The excerpt of the following text begins here:

Mauk, David, and John Oakland. American Civilization: An Introduction. London: Routledge, 2018.

PLATE 13.1 The Cloudforce Expo, San Francisco, 2012, at which

salesforce.com advertised how new social media tools can boost
business productivity.
(Kim Kulish/Corbis)

Freedom of the media

The First Amendment to the Constitution states that
Congress shall not make any law that abridges freedom of
speech or the press. This freedom from government control
and censorship has long been defended. It has enabled the
press to serve as a watchdog over official actions, executive
abuses and violations of individual rights. Some critics have
argued that the freedoms of speech and the press should be
distinguished with the former being more absolute than the
latter. But the Supreme Court has not distinguished between
the two and has dismissed appeals to give the press any
greater rights than those of ordinary citizens.
All the media today (not only the press) claim equal
treatment under the First Amendment and there is no overt
government censorship of content or form. But freedom
from prior restraint is not absolute. The Supreme Court has
indicated that injunctions preventing publication could be
granted if material clearly jeopardized national security and
other exceptions have occurred in areas such as school
newspapers. There are licensing and anti-monopolistic

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regulations by the Federal Communications Commission
(FCC), which supposedly make the broadcasting media less
free than the print media. It is also argued that while the
media appear to be constitutionally free, they are in fact
subject to and conditioned by advertising, concentrated
ownership patterns, economic pressures and consumer
opinion.
Attitudes to the freedom of the press are divided.
Respondents to an ABC News Nightline poll in January
2003 felt that the right to a free press is essential/ very
important (38/49 percent) and 59 percent thought that the
government should not have the right to control what
information the news media can report. But, in a war-time
situation, 60 percent argued that the priority was the
govern- ment's need to keep military secrets, rather than
preserving a free press (34 percent); 56 percent thought that
the media should support the government (rather than
questioning it); and 66 percent felt that the government
should have the right to prohibit the media from reporting
sensitive military information.
A BBC World Service poll in 2007 found that 66 percent
of American respondents thought that freedom of the press
was very important to ensure a fair society. Twenty-four
percent felt that stability and peace were more important
and that controls were sometimes needed. Seventy-four per
cent were concerned about the ownership of the private
media and believed that concentration of media ownership
in a few hands resulted in owners' political views emerging
in reports. Although a majority of respondents strongly
believed in press freedom, they were critical of the media's
honesty and accuracy and only some 29 percent thought
that the media did a good job in reporting news accurately.
A 2005 University of Connecticut survey found that 32
percent of high school students felt that the press enjoyed
too much freedom; 37 percent said that it had the right
amount; and 10 percent thought that it had too little. Thirty-
six percent felt that the government should approve
newspaper stories before publication, while 51 percent
thought that the press should be able to publish freely.

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Although a large majority of students said that musicians
and others should be allowed to express unpopular
opinions, 74 percent said that people should not be able to
burn or deface the American flag as a political statement.
According to the Worldwide Press Freedom Index 2011–
12 compiled by Reporters Without Borders, the US was in
47th place in a list of 169 countries evaluated for their
degree of press freedom. This decline from 20th position in
2010–11 was reportedly attributed to alleged police actions
against journalists and photographers who had covered
protests in the US, such as the “Occupy” movements. It was
argued that press freedoms were being eroded.
The media, in pursuing their constitutional rights, have
often pursued an adversarial or confrontational line towards
public authorities and individuals. They have published
official secrets, revealed classified documents and exposed
corrupt practices, unethical behavior and injustices in
American life. This has led to tension between the media
and public authorities.
For example, the Washington Post and the New York
Times published the “Pentagon Papers” in 1971. These
classified US Defense papers contained details of the
American role in the Vietnam War. After government
appeals, the Supreme Court ruled that the newspapers had a
constitutional right to publish the information. The
Washington Post also disclosed the Watergate scandal (that
resulted in the resignation of President Nixon). The media
revealed the 1968 My Lai massacre by US troops in
Vietnam and the 1986 Iran-Contra affair involving secret
and illegal dealings by US government officials.
Contemporary investigations have probed the activities of
politicians, institutions and public figures (such as the
Clintons' Whitewater business dealings). In 2001 the White
House did not want television networks to broadcast
videotaped statements by Osama bin Laden and his
associates, although they had already shown another bin
Laden tape. The networks agreed not to broadcast such
statements again without reviewing them. It was argued that
the decision meant that the media was not fulfilling its

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 responsibility to report all of the news.
The question of the media's role, influence and power is
controversial and debatable. Critics argue that the media
have become too powerful and influential, that their
freedom should be curtailed and that they should show
more responsibility. The news media are accused of bias,
distorted journalism, invasion of privacy, manipulation of
events, and actively trying to shape public opinion by
setting particular agendas. Legal actions for libel, obscenity,
contempt of court (to force the identification of journalists'
sources) and injunctions may be used against the media.
These can protect individuals, the authorities and
organizations and arguably prevent absolute free expression
by the media.
There is a close (arguably unhealthy) bond between
authorities and the media. Each needs and uses the other to
mutual advantage and gains access to sources and
policymakers. One example was “embedding” reporters
with military units in the 2003 Iraq war. This connection
may be thought inappropriate for the media and limits their
adversarial role.
The mainstream press has historically tended to ignore
the private lives of its political leaders. But this relationship
has changed as tabloid newspapers, 24-hour TV news
channels, talk radio stations, websites and independent
blogs probe the private and official lives of public figures.
It is argued that such people have chosen their roles and
may be investigated, particularly if their private actions
affect their public duties. The internet and interactive talk
radio in particular have expanded opportunities for extreme
commentary, scandal-mongering and disclosure of
classified information. Increasingly, it has been argued that
these media are as accountable as more traditional media.
Nevertheless, critics feel that a wide dissemination of
information is healthier and more democratic than
suppression and censorship.

