symbols for the n-channel The conventional enhancement MOSFETs
and p-channel E-MOSFET are shown in have a long thin lateral channel as shown
Figure below. in structural view in Figure below.

n
Source

30
The MOSFET – Enhancement MOSFET (E-MOSFET)

The E-MOSFET operates only in the enhancement mode and has no depletion mode. It
differs in construction from the D-MOSFET in that it has no structural channel. Notice in
Figure (a) that the substrate extends completely to the SiO2 layer. For n-channel device, a
positive gate voltage above threshold value induces a channel by creating a thin layer of
negative charges in the substrate region adjacent to the SiO2 layer, as shown in Figure (b).

Representation of the
basic E-MOSFET
construction and
operation (n-channel).

29
ii) n – Channel Enhancement MOSFET
 Its working is similar to that of p-channel enhancement MOSFET but only
operationally
and constructionally there are different from each other.

 The Characteristics is shown in figure

13
9
i) P – Channel Enhancement MOSFET

• We also call the p channel MOSFET as PMOS. Here, a substrate of lightly doped n-type
semiconductor forms the main body of the device. We usually use silicon or gallium arsenide
semiconductor material for this purpose. Two heavily doped p-type regions are there in the
body separated by a certain distance L. We refer this distance L as channel length and it is
in order of 1 µm.

• Now there is a thin layer of silicon dioxide (SiO2) on the top of the substrate. We may also use
Al2O3 for the purpose but SiO2 is most common. This layer on the substrate behaves as a
dielectric. There is an aluminum plate fitted on the top of this SiO2 dielectric layer. Now the
aluminum plate, dielectric and semiconductor substrate form a capacitor on the device.

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0
• The terminals connected to two p-type regions are the source (S) and drain (D) of the device respectively. The
terminal projected from the aluminum plate of the capacitor is gate (G) of the device. We also connect the
source and body of the MOSFET to earth to facilitate the supply and withdrawal of free electrons as per
requirement during operation of the MOSFET

• Now let us apply a negative voltage at gate (G). This will create negative static potential at the aluminum
plate of the capacitor. Due to capacitive action, positive charge gets accumulated just below the dielectric
layer.

Basically, the free electrons of that portion of the n-type substrate get shifted away due to the repulsion of negative
gate plate and consequently layers of uncovered positive ions appear here. Now if we further increase the negative
voltage at the gate terminal, after a certain voltage called threshold voltage, due to the electrostatic force, covalent
bonds of the crystal just below the SiO2 layer start breaking. Consequently, electron-hole pairs get generated there.
The holes get attracted and free electrons get repealed due to the negativity of the gate. In this way, the
concentration of holes increases there and create a channel of holes from source to drain region. Holes also come
from both 17 the
current canheavily doped p-type source and drain region. Due to the concentration of holes in that channel
• Now, let us apply a negative voltage at drain terminal. The negative
voltage in the drain region reduces the voltage difference between
gate and drain reduces, as a result, the width of the conductive
channel get reduced toward the drain region as shown below. At the
same time, current flows from source to drain shown by arrowhead.

• The channel created in the MOSFET offers a resistance to the

current from source to drain. The resistance of the channel
depends on the cross- section of the channel and the cross section
of the channel again depends on the applied negative gate voltage.
So we can control the current from the source to drain with the help
of an applied gate voltage hence MOSFET is a voltage controlled
electronic device. As the concentration of holes forms the channel,
and the current through the channel gets enhanced due to increase
in negative gate voltage, we name the MOSFET as P – Channel
Enhancement MOSFET.

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2
 I-V Characteristics

 The transfer characteristics of p-type enhancement MOSFETs

from which it is evident that IDS remains zero (cutoff state) until VGS
becomes equal to
-VT. This is because, only then the channel will be formed to
connect the drain terminal of the device with its source terminal.

 After this, the IDS is seen to increase in reverse direction (meaning

an increase in ISD, signifying an increase in the device current
which will flow from source to drain) with the decrease in the value
of VDS.

 This means that the device is functioning in its ohmic region

wherein the current through the device increases with an increase
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3
 However as VDS becomes equal to –VP, the device enters into
saturation during which a saturated amount of current (IDSS)
flows through the device, as decided by the value of VGS .

