UNIT-3 LASER and OPTICAL FIBERS Dr.

Hitha D Shetty
Professor
Dept. of Physics, NMIT

LASERS AND OPTICAL FIBERS

LASER is the acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

▪ Theoretical idea given in 1958 by Charles Townes (Nobel prize in Physics 1964) and
Arthur Schawlow of Bell Laboratories.

▪ The first laser was built by T.H. Maiman in 1960 by using Ruby crystal.

▪ Was based on Einstein’s idea of “particle-wave duality” of light, more than 40 years
earlier.

Basic principles of Laser:

Radiation interacts with matter under appropriate conditions. A material medium is

composed of identical atoms or molecules each of which is characterized by a set of discrete
allowed energy states. An electron (belonging to these atoms/molecules) can move from one
energy state to another when it receives or releases an amount of energy equal to the energy
difference between these two states. If the transition is from a higher state to a lower one, the
system gives out a part of its energy and if the transition is in the reverse direction, then it
absorbs the incident energy.
There are three possible ways through which interaction of radiation and matter can take
place, they are,

Induced absorption:
Induced absorption is the absorption of an incident photon by a system (electron/atom/
molecule) because of which the system is elevated from a lower energy state to a higher
energy state, where in the difference in energy of two states is precisely the energy of the
photon.
The process can be represented as,

Atom +Photon Atom *

Atom * represents atom in the excited state.

UNIT-3 LASER and OPTICAL FIBERS Dr. Hitha D Shetty
Professor
Dept. of Physics, NMIT

The number of induced absorption transitions occurring in the material at any instant will be
proportional to the number density of atoms in the lower state and the photon density in the
incident beam

Spontaneous Emission:

Excited state with higher energy is inherently unstable because of a natural tendency of
atoms to seek put the lowest energy configuration. Spontaneous emission is the emission of
a photon when a system transits from higher energy state to lower energy state without the
aid of any external agency.

A photon of energy equal to the difference in the energy of the two states is released i.e., The
energy of the emitted photon is ∆E=E2 - E1.

The process can be represented as, Atom* Atom + photon

UNIT-3 LASER and OPTICAL FIBERS Dr. Hitha D Shetty
Professor
Dept. of Physics, NMIT

The light generated by this process is incoherent. It contains a superposition of many waves of
random phases. The light sources giving such emission are also not monochromatic. Eg: electric
bulb.

Stimulated Emission:

Stimulated Emission is emission of a photon by a system, under the influence of an

incident photon of just the right energy, due to which the system transits from a higher energy
state to lower Energy State. The photon emitted is called the stimulated photon and will have
same phase, energy and direction of movement as that of the incident photon called stimulating
photon.

The process can be represented as:

Atom * + stimulating photon Atom + stimulating photon + stimulated photon

All the photons travel in the same direction and with the same energy. The electromagnetic
waves associated with the two photons will have identical phase and thus they are coherent. This
is the kind of emission, responsible for laser action.

Requisites of a laser system:

1. An active medium is needed to produce laser and to support population inversion.

UNIT-3 LASER and OPTICAL FIBERS Dr. Hitha D Shetty
Professor
Dept. of Physics, NMIT

2. A pumping mechanism is needed to excite the atoms to higher energy levels which is
done using an excitation source.
3. A laser cavity
Active medium: The material medium which provides energy levels for pumping and lasing
action.

Optical pumping: The atoms of the active medium absorb photons of right frequency from the
incident light and rise to upper Energy State. This is called pumping. Since the photon energy is
used to pump the active atoms to the higher energy state to produce population inversion in the
active medium the process is called optical pumping

Laser cavity/Optical resonator: It provides the feedback necessary to tap certain permissible
part of laser energy from the active medium.

An optical resonator generally consists of two opposing plane parallel mirrors with the active
material placed in between them. One of the mirrors is semitransparent while the other one is
made 100% reflecting. The mirrors are set normal to the optic axis of the material. This structure
is known as Fabry-Perot Resonator. To get a highly collimated beam the optical path length
travelled by a wave between the consecutive reflections should be an integral multiple of the
wavelength i.e., 2L=mλ

λ- Wavelength of light within the material

m- Number of modes and L-Distance between the mirrors
UNIT-3 LASER and OPTICAL FIBERS Dr. Hitha D Shetty
Professor
Dept. of Physics, NMIT

Conditions required for laser action:

1) Population inversion

2) Metastable state and

3) Stimulated emission

Population inversion: The state of a system at which the population of a particular higher
energy level is more than that of a specified lower energy state. To achieve population inversion
we need a special kind of energy state called metastable state. They are different from the
ordinary excited state in the following manner.

By providing energy the atoms are excited to higher energy levels they will reside in those levels
for a period of 10-8s and then drop back to the ground levels on their own. In case the atom to
which excited state is a metastable state, then the atom resides in that state for an unusually long
time, which is of the order of 10-3 to 10-2 s this property helps in achieving the population
inversion in the following way.