The contemporary print media

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The press (newspapers)
In 2010, some 1,397 daily newspapers (mornings and
evenings during the week) were published in the US, with a
circulation of 46 million. This was a decrease from 2008
and continued a pattern of print decline. The 919 Sunday
papers were relatively stable from 2008, but circulation had
dropped to 47 million. There were 6,055 weekly, semi-
weekly and monthly local newspapers in 2009, a drop from
2005, with a weekly circulation of 45.5 million.
Newspapers cater for different readerships. Some are
characterized as “quality” or “serious” papers and have in-
depth international and national news and feature coverage.
Others are “popular” or “tabloid” publications, which
emphasize crime, sports, comic pages, sex and scandal.
However, critics argue that many US papers today have
pretensions to quality and seriousness rather than ferocious
and sensational presentation.
It is often argued that the US does not have a national
press or newspapers that are available in all parts of the
country on the same morning. This is due partly to the
nation's size and different time zones, but also because of a
concern with local issues and identity. The one newspaper
that is aimed at a national readership and regional
distribution by means of satellite technology is the
topselling USA Today, which first appeared in 1982. It has
brief articles rather than longer stories and a popular tabloid
style.
However, most US papers are now available in online
and updated format (often by subscription charge) on the
internet across the country. The national influence of some
large quality metropolitan newspapers, such as the New
York Times, the Washington Post, the Los Angeles Times
and the Wall Street Journal is considerable. These
newspapers, and others such as the Christian Science
Monitor,
TABLE 13.1 Average circulation of main daily
newspapers, 2009

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Newspaper Description Circulation
USA Today popular 2,113,725
Wall Street quality 2,082,189
Journal
New York Times quality 1,039,031
Los Angeles quality 723,181
Times
Washington quality 665,383
Post
(New York) popular 602,857
Daily News
New York Post popular 558,140
Chicago quality 501,202
Tribune
(Houston) quality 425,138
Chronicle
Arizona quality 389,701
Republic
Denver Post quality 371,728
(Long Island, quality 368,194
NY) Newsday
(Dallas) quality 331,907
Morning News
Minneapolis quality 320,076
Star Tribune
Chicago Sun- quality 312,141
Times
San Francisco quality 312,118
Chronicle
Boston Globe quality 302,638
Source: Audit Bureau of Circulations, 2009.

the Baltimore Sun, the St. Louis Post-Dispatch and the

(Milwaukee) Journal Sentinel also have international
reputations.

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 Newspapers have experienced fundamental changes and
developments in recent decades and have been forced to
adapt to changed markets in order to survive. There has
been a continuous decline in the sales of most papers since
the mass circulation years of the early twentieth century due
to news and advertising competition from television, radio
and the internet. The number of newspapers has also
decreased because of mergers, conversions and closures.
Readers have developed new media habits (such as using
the internet rather than paper newspapers) and circulation
battles between different print formats (such as magazine
supplements) have increased. But some smaller dailies and
weeklies have nevertheless increased in number and
circulation in local areas.
Newspaper decline and amalgamation have been
accompanied by a reduction in competition in many (if not
all) cities and a lack of variety in publications. The number
of cities and towns with competing newspapers has been
reduced and many cities now have only a single daily
paper. Ownership is held by a few publishers or
corporations (media conglomerates) and 75 percent of daily
papers are now owned by newspaper chains.
Concentrated ownership of newspapers by large groups
supposedly results in economies of size, efficiency and
rationalization and gives greater profitability. But it also
causes monopolistic conditions, a similarity in content and
format and raises questions about objectivity and accuracy.
While some quality papers are local monopolies, it is
argued that a greater diversity of newspapers would result
in the reduction of potential error and bias.
Newspapers have experienced technological changes in
recent years, such as automated composing-rooms and the
use of computer and electronic technology to process news.
Some news is still gathered by individual reporters, but
most newspapers and radio and television networks
worldwide now obtain their news directly from US-based
news agencies, such as Associated Press (AP), Bloomberg
LP and United Press International (UPI). They are
independently owned and collect national and international

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news items that are sold to newspapers and other media. A
few news sources therefore dominate the US market,
resulting in comparatively homogeneous international and
national news.
The big American papers still provide some of their own
news stories and sell copyrighted news and features to
international and national papers. This allows the wide
dissemination of news throughout the US and contributes to
the influence of the larger papers. Similarly, the articles of
independent syndicated columnists appear simultaneously
in many newspapers. The stories in the big papers often
influence local newspapers and television news programs in
their choice and presentation of newsworthy items.
It is argued that, following competition from television,
newspapers generally have become more responsible, make
their news columns as fair and accurate as possible, attempt
to be objective in their reports and try to separate news
from opinion (which is usually confined to political- and
policy-influenced editorial pages).
Investigative journalism is still a part of the newspaper
trade, although costs have reduced its use. Small
newspapers concentrate largely on local news, but they may
also cover issues such as pollution, nuclear leaks and
climate change, and have revealed cases of local political
and social corruption and cover-ups, which have wider
national ramifications. Some large city papers are the most
active in investigative journalism and have the resources for
in-depth coverage. However, the amount of investigative
reporting carried out by the US media should not be
exaggerated. Few journalists engage in such work and
many rely on common sources rather than their own
independent investigations.
Investigative (and other) journalists argue that they
uphold press freedom of speech and promote important
social change with their news presentations; maintain that
they perform a necessary democratic service; and see
themselves as servants of the public rather than officialdom.
However, as in the past, some critics oppose vigorous

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 reporting and argue that it constitutes a serious invasion of
privacy in many cases, gives newspapers too much social
and political influence, and encourages irresponsibility.

The excerpt ends here.

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