 Further it is to be noted that the value of saturation current

flowing through the device is seen to increase as the VGS
becomes more and more negative i.e. saturation current for
VGS3 is greater than that for VGS2 and that in the case of VGS4 is
much greater than both of them as VGS3 is more negative than
VGS2 while VGS4 is much more negative when compared to
either of them (Figure 2b)

14
4
 In addition,from the locus of the pinch-off voltage it is
also clear thatas VGS
becomes more and more negative, even the negativity of VP also
increases.

14
5
 Depletion mode

When No Voltage On The Gate, The Channel Shows Its Maximum Conductance. As
The Voltage On The Gate Is Either Positive Or Negative, The Channel Conductivity
Decreases.

146
 The MOSFET – Depletion MOSFET
The D-MOSFET can be operated in either of two modes – the depletion mode or
enhancement mode – and is sometimes called a depletion/enhancement MOSFET. Since the
gate is insulated from the channel, either positive or a negative gate voltage can be applied.
The n-channel MOSFET operates in the depletion mode when a negative gate-to-source
voltage is applied and in the enhancement mode when a positive gate-to-source voltage is
applied. These devices are generally operated in the depletion mode.

27
 The MOSFET – Depletion MOSFET
Depletion Mode With a negative gate voltage, the negative charges on the gate repel
conduction electrons from the channel, leaving positive ions in their place. Thereby, the n
channel is depleted of some of its electrons, thus decreasing the channel conductivity. The
greater the negative voltage on the gate, the greater the depletion of n-channel electrons. At
sufficiently negative gate-to-source voltage, VGS(off), the channel is totally depleted and
drain current is zero.

Enhancement Mode With a

positive gate voltage, more
conduction electrons are attracted
into the channel, thus increasing
(enhancing) the channel
conductivity.

Source

D-MOSFET schematic symbols.

28
iii) n-channel Depletion-type MOSFET

 The construction and the characteristics regions are

shown below

14
9
 iv) p-channel Depletion-type MOSFET

 Construction wise p-channel DE-MOSFET is just reverse of the n channel

depletion MOSFET

15
0
 MOSFET Characteristics and Parameters –
D-MOSFET Transfer Characteristic
As previously discussed, the D-MOSFET can operate with either positive or negative gate voltages. This
is indicated on the general transfer characteristic curves in Figure for both n-channel and p-channel
MOSFETs. The point on the curves where V GS = 0 corresponds to IDSS. The point where ID = 0
corresponds to VGS(off). As with the JFET, VGS(off) = -VP.

D-MOSFET general transfer

characteristic curves.

Floyd 2
Silicon Controlled Rectifier
Silicon Controlled Rectifier

• The Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) is the most important and mostly used
member of the thyristor family.
• SCR can be used for different applications like rectification, regulation of power
and inversion, etc.
• Like a diode, SCR is a unidirectional device that allows the current in one
direction and opposes in another direction.
• This results in varying the average power delivered at the load , by varying the ON
periods of the SCR. It can handle several thousands of voltages and currents. SCR
symbol and its terminals are shown in figure.
Construction

• The SCR is a four layer and three terminal device. The four layers made of P and
N layers, are arranged alternately such that they form three junctions J1, J2 and J3.
• The outer layers (P and N-layers) are heavily doped whereas middle P and N-
layers are lightly doped.
• The gate terminal is taken at the middle P-layer, anode is from outer P- layer and
cathode is from N- layer terminals.
• The SCR is made of silicon because compared to germanium leakage current in
silicon is very small.
Working or Modes of Operation of SCR

• Depending on the biasing given to the SCR, the operation of SCR is divided into
three modes. They are
1. Forward blocking Mode
2. Forward Conduction Mode and
3. Reverse Blocking Mode
Forward Blocking Mode

• In this mode of operation, the Silicon Controlled Rectifier is connected such that
the anode terminal is made positive with respect to cathode while the gate terminal
kept open.
• In this state junctions J1 and J3 are forward biased and the junction J2 reverse
biased.
• Due to this, a small leakage current flows through the SCR. Until the voltage
applied across the SCR is more than the break over voltage of it, SCR offers a
very high resistance to the current flow.
• Therefore, the SCR acts as a open switch in this mode by blocking forward current
flowing through the SCR as shown in the VI characteristics curve of the SCR.
Forward Conduction Mode