Consider three energy levels E1, E2 and E3 of a quantum system of which the level E2 is
metastable state let the atoms be excited from E1 to E3 state by supply of appropriate energy. And
UNIT-3 LASER and OPTICAL FIBERS Dr. Hitha D Shetty
Professor
Dept. of Physics, NMIT

then the atom from the E3 state undergoes downward transitions to either E1 or E2 states rapidly.
Once the atoms undergo downward transitions to level E2 they tend to stay for a long interval of
time, because of which the population of E2 increases steadily under these conditions wherein the
population of E2 state becomes more than that of E1 which is known as population inversion.

Once the population of E2 exceeds that of E1 the stimulated emissions is more when
compared to spontaneous emissions, and soon stimulated photons, all identical in respect of
phase, wavelength and direction grow to a very large number which build up the laser light.

Einstein's Coefficients: Consider two atomic states of energies E1 and E2 of a system. Let N1 be
the number of atoms in the lower energy state E1, and N2 be the number of atoms in the higher
energy state E2 per unit volume of the system. Let radiations with a spectrum of frequencies be
incident upon the system. Let U d is the energy incident/unit volume of the system. According
to Albert Einstein, atomic transitions can be of three types. They are

1. Induced or stimulated absorption: In this process atom in the lower state E1 absorbs photon
and get excited to higher state E2. The number of such absorption's per unit time, per unit
volume is called rate of absorption.

The rate of absorption is proportional to,

(a) The number density of lower energy state, i.e., N1, and,

(b) The energy density i.e. energy incident/unit volume, Uγ

 Rate of absorption = B12N1Uγ …………………………….(1)

Where B12 is the constant of proportionality called Einstein’s coefficient of induced absorption
and the subscript 12 in B12 indicates that transition of electron is from level 1 to 2.

2. Spontaneous emission: In this process atom in the higher energy state E2 suffer spontaneous
transition to the lower energy state E1 by emitting the radiation without any help from the
external agency. The emitted radiation is called spontaneous radiation and the phenomenon is
called spontaneous emission. The number of such spontaneous emissions per unit time, per
unit volume is called rate of spontaneous emission.
UNIT-3 LASER and OPTICAL FIBERS Dr. Hitha D Shetty
Professor
Dept. of Physics, NMIT

The rate of spontaneous emission is proportional to,

(a) The number density of higher energy state i.e., N2

 Rate of spontaneous emission = A21N2 ……………………………..(2)

Where, A21 is the constant of proportionality called the Einstein's coefficient of spontaneous
emission.

3. Induced or stimulated emission: In this process an atom in the higher energy state E2 is
induced by the photon to stimulate the atom to make a downward transition to the lower energy
state E1

The number of stimulated emissions per unit time per unit volume called rate of stimulated
emission

Rate of stimulated emission, is proportional to,

(a) The number density of the higher energy state i.e., N2, and
(b)The energy density i.e., Uγ

 Rate of stimulated emission = B21N2Uγ………………………(3)

Where, B21 is the constant of proportionality called Einstein’s coefficient of stimulated emission.

To get a relationship between these coefficients Einstein considered atoms to be in thermal

equilibrium, which means that the energy density Uγ is constant. This is possible only if the
number of photons absorbed by the system per sec is equal to the number of photons it emits, by
both the stimulated and spontaneous emission processes.

At thermal equilibrium,

Rate of absorption = Rate of spontaneous emission + Rate of stimulated emission

B12N1Uγ = A21N2 + B21N2Uγ

Or Uγ (B12N1 – B21N2) = A21N2

UNIT-3 LASER and OPTICAL FIBERS Dr. Hitha D Shetty
Professor
Dept. of Physics, NMIT

A 21N 2
Or U =
B12 N1 − B 21N 2

By rearranging the above equation, we get

 
A 21  1 
U =   (4)
B 21  B12 N1 − 1 
B N 
 21 2 

But, by Boltzmann's law, we have,

 E 2 − E1  h
−
 

N 2 = N1e  kT 
= N1e − k T
h
N1
 = ekT
N2

 Equation (4) becomes,

𝑨𝟐𝟏 𝟏
𝑼𝜸 = [ ]………………………………. (5)
𝑩𝟐𝟏 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝒉𝜸
𝒆𝒌𝑻−𝟏
𝑩𝟐𝟏

According to Planck's law, the equation for U  is,

𝟖𝝅𝒉𝜸𝟑 𝟏
𝑼𝜸 = [ 𝒉𝜸 ] ……………………….. (6)
𝒄𝟑
𝒆𝒌𝑻 −𝟏

Now comparing the equation (5) and (6), term by term based on positional identity, we have,

A 21 8h 3
=
B 21 c3

B12
Einstein has proved thermodynamically =1
B 21
UNIT-3 LASER and OPTICAL FIBERS Dr. Hitha D Shetty
Professor
Dept. of Physics, NMIT

This implies that the probability of induced absorption is equal to the probability of stimulated
emission. Because of the above identity, the subscripts could be dropped, and A21 and B21 can be
simply represented as A and B and equation (6) can be rewritten.

