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24 views

Waves

Uploaded by

skhushboo10
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Concept of Modes

A wave has both electric and magnetic fields. All transverse components of electric and
magnetic fields are determined from the axial components of electric and magnetic
field, in the z direction. This allows mode formations, such as TE, TM, TEM and Hybrid
in microwaves. Let us have a look at the types of modes.
The direction of the electric and the magnetic field components along three mutually
perpendicular directions x, y, and z are as shown in the following figure.

Types of Modes
The modes of propagation of microwaves are −
TEM Transverse Electromagnetic Wave
In this mode, both the electric and magnetic fields are purely transverse to the direction
of propagation. There are no components in ′Z′ direction.
Ez=0 and Hz=0

TE Transverse Electric Wave


In this mode, the electric field is purely transverse to the direction of propagation,
whereas the magnetic field is not.
Ez=0 and Hz≠0
TM Transverse Magnetic Wave
In this mode, the magnetic field is purely transverse to the direction of propagation,
whereas the electric field is not.
Ez≠0 and Hz=0
HE Hybrid Wave
In this mode, neither the electric nor the magnetic field is purely transverse to the
direction of propagation.
Ez≠0 and Hz≠0
Multi conductor lines normally support TEM mode of propagation, as the theory of
transmission lines is applicable to only those system of conductors that have a go and
return path, i.e., those which can support a TEM wave.
Waveguides are single conductor lines that allow TE and TM modes but not TEM
mode. Open conductor guides support Hybrid waves.

A transmission line is a connector which transmits energy from one point to another.
The study of transmission line theory is helpful in the effective usage of power and
equipment.
There are basically four types of transmission lines −

 Two-wire parallel transmission lines


 Coaxial lines
 Strip type substrate transmission lines
 Waveguides
While transmitting or while receiving, the energy transfer has to be done effectively,
without the wastage of power. To achieve this, there are certain important parameters
which has to be considered.
Main Parameters of a Transmission Line
The important parameters of a transmission line are resistance, inductance,
capacitance and conductance.
Resistance and inductance together are called as transmission line impedance.
Capacitance and conductance together are called as admittance.
Resistance
The resistance offered by the material out of which the transmission lines are made,
will be of considerable amount, especially for shorter lines. As the line current
2
increases, the ohmic loss (I Rloss)also increases.
The resistance R of a conductor of length "l" and cross-section "a" is represented as
R=ρl/a
Where

ρ = resistivity of the conductor material, which is constant.


Temperature and the frequency of the current are the main factors that affect the
resistance of a line. The resistance of a conductor varies linearly with the change in
temperature. Whereas, if the frequency of the current increases, the current density
towards the surface of the conductor also increases. Otherwise, the current density
towards the center of the conductor increases.
This means, more the current flows towards the surface of the conductor, it flows less
towards the center, which is known as the Skin Effect.
Inductance
In an AC transmission line, the current flows sinusoidally. This current induces a
magnetic field perpendicular to the electric field, which also varies sinusoidally. This is
well known as Faraday's law. The fields are depicted in the following figure.

This varying magnetic field induces some EMF into the conductor. Now this induced
voltage or EMF flows in the opposite direction to the current flowing initially. This EMF
flowing in the opposite direction is equivalently shown by a parameter known
as Inductance, which is the property to oppose the shift in the current.
It is denoted by "L". The unit of measurement is "Henry H".
Conductance
There will be a leakage current between the transmission line and the ground, and also
between the phase conductors. This small amount of leakage current generally flows
through the surface of the insulator. Inverse of this leakage current is termed
as Conductance. It is denoted by "G".
The flow of line current is associated with inductance and the voltage difference
between the two points is associated with capacitance. Inductance is associated with
the magnetic field, while capacitance is associated with the electric field.
Capacitance
The voltage difference between the Phase conductors gives rise to an electric field
between the conductors. The two conductors are just like parallel plates and the air in
between them becomes dielectric. This pattern gives rise to the capacitance effect
between the conductors.
Characteristic Impedance
If a uniform lossless transmission line is considered, for a wave travelling in one
direction, the ratio of the amplitudes of voltage and current along that line, which has
no reflections, is called as Characteristic impedance.

It is denoted by Z0Z0
Z0=voltagewavevaluecurrentwavevalue−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
−√Z0=voltagewavevaluecurrentwavevalue

Z0=R+jwLG+jwC−−−−−−−−√Z0=R+jwLG+jwC

For a lossless line, R0=LC−−√R0=LC

Where LL & CC are the inductance and capacitance per unit lengths.
Impedance Matching
To achieve maximum power transfer to the load, impedance matching has to be done.
To achieve this impedance matching, the following conditions are to be met.
The resistance of the load should be equal to that of the source.
RL=RSRL=RS
The reactance of the load should be equal to that of the source but opposite in sign.
XL=−XSXL=−XS
Which means, if the source is inductive, the load should be capacitive and vice versa.
Reflection Co-efficient
The parameter that expresses the amount of reflected energy due to impedance
mismatch in a transmission line is called as Reflection coefficient. It is indicated
by ρρ rhorho.
It can be defined as "the ratio of reflected voltage to the incident voltage at the load
terminals".
ρ=reflectedvoltageincidentvoltage=VrViatloadterminalsρ=reflectedvoltageincidentvolt
age=VrViatloadterminals

If the impedance between the device and the transmission line don't match with each
other, then the energy gets reflected. The higher the energy gets reflected, the greater
will be the value of ρρ reflection coefficient.
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio VSWRVSWR
The standing wave is formed when the incident wave gets reflected. The standing
wave which is formed, contains some voltage. The magnitude of standing waves can
be measured in terms of standing wave ratios.
The ratio of maximum voltage to the minimum voltage in a standing wave can be
defined as Voltage Standing Wave Ratio VSWRVSWR. It is denoted by "SS".
S

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