• In this mode, SCR or thyristor comes into the conduction mode from blocking
mode.
• It can be done in two ways as either by applying positive pulse to gate terminal or
by increasing the forward voltage (or voltage across the anode and cathode)
beyond the break over voltage of the SCR.
• Once any one of these methods is applied, the avalanche breakdown occurs at
junction J2. Therefore the SCR turns into conduction mode and acts as a closed
switch thereby current starts flowing through it.
• Note that in the VI characteristic figure, if the gate current value is high, the
minimum will be the time to come in conduction mode as Ig3 > Ig2 > Ig1.
• In this mode, maximum current flows through the SCR and its value depends on
the load resistance or impedance.
• It is also noted that if gate current is increasing, the voltage required to turn ON
the SCR is less if gate biasing is preferred.
• The current at which the SCR turns into conduction mode from blocking mode is
called as latching current (IL).
• And also when the forward current reaches to level at which the SCR returns to
blocking state is called as holding current (IH).
• At this holding current level, depletion region starts to develop around junction J2.
Hence the holding current is slightly less than the latching current.
Thyristor (SCR) Ia

A (Anode)
Ia
Ig>0 Ig=0
+ Ih
Vr
Ig Vak Ibo
_

Vbo Vak
G (Gate)

K (Cathode)
Thyristor: Symbol v-i characteristics

• If the forward breakover voltage (Vbo) is exceeded, the SCR “self-triggers” into the conducting state.
• The presence of gate current will reduce Vbo.
• “Normal” conditions for thyristors to turn on:
• the device is in forward blocking state (i.e Vak is positive)
• a positive gate current (Ig) is applied at the gate
• Once conducting, the anode current is latched. Vak collapses to normal forward volt-drop, typically 1.5-3V.
• In reverse -biased mode, the SCR behaves like a diode.
Reverse Blocking Mode

• In this mode of operation, cathode is made positive with respect to anode. Then the
junctions J1 and J3 are reverse biased and J2 is forward biased.
• This reverse voltage drives the SCR into reverse blocking region results to flow a small
leakage current through it and acts as an open switch as shown in figure.
• So, the device offers a high impedance in this mode until the voltage applied is less than
the reverse breakdown voltage VBR of the SCR.
• If the reverse applied voltage is increased beyond the VBR, then avalanche breakdown
occurs at junctions J1 and J3 which results to increase reverse current flow through the
SCR.
• This reverse current causes more losses in the SCR and even to increase the heat of it.
• So there will be a considerable damage to the SCR when the reverse voltage applied more
than VBR.
•
 Two Transistor Analogy of SCR
• The two transistor analogy or two transistor model of SCR expresses the easiest
way to understand the working of SCR by visualizing it as a combination of two
transistors as shown in figure.
• The collector of each transistor is connected to the base of the other transistor.
• Assume that load resistance is connected between the anode and cathode terminals
and a small voltage is applied at the gate and cathode terminals.
• When there is no gate voltage, the transistor 2 is in cut-off mode due to zero base
current. Therefore, no current flows through the collector and hence the base of
transistor T1.
• Hence, both transistors are open circuited and thereby no current flows through
the load.
• When a particular voltage is applied between the gate and cathode, a
small base current flows through the base of the transistor 2 and
thereby collector current will increase.
• And hence the base current at the transistor T1 drives the transistor
into saturation mode and thus load current will flow from anode to
cathode.
 Half-Wave Controlled Rectifier
Controlled Rectifier Circuit
Waveforms

Figure 12.25, 12.26

166
 References
1. Solid state electronic devices by Ben G. Streetman and S.K Banerjee
2. Lecture notes: Sec. 3 Sedra & Smith
3. Electronics devices and Circuit Theory By Robert L. Boylestad
4. Principle of electronic material and devices by S.O. Kasap.
5. Working Principle and Characteristics of MOSFET and SCR
https://www.electrical4u.com/mosfet-working-principle-of-p-channel-n-
channel- mosfet/

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