 At thermal equilibrium, the equation for energy density is

Neodymium-doped Yttrium Aluminium Garnet (Nd:YAG) laser:

Neodymium-doped Yttrium Aluminium Garnet (Nd: YAG) laser is a solid state laser. These
lasers operate in both pulsed and continuous mode. Nd:YAG laser generates laser light
commonly in the near-infrared region of the spectrum at 1064 nm.

Construction:
In Nd: YAG laser, light energy sources such as flashtube or laser diodes are used as energy
source to supply energy to the active medium. In the past, flashtubes are mostly used as pump
UNIT-3 LASER and OPTICAL FIBERS Dr. Hitha D Shetty
Professor
Dept. of Physics, NMIT

source because of its low cost. However, nowadays, laser diodes are preferred over flashtubes
because of its high efficiency and low cost.
The Nd:YAG laser consists of a synthetic crystalline material (Yttrium Aluminium Garnet
(YAG)) doped with a chemical element (neodymium (Nd)). The lower energy state electrons of
the neodymium ions are excited to the higher energy state, to provide lasing action in the active
medium.
In this Laser system the Nd:YAG crystal is placed between two mirrors. These two mirrors are
silvered or coated differently. One mirror is fully silvered which will completely reflect the light
whereas, another mirror is partially silvered. It reflects most of the light falling on it and allows a
small portion of light to transmit through it to produce the laser beam.

Working:

Nd:YAG laser is a four-level laser system, which means that the four energy levels are involved
in laser action. Let us consider four energy levels E1, E2, E3, and E4 where E1 < E2 <E3 <E4 for the
active medium. The energy level E1 be the ground state, E2 the first excited state, E3 the
metastable state and E4 another excited state.

When flashtube or laser diode supplies light energy to the active medium (Nd:YAG crystal), the
lower energy state (E1) electrons in the neodymium ions gains enough energy and moves to the
higher energy state E4.
UNIT-3 LASER and OPTICAL FIBERS Dr. Hitha D Shetty
Professor
Dept. of Physics, NMIT

The lifetime of pump state or higher energy state E4 is very small hence the electrons in the
energy state E4 do not stay for long period. After a short period, the electrons will fall into the
next lower energy state or metastable state E3 by releasing non-radiation energy (releasing
energy without emitting photons).
The lifetime of metastable state E3 is high as compared to the lifetime of excited state E4.
Therefore, the electrons reach E3 much faster than they leave E3. This results in an increase in the
number of electrons in the metastable E3 and hence population inversion is achieved.
After some period, the electrons in the metastable state E3 will fall into the next lower
energy state E2 by releasing photons due to spontaneous emission. When photons emitted due to
spontaneous emission are reflected back by the partially reflecting mirror they interact with the
metastable state electrons. It stimulates metastable state electrons to fall into the lower energy
state by releasing the photon. As a result, two photons are released. When these two photons
again interact with the metastable state electrons, four photons are released. Likewise, millions of
photons are emitted. Thus, optical gain is achieved.
The lifetime of energy state E2 is very small just like the energy state E4. Therefore, after
a short period, the electrons in the energy state E2 will fall back to the ground state E1 by
releasing radiation less energy.
Nd:YAG lasers are used in laser rangefinders where a laser light to determine the
distance to an object. In medical field Nd: YAG lasers are used to correct posterior capsular
opacification (a condition that may occur after a cataract surgery). In industry they are used for
cutting and welding steel.
Characteristics of Laser beam:

1. Directionality: The design of the resonant cavity, especially the orientation of the mirrors to
the cavity axis ensures that laser output is limited to only a specific direction that is, laser light is
emitted as a relatively narrow beam in a specific direction.

2. Monochromaticity: The laser beam is characterized by a high degree of monochromaticity

(single wavelength or frequency) than any other conventional monochromatic source of light.
However, in all practical cases, the laser light is not truly monochromatic. But compared to the
ordinary sources of light, the variation in frequency of the emitted waves is extremely small i.e.,
UNIT-3 LASER and OPTICAL FIBERS Dr. Hitha D Shetty
Professor
Dept. of Physics, NMIT

bandwidth () of the laser beam is narrow, while ordinary light spreads over a wide range of
wavelength.

3. Coherence: The degree of coherence of a laser beam is very high than the other sources. The
light from laser source consists of wave trains that are identical in phase.

4. High Intensity: The laser beam is highly intense. When laser beam is incident on a square
meter of surface the energy incident is of the order of millions of joules. The radiance of a
milliwatt helium neon laser is 106 Watts/m2-steradian which is far greater than that of the sun
which emits more than 1026 W.

5. Focussability: Since laser is highly monochromatic, it can be focused to a very small area by
a lens. It is so sharp that a laser beam can be focused on an area equal to the square of its
wavelength.

Applications of Lasers

Lasers find applications in various fields such as medicine, material processing, communication
ns, energy resources, and photography…. Etc.

LIDAR: LiDAR is an acronym for Light Detection and Ranging.

UNIT-3 LASER and OPTICAL FIBERS Dr. Hitha D Shetty
Professor
Dept. of Physics, NMIT

LiDAR follows a simple principle — throw laser light at an object on the earth surface and
calculate the time it takes to return to the LiDAR source. Given the speed at which the light
travels (approximately 186,000 miles per second), the process of measuring the exact distance
through LiDAR appears to be incredibly fast. However, it’s very technical. The formula that
analysts use to arrive at the precise distance of the object is as follows:

The distance of the object = (Speed of Light x Time of Flight)/ 2

Depending on the sensor used, LiDAR scanning units can fire hundreds of thousands of pulses
per second. The light waves bounced back by the objects when return to the LiDAR sensor, it
determines the time taken by each pulse to return to the system to calculate distance (time of
flight). Each of these pulsed laser measurements, or returns, can be processed into a 3D
visualization known as a ‘point cloud’.

• LiDAR maps can be used to give positional accuracy – both absolute and relative.

• In remote sensing, LiDAR systems are used to measure scatter, absorption, or re-
emission from particles or molecules in the atmosphere. For these purposes, the systems
may have specific requirements on the wavelength of the laser beams. The concentration
of a specific molecular species in the atmosphere, e.g. methane and the aerosol loading
can be measured.

• Rain droplets in the atmosphere can be measured to estimate the distance of a storm and
the rain fall rate.

• LiDAR systems can provide profiles of three-dimensional surfaces in the object space.
UNIT-3 LASER and OPTICAL FIBERS Dr. Hitha D Shetty
Professor
Dept. of Physics, NMIT

• LiDAR can also be used to determine the velocity of a target. This can be done either
through the Doppler technique or measuring the distance to a target in rapid succession.
For example, atmospheric wind velocity and the velocity of an automobile can be
measured by a LiDAR system.

• In addition, LiDAR systems can be used to create a three-dimensional model of a

dynamic scene, such as what may be encountered by an autonomous driving vehicle. This
can be done in various ways, usually using a scanning technique.
• LiDAR maps can also be used to highlight changes and abnormalities such as surface
degradation, slope changes, vegetation growth, forestry, agriculture, geologic mapping,
and watershed and river surveys.

Laser printing:

The primary principle at work in a laser printer is static electricity. Static electricity is simply an
electrical charge built up on an insulated object, such as a balloon or your body. Since oppositely
charged atoms are attracted to each other, objects with opposite static electricity fields cling
together.
A laser printer uses this phenomenon as a sort of "temporary glue." The core component
of this system is the photoreceptor, typically a revolving drum or cylinder. This drum
assembly is made out of highly photoconductive material that is discharged by light photons.
Initially, the drum is given a total positive charge by the charge corona wire, a wire with
an electrical current running through it (Some printers use a charged roller instead of a corona
wire, but the principle is the same) As the drum revolves, the printer shines a tiny laser beam
across the surface to discharge certain points. In this way, the laser "draws" the letters and
images to be printed as a pattern of electrical charges -- an electrostatic image. The system can
also work with the charges reversed that is, a positive electrostatic image on a negative
background.After the pattern is set, the printer coats the drum with positively
charged toner which is a fine, black powder. Since it has a positive charge, the toner clings to the
negative discharged areas of the drum, but not to the positively charged "background." This is
something like writing on a soda can with glue and then rolling it over some flour: The flour only
sticks to the glue-coated part of the can, so you end up with a message written in powder.
UNIT-3 LASER and OPTICAL FIBERS Dr. Hitha D Shetty
Professor
Dept. of Physics, NMIT

With the powder pattern affixed, the drum rolls over a sheet of paper, which is moving
along a belt below. Before the paper rolls under the drum, it is given a negative charge by
the transfer corona wire (charged roller). This charge is stronger than the negative charge of the
electrostatic image, so the paper can pull the toner powder away. Since it is moving at the same
speed as the drum, the paper picks up the image pattern exactly. To keep the paper from clinging
to the drum, it is discharged by the corona wire immediately after picking up the toner.
UNIT-3 LASER and OPTICAL FIBERS Dr. Hitha D Shetty
Professor
Dept. of Physics, NMIT

OPTICAL FIBERS

Construction:
Optical fibers are the light guides used in optical communications as waveguides. They are
transparent dielectrics and able to guide visible and infrared light over long distance. They are
made up of two parts. Core the inner cylindrical material made of glass or plastic and the
cladding material the other part which envelops the inner core. The cladding is also made of
similar material but of lesser refractive index. Both the core and the cladding materials are
enclosed in a polyurethane jacket (as shown in figure below), which safeguards the fiber against
chemical reaction with surroundings, and against abrasion and crushing.

Wave guides (propagation mechanism)

A wave guide is a tubular structure through which energy of some sort could be guided in the
form of waves. In optical fibers light waves can be guided through a fiber, it is called light guide.
The cladding in an optical fiber always has a lower refractive index (RI) than that of the core.

The light signal which enters the core can strike the interface of the core and the cladding only at
large angles of incidence because of the ray geometry. The light signal undergoes reflection
afterreflection within the fiber core. Since each reflection is a total internal reflection, the signal
UNIT-3 LASER and OPTICAL FIBERS Dr. Hitha D Shetty
Professor
Dept. of Physics, NMIT

sustains its strength and confines itself completely within the core during propagation. Thus, the
optical fiber functions as a wave guide.

Total internal reflection:

Total internal reflection is a phenomenon which occurs when a propagating wave travelling
from denser to rarer medium strikes a medium boundary at an angle larger than a critical angle,
the wave cannot pass through and is entirely reflected.

Numerical Aperture and Ray propagation in the Fiber:

Let us consider the special case of ray which suffers critical incidence at the core cladding
interface. The ray, to begin with travels along AO entering the core at an angle of o to the fiber
axis. Let it be refracted along OAʹ at an angle 1 in the core and further proceed to fall at critical
angle of incidence (= 90-1) at A’ on the interface between core and cladding. Since it is critical
angle of incidence, the refracted ray grazes along boundary.

Now it is clear from the figure that any ray enters at an angle of incidence less than 0 at O,
will have to be incident at an angle greater than the critical angle at the interface, and gets total
internal reflection in the core material. Let OA is rotated around the fiber axis keeping 0 same,
then it describes a conical surface. We can say that it a beam converges at a wide angle into the
core, then those rays which are funneled into the fiber within this cone (like ray CCʹ) will only be
totally internally reflected, and thus confined within for propagation. Rest of the rays, incident
outside the conical surface (like ray BBʹ) emerges from the sides of the fiber.
UNIT-3 LASER and OPTICAL FIBERS Dr. Hitha D Shetty
Professor
Dept. of Physics, NMIT

Acceptance angle:

The angle 0 is called the wave guide acceptance angle, or the acceptance cone half-angle, and
sin 0 is called the numerical aperture (N.A.) of the fiber. The numerical aperture represents the
light-gathering capability of the optical fiber.

Condition for Propagation:

Let n0, n1and n2 be the RI of surrounding medium, core and cladding respectively.

Now, for refraction at the point of entry of the ray AO into the core, by applying the Snell’s law
that,

n0 Sin 𝜃0 = n1 Sin 𝜃1 …………………………………..(1)

At the point Aʹ on the interface,

The angle of incidence = 90 - 𝜃1

Again, applying Snell’s law, we have,

n1 sin (90-𝜃1 ) = n2 sin 90.

Or, n1 cos 𝜃1 = n2

Or, Cos 𝜃1 = n2/n1 …………………………………………..(2)

UNIT-3 LASER and OPTICAL FIBERS Dr. Hitha D Shetty
Professor
Dept. of Physics, NMIT

Rewriting Eq (1), we have,

𝑛1
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃0 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃1
𝑛0

𝑛1
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃0 = √1 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃1
𝑛2

Substituting for Cos𝜃1 from Eq. (2), we have,

n n22 n12 − n22

Sin 0 = 1 1− 2 =
n0 n1 n0

If the medium surrounding the fiber is air, then 𝑛0 = 1,

Or, NA = Sin 0 = n12 − n22

If I is the angle of incidence of an incident ray, then the ray will be able to propagate,

If, 𝜃𝑖 < 𝜃0

Or if Sin 𝜃𝑖 < Sin 𝜃0

Or, Sin 𝜃𝑖 < N.A.

Fraction Index Changes ():

The fractional index change  is the ratio of the refractive index difference between the core and
the cladding to the refractive index of core of an optical fiber.

Therefore,

(n1 − n2 )
=
n1

Relation between N.A. and 

From above Equation (n1-n2) = n1 

UNIT-3 LASER and OPTICAL FIBERS Dr. Hitha D Shetty
Professor
Dept. of Physics, NMIT

N . A. = n12 − n22
We have, (n1 + n2 )(n1 − n2 )
(n1 + n2 )n1

Since n1~ n2 , (n1+ n2) = 2n1

N . A. = 2n12 
Therefore,
N . A. = n1 2

Though an increase in the value of  increase N.A., and thus enhances the light gathering
capacity of the fiver, we cannot increase  to a very large value, since it leads to what is called
“intermodal dispersion” which causes signal distortion.

Modes of Propagation
Light propagates as an electromagnetic wave through an optical fiber. Waves having ray
directions above critical angle will be trapped within the fiber due to total internal reflection. All
such waves do not propagate along the fiber. Only certain ray directions can propagate. The
allowed directions correspond to the mode of the fiber. Modes can be visualized as the possible
number of paths of light in an optical fiber.
The number of modes that a fiber will support depends on the core size, operating wavelength
and the refractive index of core and cladding. It is mathematically defined using normalized
frequency parameter known as V – parameter.

Where d is the core diameter.

λ wavelength of light propagating within the fiber.

The maximum number of modes supported by step index fiber is determined by N = V2/2
UNIT-3 LASER and OPTICAL FIBERS Dr. Hitha D Shetty
Professor
Dept. of Physics, NMIT

Types of Optical fibers:

Based on refractive index profile and Mode guiding:

In any optical fiber, the whole material of the cladding has a uniform RI value. But the RI of the
core material may either remain constant or subjected to variation in a particular way. The curve
which represents the variation of RI with respect to the radial distance from the axis of the fiber
is called the refractive index profile.

The optical fibers are classified under 3 categories, namely,

a) Step index Single mode fiber,

b) Step index multimode fiber and
c) Graded index multimode fiber.

This classification is done depending on the refractive index profile, and the number of modes
that the fiber can guide.

a) Step index Single mode fiber:

UNIT-3 LASER and OPTICAL FIBERS Dr. Hitha D Shetty
Professor
Dept. of Physics, NMIT

A single mode fiber has a core material of uniform RI value. Similarly cladding also has a
material of uniform RI but of lesser value. This results in a sudden increase in the value of RI
from cladding to core. Thus, its RI profile takes the shape of a step. The diameter value of the
core is about 8 to 10 m and external diameter of cladding is 60 to 70 m. Because of its narrow
core, it can guide just a single mode as shown in Fig. Hence it is called single mode fiber.
Single mode fibers are most extensively used one because it eliminates the
effect of intermodal dispersion and pulse broadening effects. They constitute 80% of all the
fibers that are manufactured in the world today. They need lasers as the source of light. Though
less expensive, it is very difficult to splice them. They find application in submarine cable
system.

Step –index Multimode fiber:

A step-index multimode fiber has a core material of uniform RI value. Similarly cladding also
has a material of uniform RI but of lesser value. This results in a sudden increase in the value of
RI from cladding to core. Thus, its RI profile takes the shape of a step like first type.
UNIT-3 LASER and OPTICAL FIBERS Dr. Hitha D Shetty
Professor
Dept. of Physics, NMIT

The diameter value of the core is about 50 to 100 m and external diameter of cladding
is 100 to 250 m. Because of its much larger diameter by the virtue of which it will be able to
support propagation of large number of modes as shown in the figure. Its refractive index profile
is also like that of a single mode fiber but with larger plane regions for the core. Light follows a
zig zag path inside the fiber in which the high angle modes travel a longer distance as compared
to low angle modes causing intermodal dispersion.
The step-index multimode fiber can accept either a laser or an LED as source of light. It
is the least expensive of all. Its typical application is in data links which has lower bandwidth
requirements.
d) Graded-Index Multimode Fiber

Graded index multimode fiber is also denoted as GRIN. The geometry of the GRIN multimode
fiber is same as that of step index multimode fiber. Its core material has a special feature that its
refractive index value decreases in the radially outward direction from the axis and becomes
equal to that of the cladding at the interface. But the RI of the cladding remains uniform. It RI
profile is also shown in Figure above. Either a laser or LED can be the source for the GRIN
UNIT-3 LASER and OPTICAL FIBERS Dr. Hitha D Shetty
Professor
Dept. of Physics, NMIT

multimode fiber. It is most expensive of all. Its splicing could be done with some difficult. Its
typical application is in the telephone trunk between central offices.
The modes travelling in high refractive index region take a straight path or possess less
parabolic nature. So, these light rays propagate slower than those in lower refractive index region
or those following a highly parabolic path. The rays that propagate through the region away from
the axis or region of lower refractive index travels longer path but propagates faster. Hence all
the rays reach at the same time despite travelling through different paths. Hence, intermodal
dispersion can be minimized by using multimode fibers with a parabolic refractive index profile,
where intermodal dispersion is minimized.

Attenuation in optical fibers: The total power loss offered by the total length of the fiber in the
transmission of light is called attenuation.

The important factors contributing to the attenuation in OF are

i) Absorption loss, ii) Scattering loss iii) Bending loss

The total losses in the fiber are due to the contribution of losses due to absorption, scattering of
radiation and bending of fibers. Losses that are wavelength dependent can be minimized by
selecting the operating wavelength.

Attenuation in fiber is defined as the ratio of power input and power output. It is denoted by
symbol . Mathematically attenuation of the fiber is given by,
UNIT-3 LASER and OPTICAL FIBERS Dr. Hitha D Shetty
Professor
Dept. of Physics, NMIT

−10 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 /𝑃𝑖𝑛 )

𝛼= dB/km
𝐿

Where Pout and Pin are the power output and power input respectively, L is the length of the fiber
in km.

1) Absorption loss:
There are two type of absorption; one is Absorption by impurities and the other Intrinsic
absorption. In the case of first type, the type of impurities is generally transition metal ions such
as iron, chromium, cobalt, and copper. During signal propagation when photons interact with
these impurities, the electron absorbs the photons and get excited to higher energy level. Later
these electrons give up their absorbed energy either as heat energy or light energy. The
reemission of light energy is of no use since it will usually be in a different wavelength or at least
in different phase with respect to the signal. The other impurity which would cause significant
absorption loss is the OH (Hydroxyl) ion, which enters the fiber constitution at the time of fiber
fabrication. In the second type i.e., intrinsic absorption, the fiber itself as a material, tends to
absorb light energy however small it may be. Absorption in a fiber is the absorption that takes
place in the material assuming that there are no impurities, and the material is free of all
inhomogeneities, and hence it is called intrinsic absorption which sets the lowest limit on
absorption for a given material.

2) Scattering loss:

The power loss occurs due to the scattering of light energy due to the obstructions caused by
imperfections and defects, which are of molecular size, present in the body of the fiber itself. The
UNIT-3 LASER and OPTICAL FIBERS Dr. Hitha D Shetty
Professor
Dept. of Physics, NMIT

scattering of light by the obstructions is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the
wavelength of the light transmitted through the fiber. Such a scattering is called Rayleigh
scattering. The loss due to the scattering can be minimized by using the optical source of large
wavelength.

3) Bending losses
Bending losses occur due to the presence of macro bends and micro bends that are caused while
manufacturing and as well as due to the applied stress on the fiber. At the point of bend the light
will escape to the surrounding medium due to the fact that the angle of incidence at that point
becomes lesser than the critical angle. Hence it will not undergo total internal reflection. In order
to avoid this type of losses, the optical fiber has to be laid straight for long distances and they
should be freed from the external stresses by providing mechanical strength by external
encasements.

Applications:

Optical fibers find their applications in the fields of communication, medicine, industry and
domestic.

1). Communication applications: (P to P communication)

The block diagram of a typical fiber optic communication system is as shown in the figure.
Voice or any information is converted into electrical signals using the coder (photo multiplier)
and is connected to the optical transmitter (light source). The light signals from the optical
transmitter are connected to the photo detector through a channel. The channel is a medium
through which the message travels from the transmitter to the receiver. Example is an optical
fiber. The photodetector converts light signal into electrical signals. The electrical signals from
the photodetector are decoded by the decoder to the original state, which may be the voice or
information.

Thus, in communication, conversion of original form (like sound) gets converted into electrical
signals in transmitter then, electrical signals are converted into optical signals and is propagated
through optical fibers to the receiver where light signal is converted back into electrical signal
and then back to original form.
UNIT-3 LASER and OPTICAL FIBERS Dr. Hitha D Shetty
Professor
Dept. of Physics, NMIT

Optical Fiber sensors:

The basic mechanism in any optical fiber based sensor is sketched in the figure below. The light
fed into an optical fiber reach a “zone” where the light, interacting with the parameter of
interest (temperature, pressure, strain, vibrations, displacements, rotations or concentration of
chemical species etc.), is modulated; then, modulated light propagates, via an optical fiber, up
to a monitoring station. The mechanism outlined here is very general and, to some
extent, quite simplistic and different approaches have been implemented and proposed for
the functioning of such sensors.
UNIT-3 LASER and OPTICAL FIBERS Dr. Hitha D Shetty
Professor
Dept. of Physics, NMIT

The general block diagram of fiber-optic sensor is shown below. The block diagram
consists of an optical source (Light Emitting Diode, LASER, and Laser diode), optical fiber,
sensing element, optical detector and end-processing devices (optical-spectrum analyzer,
oscilloscope).

Block Diagram of Fiber Optic Sensor

Fiber optic pressure sensor based on polarization:

Polarization based Fiber Optic Sensor

Polarization based optical fibers are important for a certain class of sensors and are used
in a variety of measurements, communication and signal processing applications.
UNIT-3 LASER and OPTICAL FIBERS Dr. Hitha D Shetty
Professor
Dept. of Physics, NMIT

The optical setup for a polarization-based-fiber-optic sensor is shown above. Double refraction is
induced in the optical fibre when external forces are applied. The property of induced double
refraction is exploited in fabrication of this sensor. A transparent isotropic fiber is held between a
crossed polarizer analyzer system. A light beam from a source is directed through a the fiber.
The light beam gets linearly polarized on passing through the polarizer and then it travels
through the material. When it reaches the analyzer, the polarization remains the same, as the axis
of the analyzer is oriented at 90o to that of the polarizer, the light is cutoff by the analyzer and no
light is detected at the detector. When mechanical stress is applied to the material, birefringence
is induced in the material. Hence transmission of light occurs and the phase difference between
the two polarization states is observed due to external disturbances such as stress or strain. Thus,
according to the external disturbances, the output polarization changes. By considering the
output polarization state at the next end of the fiber, the external disturbances can be detected.

Fiber-optic pressure sensors based on diaphragm:

Light rays are sent through an optical fiber to sense the movement of the diaphragm. The light
reflects from the diaphragm and the incident light are studied.

The external unknown pressure is given to the diaphragm. The diaphragm expands and contracts
as the pressure increases and decreases. There is a characteristic relationship between the light
reflected and the distance from the fiber ends to the diaphragm. thus making the amount of
reflected light dependent upon the diaphragm displacement and hence the measured pressure.
UNIT-3 LASER and OPTICAL FIBERS Dr. Hitha D Shetty
Professor
Dept. of Physics, NMIT

The displacement of the diaphragm is measured by the Photonic sensor.

Fiber-optic temperature sensors

The operation of one type of the temperature sensor is based on the 1μm wavelength absorption
characteristics of silicon as a function of temperature. The diagram below shows a temperature
sensor with a multimode fibre. The fiber is coated at one end with a thin silicon layer. The silicon
layer is in turn coated with a reflective coating at the back. The light launched into the fibre from
one of its ends passed first through the fibre and then after travelling through the silicon layer
twice returns to a detector. The absorption of light by the silicon layer varies with temperature
and the variation modulates the intensity of the light received at the detector. Temperature
measurements can be made with a sensitivity of 0.001oC

Advantages of optical fibers:

Optical fibers find very important, applications in communication because of the

following advantages they possess.

a. Transmission loss is low.

b. Fiber is lighter and compact than equivalent copper cables.
UNIT-3 LASER and OPTICAL FIBERS Dr. Hitha D Shetty
Professor
Dept. of Physics, NMIT

c. Fibers have large data rate compared to equivalent copper cables.

d. There is no interference in the transmission of light from electromagnetic waves
generated by electrical applications.
e. Fibers are free from corrosion effect caused by salt, pollution and radiation. Hence, they
are more reliable.
f. Tapping information from fiber is impossible. Hence, the transmission is more secured.
g. The cost of fiber optic communication system is lower than that of an equivalent cable
communication system.
h. Thinner - Optical fibers can be drawn to smaller diameters than copper wire.
i. Non-flammable - Because no electricity is passed through optical fibers, there is no fire
hazard.
j. Digital signals - Optical fibers are ideally suited for carrying digital information, which is
especially useful in computer networks.
k. Low power - Because signals in optical fibers degrade less, lower-power transmitters can
be used instead of the high-voltage electrical transmitters needed for copper wires.

Disadvantages of optical fibers:

a. Fiber loss is more at the joints if the joints do not match (the joining of the two ends of
the separate fibers is called splicing)
b. Attenuation loss is large as the length of the fiber increases.
c. Repeaters are required at regular interval of lengths to amplify the weak signal in long
distance communication.
d. Bends will increase the loss of the fiber. Hence, the fiber should be laid straight.
e. Fiber undergoes contraction and elongation due to changing weather (temperature).
UNIT-3 LASER and OPTICAL FIBERS Dr. Hitha D Shetty
Professor
Dept. of Physics, NMIT

Questions from Unit-3

1 Explain the basic concepts of laser emission.
OR
Explain the terms Induced absorption, spontaneous emission and Stimulated emission.
OR
Discuss how light interacts with matter.
2 Explain the necessary conditions for laser action.
OR
Explain metastable state, stimulated emission and population inversion.
3 Explain the requisites/necessities of a laser system.
4 Obtain an expression for energy density under thermal equilibrium, in terms of
Einstein’s A & B coefficients.
OR
Obtain the relation between Einstein’s coefficients.
5 Discuss any 2 applications of lasers.
6 With neat energy level diagram explain the construction and working of Nd-YAG laser
7 Explain the working of LiDAR.
8 Explain the working of Laser Printer.
9 Discuss any four important characteristics of Lasers
10 Define angle of acceptance and numerical aperture. Derive an expression for numerical
aperture and arrive at the condition for propagation of a signal in an optical fiber.
11 What is attenuation? Discuss the different factors attributing to the attenuation in optical
fibers.
12 Mention the different types of optical fibers and explain them in detail giving their
salient features.
13 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of an optical communication system over
other communication system.
14 Discuss point to point communication using an optical fiber with the help of block
diagram. Give some advantages of optical fiber communication systems.
15 Explain the working of any optical fiber based temperature sensor.
UNIT-3 LASER and OPTICAL FIBERS Dr. Hitha D Shetty
Professor
Dept. of Physics, NMIT

16 Explain the working of any optical fiber based pressure sensor.